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Ultraclean Surface Processing of Silicon Wafers Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH Takeshi Hattori (Ed.) Ultraclean Surface Processing of Silicon Wafers Secrets of VLSI Manufacturing With 464 Figures , Springer Dr. Takeshi Hattori ULSI R&D Laboratories Sony Corporation Semiconductor Company Atsugi 243-8585, Japan E-mail: [email protected] Translators: Dr. Takeshi Hattori Stefan Heusler ULSI R&D Laboratories Blumenthalstr. 83 Sony Corporation Semiconductor Co. D-50668 KOln, Germany Jason P. Webb 12107 Lake Carrol Drive Tampa, FL 33618-3729, USA Revised, updated and enlarged translation of the original Japanese edition Originally published in Japanese under the title: Silicon Wafer Hyomen no Clean-ka Gijutsu Published by Realize Inc. © 1995 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Ultraclean surface processing of silicon wafers: secrets of VLSI manufacturing 1 Takeshi Hattori (ed.). p. cm. ISBN 3-540-61672-1 (alk. paper) 1. Semiconductor wafers-Cleaning. 2. Silicon-Surfaces. 3. Surface preparation. l. Hattori, Takeshi, 1945-. TK7871.85.U48 1998 621.3815'2-DC21 98-10353 ISBN 978-3-642-08272-6 ISBN 978-3-662-03535-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-03535-1 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broad­ casting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1998 Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 1998 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1998 The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant pro­ tective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. ry pt:.dlillg: Data conversion by M. Ascheron, Schriesheim Cover design: design & production GmbH, Heidelberg SPIN 10543602 57/3144 - 5 4 3210 - Printed on acid-free paper Preface Advances in large-scale integration (LSI) and the reduction in device geome­ tries have been accompanied by more-complicated silicon-wafer processes and an increased number of process steps. Furthermore, micro-contamination, such as particles, metallic impurities, and organic contaminants has come to exert an ever-increasing impact on device yield, quality, and reliability. Con­ trolling such micro-contamination is the crucial element of the present and future success in very large scale integration (VLSI) manufacturing. It is not too much to say that the process equipment and processes themselves are the source of the contamination. For this reason, making the total VLSI process cleaner - that is, preventing contamination from the surface of silicon wafers and maintaining clean surface in the full range of processes - has become even more essential. Traditional approaches to contamination control, such as cleanroom-air filtration or, as an extension, the purification of cleanroom-utility materials - that is, methods stemming from the notion of "cleanroom environment cleanliness" have been all important. However, "silicon surface cleanliness", an approach concerned with how to keep the wafer surface clean or make it cleaner, is more essential and more effective. In other words, the fundamental stance of this book will be "concepts drawn from the wafer surface" . This book focuses on ultraclean processing of silicon-wafer surfaces. It is intended for engineers and technicians involved in research, development, and manufacturing of VLSI chips, those concerned with equipment, materi­ als, facilities, and utilities in the semiconductor and related industries, and scientists in academia. Unlike many other books on contamination control, we deal with VLSI wafer processing and related issues by starting from the wafer surface. The result is a practical reference to be used widely from research and devel­ opment labs to the volume production fabs. This book is a reorganized, updated, English version of the Japanese book "Silicon Wafer Hyoumen no Clean-ka Gijutsu" published in 1995 by Realize Inc., Tokyo, Japan. The orig­ inal book has been very well received by the Japanese semiconductor de­ vice/equipment/materials industries and by the academic community. I hope that this new edition will be of use for not only the Japanese industry but also the world-wide semiconductor and related industries. VI Preface Part I introduces "ultraclean technology" for VLSI manufacturing from the starting point of the wafer surface. Part II describes the influence of contamination on VLSI devices and also refers to the influence of micro­ roughness. Part III comments on mechanisms of particle adhesion to the surface of silicon wafers in air, plasma, vacuum, and liquid and also touches on the influence of static charges. Because monitoring the contamination levels on the wafer surfaces is fundamental to contamination control, Parts IV and V are concerned with analysis and evaluation of the wafer surfaces with remarks extending from the basics to application to the VLSI processing lines. Part VI describes, from the view point of ultraclean processing of silicon surfaces, issues of each VLSI process and their countermeasures and also touches on clustering for process integration. Parts VII and VIII deal with wafer cleaning and related technologies, the most important process from the standpoint of removing contamination, and thoroughly explains the technologies from all angles. Also, throughout the book, we do not try to avoid redundancy of description in different chapters if the items repeated are deemed essential and important. This book is composed of these eight closely related parts. In order to in­ clude in detail as much as possible of the latest knowledge and data on clean processing of the surface of silicon wafers, some 50 engineers/professors, re­ garded as top in their fields in Japan, have contributed to this book. Until re­ cently in Japan, the fields discussed here have been treated as the confidential technical knowledge of each company. Therefore, there are many occasions when technical opinions in this field have not yet reached consensus. All the Japanese references listed in the original edition have been deleted; but some new English references have been added to this English edition instead. In this book, no attempt has been made to force unity in the various opinions presented by the authors. In this still developing field of ultraclean processing of silicon surfaces, there are many problems that remain unsolved, and we eagerly anticipate research progress. We look forward to the arrival of the day in the near future when "ultraclean technology" will be established as a scientific and systematic, and therefore universal, "processing science" . I would like to thank Professor Eicke Weber for reading the manuscript and making valuable suggestions. Atsugi, Japan Takeshi Hattori July 1998 Table of Contents Part I. Introduction 1. Ultraclean Technology for VLSI Manufacturing: An Overview Takeshi Hattori, Sony. 3 1.1 Introduction............................................ 3 1.2 Importance of Particle Reduction ......................... 4 1.3 Sources of Particle Generation and Their Control ........... 7 1.3.1 Environment (Cleanroom) ......................... 7 1.3.2 Personnel........................................ 9 1.3.3 Process Materials. .. 10 1.3.4 Manufacturing Equipment/Process. .. 11 1.4 Controlling Metallic Contaminants. .. 14 1.5 Controlling Airborne Impurities. .. 14 1.6 The Future of Ultraclean Technology .. .. 16 References .................................................. 17 Part II. Influence of Contamination on Silicon Device Characteristics 2. Influence of Silicon Crystal Quality on Device Characteristics Yoshinobu Monma, Fujitsu. .. 21 2.1 Introduction............................................ 21 2.2 Influence of Crystalline Defects and Device Characteristics. .. 21 2.2.1 Stacking Faults. .. 21 2.2.2 Oxide Precipitation. .. 23 2.2.3 Bipolar Transistor Failures. .. 23 2.2.4 Refresh Failure of the DRAM. .. 24 2.3 Influence of Crystal Quality on Oxide Film Perfection ....... 25 2.4 Influence of Silicon Crystal Quality on Device Processes. .. 26 2.5 Issues for the Future. .. 27 References .................................................. 27 VIII Table of Contents 3. Influence of Contaminants on Device Characteristics Jun Sugium, Hitachi ............................................ 29 3.1 Introduction............................................ 29 3.2 Trends in LSI Technology. .. 29 3.3 How Contaminants Degrade Device Performance. .. 30 3:3.1 Device Characteristic Degradation Due to Particulate Contaminants . .. 33 3.3.2 Device Characteristic Degradation Due to Metallic Contaminants. .. 36 3.3.3 Device Characteristic Degradation Due to Organic Contaminants. .. 39 3.4 Issues for the Future. .. 40 References .................................................. 41 4. Influence of Metallic Contamination on Dielectric Degradation of MOS Structures Makoto Takiyama, Nippon Steel ........ .. 42 4.1 Dielectric Degradation Mechanisms of the Oxide Film Caused by Metallic

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