1 I. a Nexus Between Nepali Nationalism and Ethnic Mode Of

I. A Nexus between Nepali Nationalism and Ethnic Mode of Expression

“A nation is not some geographical entity, it is a place which is loved and liked by the

people” (B.P. Koirala, Atmabrittanta, 289)

The discourse of nationalism is often associated with collective identity of people. It is a tie that binds people with a nation. Nationalism is a mode of defining, expressing and recognizing oneself in relation to the state. It is constructed along with formation of nation state and incorporates several elements like people, language, culture, religion, history, social structures, and political conditions. On the other hand, ethnicity is related with particular social group that shares common cultural, lingual, religious, historical and national experiences. It is a communal identity that is based on specific value systems, rituals, customs, festivals, myths and symbols. As nationalism is not a mere political construct or pervasive integration of people in certain physical boundary, it should reflect memories, aspirations, and imaginations of the people living in particular place.

Literature, like other modes of cultural production reflects the specific socio- historical dimensions of its creation. It manifests the society and culture in which it is composed. As the socio-economic materiality is the base for the articulation and production of any literary texts, literature is usually shaped by the politics or power dynamisms. In this connection, Nepali poetry can also be studied and analyzed by contextualizing it to the historical development of the nation-state or nationalism. This dissertation thus, is an attempt to study the relation between ethnicity and nationalism by foregrounding the nexus between literature and the state. Drawing on the issue of nationalism into interrogation, it tries to explore the connection between ethnic identity and Nepali nationalism. Moreover, the thrust of the study is to find out how

2 the ethnic and minority voices become source of creativity in mainstream Nepali literature, and ultimately call for socio-political and cultural transformations.

In order to explore the dynamism of Nepali literature and nationalism, the researcher has purposefully selected the contemporary Nepali poems written by the poets Shrawan Mukarung, Bhupal Rai, Upendra Subba, Chandrabir Tumbapo,

Swopnil Smriti and Heman Yatri, all of them from Kirant ethnic community. The intention behind selecting these poets from this particular socio-ethnic community is basically to analyze the relationship between mainstream Nepali literary language and expression from Kirant community. By figuring out a nexus between nationalism and ethnic expressions in mainstream literature, the study tries to examine how do poets of this ethno community relate their Kirant identities in accordance to the political changes of the contemporary time. In the light of multidimensional theoretical approaches and interdisciplinary insights, the dissertation analyzes the relation of ethnic expression and the notion of nationalism.

Nationalism and ethnicity

The development of the concept of nationalism is related with the development of nation-states. Nationalism plays a central role in shaping individual consciousness, beliefs, value systems and self perception. Nationalism involves myths, symbols discourses and ideologies that relate an individual to group consciousness. As a modernist idea, it spread from Europe to all over the world.

Scholars have viewed nationalism in various ways. They have defined it mainly as cultural or historical product or even as an imagined community or psychological construction. Ernest Renan, a French scholar relates nationalism with nation. He considers nation as a spiritual entity or a common bond among the people. It is related

3 with common experiences like joy, pain, grief, national sacrifice and other historical and cultural commonalities. He views nation as consent to live together in a group:

A nation is a soul, a spiritual principle. Two things, which in truth are

but one, constitute this soul a spiritual principle. One lies in the past,

one in the present. One is the possession in common of a rich legacy or

memories; the other is present day consent, the desire to live together,

the will to perpetuate the value of the heritage that one has received in

an undivided form. (19)

Renan considers a nation as an expression of agreement of living together by sharing memories and experience; he takes nationalism as a cultural entity. He thinks nationalism is primarily related with the feeling of the people rather than physical boundary. He argues that it is appropriate to join the idea of nationhood with race, religion and geography. He further writes, “Man is a slave neither of his race nor his language, nor of his religion, nor of the course of rivers, nor of the direction taken by mountain chains. A large aggregate of men, healthy in mind and warm in heart, creates a kind of moral conscience which we call a nation” (20). For Renan, nation and nationalism is more than a mere political category. He highlights upon emotional aspects of nation and believes nation as more than geography, race, language or any sorts of boundaries.

Similarly, Ernest Gellner also hints towards emotional aspects of nation and nationality. He regards nationalism as distinctively modern terminology and that it is not strictly the result of prior ethnicity, race or culture, "…nationalism is not the awakening and assertion of these mythical, supposedly natural and given units. It, on

4 the contrary, is the crystallization of new units, suitable for the conditions now prevailing, though admittedly using as their raw material the cultural, historical and other inheritances from the pre-nationalist world" (49). He also says, ". . . a high culture pervades the whole society, defines it, and needs to be sustained by the polity.

That is the secret of nationalism" (18). It means nationalism is a pervasive and related with high culture. It defines other social categories and sustains in hierarchy.

Nationalism sustains because of the protection of the polity to this so-called high- culture.

On the other hand, Benedict Anderson regards nation as a larger imagined community. He considers it as an imagined entity as most of the members of this community share common identity and feelings. The formation of the nation occurs in the minds of the people according to their shared history, culture, language and myths.

In this regard, looking back to the history and philosophy of one’s culture is the process of forming an identity or nation. Nation is an imagined community that is commonly shared between groups of people:

. . . It [nation] is an imagined political community [. . .] It is imagined

because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most

of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the

mind of each lives the image of their communion [. . .] The nation is

imagined as limited because even the largest of them, encompassing

perhaps a billion living human beings, has finite, if elastic, boundaries,

beyond which lie other nations [. . .] It is imagined as sovereign

because the concept was born in an age in which Enlightenment and

Revolution were destroying the legitimacy of the divinely-ordained,

hierarchical dynastic realm [. . .] Finally, it is imagined as a

community, because, regardless of the actual inequality and

exploitation that may prevail in each, the nation is always conceived as

a deep, horizontal comradeship. (6-7)

Emotional aspects of cultural identities are basic elements of the nation. Nations are created, nourished and sustained through the emotional bond of the people. People express themselves in different ways: through myths, the heroism, the unsurpassed achievements, language and literature etc. In this process nation is formed as an imaginative community or collective identity shared among the different individuals.

It is a doctrine of social solidarity based on the characteristics and symbols of nationhood. It is a kind of deep and intense feeling rather than a fixed boundary or political construct.

According to David Steven, nationalism encompasses various elements and is expressed through different signs and symbols. It is manifested in the different forms and symbols. Myths, history, cultural entities, rituals, and values systems are basic elements of nation. Steven remarks:

The stories, symbolism and ceremony of the nation - the rituals and the

myths - are of very considerable importance for they engage the

deepest popular emotion and aspirations. Myths tell the story; rituals

re-enact it. Thus memories and stories of historic events and parades,

remembrances ceremonies, celebrations, monuments to the fallen

oaths, anthems, coinage, uniforms, flags - all the aesthetics of

nationalism - are the things that provide a strong community of history

and destiny. They are the things that bind people together. (256)

Nationalism is a whole complex of ideas, attitudes, events, political movements, and force. Nationalism tries to give meaning to the community of interests of a given group and to define the rights of membership in the group of all who belong to it.

Nationalism is a belief hold by a group of people. It functions through myths, symbols, culture and shared memories.

After talking about the nationalism, it is also worthwhile to discuss about ethnicity and its relation with nationalism. Ethnicity is often attached with identity, communal feelings, collective memory, language, literature, cultures, customs and so on. It can be seen as a form of identity dramatized thorough different modes of expressions like rituals, religions, festivals, dress, language and literature and so on.

Different scholars have perceived ethnicity in different lights. In this regard, J. Milton

Yinger associates ethnicity with the identity of minor groups. Ethnicity, as he claims is larger social group that shares the common dreams and aspirations. They are connected together with different socio-cultural, lingual and geographical elements:

I will define an ethnic group [. . .] as a segment of a larger society

whose members are thought, by themselves and/ or others, to have a

common origin and to share important segments of a common culture

and who, in addition, participate in shared activities in which the

common origin and culture are significant ingredients. Some mixture

of language, religion, race and ancestral homeland with its related

culture is the defining element. (159)

In reality, communal feeling is necessary to form the concept of ethnic group, and that is what we call ethnicity. The elements that create feeling of oneness among dispersed people and bind them under a group can be from shared culture, language, religion,

7 territory myth of origin and class to race and caste. In this connection, Anthony D.

Smith is right in arguing that every ethnic category has the following six categories:

"a collective name, a common myth of descent, a shared history, a distinctive shared culture, an association with a specific territory and a sense of solidarity" (48). These six categories constitute the ethnic identity and ethnic values in totality.

The relationship between nationalism and ethnicity is complex. Nation always tries to homogenize the cultural differences and build a 'High culture'. But ethnic groups always seek their own individual distinct cultural traits and identity. In such a situation they have the relation of conflict otherwise relation of compromise. Some scholars argue that they do have binary relation like minority/majority, while others as just the continuation. But while it is impossible to dissociated nationalism entirely from ethnicity, it is equally impossible to explain it simply as a continuation of ethnicity. In this way, the conceptual differences between ethnicity and nationalism are not obvious to the naked eyes. Some of the scholars treat them interchangeably.

For instance Calhaun says:

Nationalism, in particular, remains the preeminent rhetoric for attempts

to demarcate political communities, claim rights of self-determination

and legitimate rule by reference to "the people” of a country. Ethnic

solidarities and identities are claimed most often where groups do not

seek 'national' autonomy but rather recognition internal to or cross-

cutting national or state boundaries. The possibility of a closer link to

nationalism is seldom altogether absent from such ethnic claims,

however, and the two sorts of categorical identities are often involved

in similar ways. (235)

National identity is related to the culture and tradition of ethnic minorities. Where a group is large enough to dominate a given political unit, or may reasonably aspire to form its own nation. Most nationalism builds on the ethnic identity of the majority while rejecting or containing minority identities. Nation always tries to homogenize the cultural differences to build a 'high culture'. This so called high culture is pervasive in nature but ethnic groups always seek their own individual distinct cultural traits and identity.

On the other hand, Jan Nederveen Pieterse finds similarity between ethnicity and multiculturalism. He argues both; multiculturalism and ethnicity is associated to group boundaries. Ethnicity upholds the multicultural dynamisms presenting itself in association to certain segment of society. Pieterse further argues:

Multiculturalism, like ethnicity, is a moving target - an ongoing

cultural flux and an institutional arrangement, a target of criticism or a

reform platform. Ethnicity is a contemporary vocabulary for various

notions of group boundaries; multiculturalism, likewise, is a discourse

that negotiates group boundaries. Thus both ethnicity and

multiculturalism address the underlying theme of the politics and

discourse of group boundaries. (27)

The above quote implies that ethnicity contains some inherent features as well as trends of multiculturalism with a desire to negotiate and challenge the hierarchical boundaries. There is a kind of longing for the group and historical memories, and it is often expressed through multiculturalism and ethnicity. In this sense, ethnicity is not a singular concept instead it appears in different forms being different from one communal group to other.

Thomas Hyland Eriksen considers ethnicity as an expression of the traditional categorization of differences. He connects ethnicity as a tool to reassert political rights and right to represent in the political bargaining. He further says,

Ethnicity refers to the social reproduction of basic classificatory

differences between categories of people and to aspects of gain and

loss in social interaction. Ethnicity is fundamentally dual,

encompassing aspects of both meaning and politics. Ethnicity is;

however, a concept which refers to a multitude of socio-cultural

phenomena (264).

In other words, all psychological, physical, cultural and even biological aspects are responsible in giving birth to the sense of solidarity that leads to the concept of ethnicity. It is constructed in the process of socio-cultural interactions and confrontations. It has fluid boundaries; always in the process of construction and assertion.

Development of Nepali Nationalism

The mosaic of Nepali society is constituted by heterogeneity and pluralism.

People belonging to multiple ethnic, racial, cultural and lingual groups reside within its small territory since ancient time. They have their own diverse pattern of life, unique culture and social practices. Most of the ethnic communities have their own languages, dresses, religions, festivals and way of life. Gerard Toffin in Imagination and Realities: Nepal Between Past and Present talks about this diversity of Nepali society. He states, “ Nepal is characterized both by its geographical diversity, the wide range of its ecological milieu, from north to south and from east to west, and by its mosaic of populations, an amazing patchwork of castes and ethnic groups speaking

10 different languages” (27). All these socio-cultural dynamisms of Nepalese society have made this nation a Shangri- La of multilingual, multicultural, multiracial and multi religious dynamisms. These diversities are unavoidable realities of Nepali society.

Despite the aforementioned dynamisms, it is so ironic that Nepal as a modern nation-state has remained hegemonic since its origin. State perpetuated violence and exerted coercive political forces during the formation of national identity and nationalism. Nepali nationalism manifests power dynamisms of the state. In this connection, Susan Hangen in her Creating a New Nepal: Ethnic Dimensions talks about the nature of Nepali nationalism as dominated by high hill caste Hindu culture.

She asserts, “The state’s construction of nationalism reflects the dominance of high hill caste Hindus, as it upholds their cultural values and practices as models of nation .

. . the state has promoted the idea of unified nation by downplaying or eliminating cultural differences with its population” (11). The state has committed several breaches in the course of the development of nationalism by ignoring or marginalizing ethnic cultures and their best practices. It divided socio-cultural practices into

‘official’ and ‘unofficial’ categories by enforcing political boundaries or territories.

The territorialization resulted in the exclusion of different ethnic groups, their language, culture, myths, symbols, origin, histories and other mode of expressions from nationalism due to which nationalism remained as an isolated category.

There is an inherent flaw in the formation of the Nepali nationalism as it does not uphold the views, sentiments and aspirations of the margin. It has remained as an exclusivist and monolithic project since its emergence. The exclusivity is fostered by manipulation of different forces of modernity like education, language, development, identity, and communication technology to reinforce hill based Hindu Khas

11 nationalism. Ali Riaz and Subho Basu in the introduction of their text, Paradise Lost:

State Failure in Nepal write, “While Nepali society is divided along various caste, linguistic, and geographical residency lines, the ruling class was composed of the military hierarchy of Gorkhas (Thakuri and Chhetri) and Brahmin attendants and advisors” (9). It means, the rhetoric of nationalism has failed to address and recognize entire Nepal. The state has undermined and subjugated ethnic, cultural and racial minorities. Specially, after the Gorkhali intervention upon the ethnic territory successive rulers adopted a hegemonic type of nationalism that ultimately excluded large number of people from the mainstream of nation building.

The emergence of Nepal as a modern nation state and beginning of Nepali nationalism goes back to the unification campaign of Prithivi Naryan shah. David N.

Gellner considers the second half of eighteenth century as a beginning period of the

Nepalese modern state. He states, “The modern state of Nepal was created in the second half of 18th century and was largely the work of one man, Prithivi Narayan shah” (3). Prithivi Naryan Shah succeeded his father King Nara Bhupal Shah to the throne of Gorkha in 1743 AD. Before the unification campaign, the present day Nepal was divided into different smaller principalities. There were Baise (twenty- two) states in the Karnali region, Chaubise (twenty-four) states in Gandaki region, Valley kingdoms in Kathmandu valley and Makawanpur, Bijayapur and Chaudandi in the eastern part. Most of these principalities were occupied by various ethno-cultural communities.

Prithvi Narayan Shah was encouraged by the political situation among these state and determined to enlarge the size of his Gorkha kingdom. He laid the foundation of greater Nepal bringing diverse religious-ethnic states under singular framework of larger nation. Although the campaign started from the small hilly

12 principality of Gorkha, it marched ahead along with the submerging of various culture, tradition and religious practices in a singular cauldron of one nation and one identity. The culmination of unification campaign was the year1768. This was the year in which Prithivi Narayan Shah conquered Kathmandu valley defeating Malla

(Newar) kings and named the larger country as Nepal. Although the nomenclature was changed from Gorkha to Nepal, the racial-cultural domination of ‘Gorkhali’ identity continued in a long run.

In this context John Whelpton in his A History of Nepal considers the newly established kingdom of Nepal as based on ‘patrimonial’ type of political system. He thinks that Nepal during that time was based on the legacy of Mughal Indian system.

He believes it as a “. . . continuation of that of Gorkha and the other hill states west of the valley” (49). Whelpton claims that there was a wider range of domination and control over the vanquished territories and people after the unification campaign. The physical intrusion was further sustained by the cultural domination of high hill Khas practices. Whelpton further comments, “when people did think of themselves as subjects of a single king or single state, it was not ‘Nepali’ they thought of. This word retained its original meaning of the Kathmandu Valley and did not begin to replace

‘Gorkha’ or ‘Gorkhali’ in official use until early in the twentieth century” (55).

Moreover, the perpetuation of excessive violence and power in the vanquished lands resulted in the subjugated and submissive positioning of the ‘subjects’.

Krishna Hachhethu also argues in the similar line like that of John Whelton in his article “Democracy and Nationalism: Interface between State and Ethnicity in

Nepal”. He believes the modern form of Nepal as nation state has developed under the domination of power. He hints upon the use of brutal state power during the process

13 of nation formation in which ethnic communities and oppositional voices were suppressed under the brutality of the state terror. He further writes:

The monarchy has played a central role in the unification and evolution

of Nepali state. Prithvi Narayan Shah, the king of Gorkha principality,

established modern unified Nepal by conquest. He, thus, introduced the

Shah regime based on the right of sword […] but the symbol of sword

was not sufficient to establish legitimacy among the people of

vanquished lands. Absolute control in political authority,

monopolization of economic resources, and penetration and expansion

of social value systems of the victorious groups in vanquished areas

were some of the mechanisms the Shah rulers bestowed to consolidate

their regime. (221)

Hachhethu here argues that the evolution of Nepali state is based on the domination of power. He believes the legitimacy of sword is established in the form of army. The symbol of sword is a power for domination and control to the people. Later on, the power is started to be exercised through army as a state force. The absolute control in the political territory after the end of unification campaign was based on the same power of the state. Monopolization of the economic resources and penetration of the social and cultural values was another way of controlling people in the country.

Hachhethu stresses upon the policy of internal colonization of the Shah rulers who consolidated their regime for the centuries on the brutality and control of the state force. Although the seed of the nation, nationality and nation building was sown during the time of King Prithivi Narayan Shaha, it was not based on the principle of equality, justice and harmony.

The unification campaign of Prithivi Narayan Shah was not merely limited to the geographical or territorial invasion rather it is also the conquest of the local ethnic cultures and practices. Whelpton under the subtitle “Questions of Identity” hints on the process of cultural unification during mid-eighteenth century. He writes the quest of unity among the ethnic groups unified Nepal was based on process of developing sense of ‘Paharis’ among diverse people. Khas language and rigid brand of Hinduism was exerted upon them by force. He states:

Among this whole complex of values and cultural practices,

assimilation to those high-caste Hindus, a process of Sanskritisation,

continued slowly throughout the period. Hinduism itself was always

flexible enough to accommodate local religious traditions, so those

who wished for patronage from the Gorkhali state did not have to

abandon their own previous belief system. (56)

The above quote hints how people are compelled to assimilate alien culture due to the political upheavals. The polity since the time of unification campaign was developed with a mission to implement its own culture and values system among the plural cultures disregarding their ethnic values, culture and way of life. It seems the state must have felt threat on their power on allowing the flow of plural of cultural values.

Even after the death of Prithivi Narayan Shah, the unification campaign continued in Nepal under different rulers until 1816 Anglo-Nepal war. His daughter- in –law, queen of Pratap Singh, Rajendera Laxmi and youngest son, Bahadur shah further extended Nepalese territory. The successors of Prithivi Narayan Shah followed the similar national principles adopted by him. The unification campaign of Baise

(twenty two) states in Karnali region and Chaubise (twenty four) states was also the continuation of the policy of coercive nationalism developed during the reign of

Prithivi Narayan Shah. The notion of King as a supreme power, protector, controller and sovereign lord developed and continued pervasively after Pritihivi Narayan Shah.

Rulers or kings were the follower of Hinduism and their prime concern too was on spreading and promoting Hindu polity in Nepal at the cost of the marginalization of the ethnic identity.

Most importantly, after Prithivi Narayan Shah, Nepal entered in the great political turmoil due to the lack of strong rulers. In this, John Whelpton writes, “The accession to the throne of Prithivi’s son Pratapa Singh in January 1775 marked the beginning of serious factionalism within the court” (39). The regime of conspiracy, plotting and power politics was primal force among the courtiers that created the chaos and disorder in the country as for Prithivi Naryan’s successors it was very difficult to manage the internal conflict. Likewise, East India Company was another external force that threatened the unification process. Finally, after the Sugauli Treaty of 1816, the unification campaign halted and the present boarder of Nepal is fixed.

Due to the external interference and internal political clashes and turmoil between rival groups, a chaotic situation appeared in Nepal. In such turmoil, Kot massacre occurred, killing lots of important and powerful courtiers and paving the way for the emergence of Jung Bahadur Rana. Sebastina von Einsiedel, David M.

Malone and Suman Pradhan in the introduction of their text Nepali in Transition:

From People War to Fragile Peace remark, “Nepal’s history took a new turn in 1846 when Jung Bahadur Rana, a military official serving at the court, seized power in a bloody coup and instituted the Rana autocracy that lasted for 104 years” (5). In fact it was the beginning of the autocratic family rule and autocracy in Nepal. Kings during

16 the Rana rule were limited to mere figures or as a ceremonial head, Ranas being true administrators. Ranas ruled as semi- hereditary prime ministers who were successful in establishing good relation with British East India Company. Moreover, they also become able to start matrimonial relationship with Shah family. It further enhanced their power and position, providing them unquestionable maximum power to exercise.

The Rana rule can also be considered as a continuation of hegemonic rule of suppression and domination. Krishna Hachhethu writes, “The Hindu polity- in which monarchy and religion have decisive role was further enacted more rigidly during

Rana period (1846-1951). The Rana prime ministers were also monarchs by title

(Shree Tin Maharaj, King of Kaski and Lamjung) and by authority they enjoyed”

(222). The Rana family rule obstructed the growth and development of nationalism by limiting the decision making power, opportunities and freedom of common people.

Rana rule was an elitist system that was based on the culture of sycophancy, nepotism and favoritism. As it was a rule of elitist Chettri clan, it too disregarded ethnic minorities and indigenous people. Mostly the high ranking posts national wealth was under control of the handful elitist Ranas.

Moreover, the Muluki Ain (civil code) of 1854 legalized the caste system in

Nepal. It authenticated the socially practiced caste hierarchy and intensified further inequalities in terms of caste and ethnicity. There is the creation of caste hierarchy which promoted more severe and watertight treatment upon so called ‘lower caste’ people. Karl- Heinz Kramer believes the code was a document promulgated in order to sustain the then social hierarchy and marginalize ethnic groups. He writes:

From its inception the unified modern state of Nepal has been the

playground of high caste Hindu elite groups. Simultaneously the

numerous ethnic groups and the lower Hindu castes were marginalized

and prevented from active political participation. This status was

codified by the Muluki Ain of 1854. (57)

It was a great injustice upon the ethnic minorities, lower caste people and racial groups. The Nepali state was harsher in the later days and the ethnic people are discriminated and subjugated by the Hindu elites.

The Rana regime faced a great set back after the British withdrawal from India in 1947. Nepali Congress and other small political parties started democratic movement in Nepal which got huge support from the common people. In this scenario

1950’s people’s movement ended in Tripartite Delhi agreement between Ranas, King

Tribhuvan and Nepali congress formally ending the Rana rule in Nepal. The end of

Ranarchy is regarded as emergence of new dawn of political history in Nepal. The movement did not only end the despotic family rule but also paved the way for the freedom of expression and rights to common people. But democratic political system could not function well dude to the intra-party, inter party and party versus palace conflict. Lok Raj Baral in his “Nepal: The Restructuring of a Neo-Patrimonial State” writes,

Democrat restructuring suffered a great deal in the past due to some of

variables identified in the post-Rana period. First, the struggle against

the Ranarchy in 1950 could not bind all the political forces together . . .

second, parties’ leaders were to navie to read into the ambitions of the

kings . . . third, the constituent assembly agenda was soon forgotten by

the absolute kings. (16)

After a decade’s confusion, dispute, disillusionment and political turmoil, the first general election was held in the year 1959 electing B.P. Koirala as the Prime minister of Nepal. Koirala led government was powerful as it was elected through purely democratic process. It had got a political consent by the people and was very democratic in nature. Hence, the locus of political power was shifted to the government from palace. The government was popular and it was a challenge to the palace.

There were some noticeable improvements in Nepalese socio-cultural and political systems after the general elections. People would interact on certain issues and ideas but the practice of parliamentary system lived for a short period when king

Mahendra dissolved the house and imprisoned B.P. Koirala on 15th December 1960.

King introduced Panchayt system banning all political parties. The party less system

(1960-1990) upheld the old symbols and practices as it was purely based on the traditional version of Sanskritization and Hinduization of the state. Baral in this context writes, “The source of discrimination finds its anchorage in religion, traditions and in all other strategic under-pinning of the rulers, the sole owners of the state”

(15). Panchayat developed a nationalistic project in the pretext of sustaining their power and political dominance. Most important aspect of maintain unity was through the policy of single language and single dress- ‘ek jati ek vasa’.

The king and Hindu religion were considered as core components of Nepali nationalism developed during the Panchayat era. The Panchayat system spread Nepali language as an official language of the country which devalued other indigenous and local languages. As Nepali language was protected and promoted by the state, it appeared not only as a medium of education but also as a language in press, media, communication etc. The state emphasized upon the story of bravery and war as the

19 source of inspiration in national books tried to authenticate Nepali language as the primary language of the nation. The act of eulogizing Nepali language as a path of national culture ultimately mistreated ethnic and local languages and cultures of the nation. Pratyoush Onta, in his paper “Ambivalence Denied: Making of Rastriya Ithics in Pancahyat Era Text Books” talks how the polity adopted hegemonic way to control local colours in an attempt to create ‘purely Nepali’ identity and culture. Onta states

The post-Rana and especially the Panchayat state appropriated this Bir

story of Nepal as one of the central themes of Nepali nation culture.

Backed by the state apparatus, this national culture was both elaborated

in and disseminated through print, radio and visual media as well as

educational source materials. (250).

Panchayat thought to create national ethics based on one language, dress and culture.

Its stated aim was to bring unity and uniformity in the society and nation but it turned out to the most suppressive and exclusive policy in reality.

The Nepali identity which the education system sought to inculcate continued a long pattern established long before 1951, being based on the dominant Khas hill culture rather than of other groups within the population. In 1955, a landmark report on education planning conceded the need to use minority languages for oral communication with students just starting primary school but advocated a switch to exclusive use of Nepali as soon as possible so that other languages would gradually disappear and greater national strength and unity will result. Whelpton argues:

An emphasis on the Nepali (Parbatiya or Gorkhali) languages is as old

as the founding of the state (even older, in that Parbatiya was already

in use as a lingua franca before the Gorkha conquest), though formal

declaration of Nepali as the official langauge was only made under

Maharaj Chandra Shamser (1901-1929). The case is similar with

Hinduization [. . . ] Nepal was only formally proclaimed a Hindu

kingdom in Mahendra's 1962 constitution, but this is merely modern

expression to a long-lasting reality, as witnessed by Prithvi Narayan's

asal Hindustan formulation or by Maharaj Chandra Shamser's 1913

description of the country as 'an ancient Hindu kingdom. (48-49)

Whelpton is clear on his argument that the perpetuation of Nepali language as the state language is the act of legitimizing and reinforcing hill culture. Further, it is a process of Hinduization where many ethnic communities, racial minorities and indigenous cultures are put under a singular category of nationalism.

Although Nepal entered in the democratic era of multi-party system after the

People’s movement of 1990, the ethnic mode of expression did not appear in limelight. The continuation of Monarchy and the hill-based political parties did not think much about the ethnic diversity and pluralistic society. But the new wave of ethnic-cultural consciousness spurred during the post 1990 era. The Maoist revolution somehow helped the disgruntled voices to speak against their marginalization, betrayal and oppression. It also brought new sentiments for change and transformations. Hence, the post-movements era is the era of ethnic, racial, socio- political and cultural consciousness and enlightenment. Mahendra Lawoti, a political scientist writes,

In the course of last two decades, ethnic politics in Nepal has received

increasing attention in academia and the media. This is largely a

reflection of the mobilization of marginalized ethnic, caste, regional

and religious groups after the democratic transition in 1990. The high

rate of participation of ethnic and caste groups in the armed Maoist

rebellion, launched in 1996, also highlighted ethnic grievances. (129)

As the desire and need of change is an inevitable and inseparable for the progress of any society, the political change of 2006 heralded a new dawn of consciousness in

Nepal. Politics is the spirit of new voices in Nepal. It did not only ignite new imaginations and thoughts in every sphere of society but also urged for the restructuring and rewriting of old paradigms. It injected energy and voice upon the ages long silenced voices paving a way for an inclusive and pluralistic Nepali society.

Pluralistic society by its nature invites questions and rewriting of canons and discourses of all types. Every new mode of expression naturally questions the older mode and manner of expressions. Thus, the revision and redefinition of Nepali nationalism is felt essential to make this category inclusive, plural and harmonious.

Literature and the state: Historicity of Nepali Poetry

Since this study is on the relationship between the ethnic mode of expression and nationalism, it is indispensable to analyze the history of the Nepali poetic tradition as well. Like politics, Nepali literature too from the very beginning was confined as a mode of expression of the rulers. There were very few writers from the ethnic or marginalized communities. Even the few writers form these communities could not openly express their identity and ethnic self in literature. While looking upon the historical time frame of Nepali poetry, it can be divided into different categories. The bases of the categorization can be different but according to the trend, theme, issues and political impact upon the poetic tradition. The history of Nepali

Poetry has a close affinity with the state. The shift of the politics and political system

22 is apparent and is further manifested in the poems too. Laxman Prasad Gautam divides mainly there phase of Nepali poetry in terms of the theme, writing style, and socio-political context of the poetry writing in his book Samakalin Nepali Kavitaka

Pravriti. According to Gautam, “Nepali poetry is divided in three broad categories:

Primary, Medieval and Modern period” (4).

Primary period of Nepali poetry is said to begin from the poem “Prithivi

Narayan Shah” by Subananda Das. The primary period can also be classified into first and second phase of poetry writing. The first phase remained up to Anglo-Nepal war and Sugauli treaty of 1816 A.D. The poetry written up to Sugauli treaty was based on the war narratives, victory, bravery of the warriors and their gallantry. It was primarily associated with the unification campaign and the issues related with it. The poetry praised or eulogized the Kings, royal family, courters and their heroism. While talking about the features of the poetry of primary period, Basudev Tripathi,

Daivagyraj Neupane and Keshav Subedi state, “available poems of this period contain wider range of objective descriptions. Specially poems are based on war, glorification of bravery, reverence to monarchy, political consciousness, eulogy of ruler, nationality, and spirituality” (My Translation, Nepali Kavita 105).There were very few poets and their poems were based on issues of national pride, military occupations etc.

The trend of poetry writing was changed as Nepal had to sign a humiliating

Sugauli treaty. The treaty brought a great impact not only in the Nepalese politics but also upon the minds and sentiments of the people. Their faith upon the kings as protector, controller and savior of nation and nationality crumbled down there was an utter frustration among the people. In such a circumstances, the trend of poetry writing shifted from brave narratives to the religion. Taranath Sharma in Nepali

Sahityako Itihas writes, “Nepali who fought bravely during the Anglo-Nepal war was defeated by the Sugauli treaty. It was a racial disgrace that compelled poets to take shelter upon the hymns of lord Ram and Krishna. In this political context, the great

Ramayana was also created in Nepali” (My Translation 8). The then poets wrote poems of lord Krishna, Ram and other religious and mythological characters. The shift can also be noted upon the message of the poems. The poems were based on religious doctrines, moral values, ethical norms etc. Their aim was to create morally sound and ethical society. Bhanubhakta Acharya (1814-1868) and his translation of

Ramayana in Nepali language from Sanskrit was the great achievement of this period.

This trend continued up to 1885 A.D.

The beginning phase of medieval period of Nepali poetry was primarily influenced by the poems of Motiram Bhatta (1866-1896). He started a special kind of poetry writing in Nepal called ‘Gajal’. Motiram Bhatta is regarded as “The pioneer of medieval Nepali poetry and locus of love poems” (My Translation, Nepali Kavita

111). During this era, the religious poetry writing was replaced by the theme of love, beauty, lust, romance etc. As Rana regime was in its heyday during this era, the poets used their poetry as a means of entertainment and pleasure for Ranas. Critic

Khagendra Luitel write, “The then rulers who had the objective of living a lavish and luxurious life brought Hindi, Urdu, Farsi theatres for their entertainment” (Kavita

Siddhanta Ra Nepali Kavitako Itihas 190). The poems of this era correlate with the luxurious and lavish lifestyles of the rulers and specially presented along with the theatrical performances. The poets used passion, emotions, infatuation and yearning as major subject matters. This trend of poetry writing continued up to 1918.

On the other hand, after 1918 Nepali poetic tradition is affected by new mode of writing called, classicism. The use of new symbols, forms and the writing trend

24 brought new taste in the poems. Khagendra Luitel regards the shift as “the end of romance literature and the beginning of the intellectual, religious and morally consciousness poetry, and rule governed” (204). The rigorous study of the poets, their scholarly and philosophical thoughts, strict metrical patterns, and focus upon the polished lingual nuances are some of the characteristics of the poetry of this time.

Especially this era was dominated by the poets like, Lekhnath Poudel (1884-1965)

Somanath Sigdyal, Dharanidhar Koirala etc.

Although there are different opinions among critics regarding the modernism in Nepali poetry, most of them consider then end of classicism as its beginning. As modernism marks a break from the traditional, structural form of poetry, the modern era in Nepali poetry is said to be started with Gopal Prasd Rimal (1918-1973).

Laxman Prasad Gautam thinks Rimal as the trend setter of Nepali modern poetry:

The rejection of classicality on the basis of modern theoretical

assumptions, definitions and features is what modernity is. These

tendencies can be found in Gopal Prasad Rimal, the first Nepali poet to

write in free verse, and in Laxmi Prasad Devkota, the practitioner of

romantic writing both in subject matter and in authorial self-

consciousness. For this reason, Rimal's poetry writing in free verse is a

break down, a U-turn and a departure in Nepali poetry. For this reason

too, the poetry of Gopal Prasad Rimal exhibits most of the features of

modernity. (Dancing Soul of Mount Everest LI).

In the mid 1930s Rimal set a trend of writing poem in prose form challenging the previously practiced strict and monotonous metrical forms and grammatical norms of the poetry. The modern poetry thereafter incorporated contemporary norms, values

25 and individuality as its prime concern. His poems are not only revolutionary in terms of form; they also embody the themes of change, radicalism and freedom of expression in content. In this sense, Rimal is considered as pioneer of Nepali modern poetry. In the mean time, there was also a remarkable influence of Laxmi Prasad

Devkota(1909-1959); ‘the great poet’ of Nepali literature during this time. Specially,

Rimal and Devkota’s poems grasped the theme of revolution, political consciousness, need of change and rebellious sentiments of the people. Their poems are in opposition to absurdity, oppressive political system and deformities of the society. Along with the presence of western Romanticist style of poetic tradition, Nepali poetry started to be written on various themes and subject matters thereafter. To mark this change

Laxman Prasad Gautam in the prelude of the above mentioned book writes about the features of these two modern poets:

Rimal, who was a poet of free, progressive, and rebellious

consciousness, appears rebellious even in subject matter, feeling,

thoughts and style. Similarly, Devkota who wrote poem with

uncontrolled, and liberal vigor against classical disciplinary

conventions, rules, controlled writing, formality and awareness of

skills, also exhibited strong tendencies against the grain. (LIV)

Revolution, self-expression, individuality, humanity etc. were the major themes of the poems written during that time. The poets started novelty in terms of form, content and style of their writings. This trend was widespread during and after the establishment of democracy in 1950 until the political coup of 1961.

Although there were various practices and trends appeared in the Nepalese poetic tradition up to the beginning of the modern style of poetry writing, there is no

26 any significant expression from the ethnic or minority groups. Almost all the poets are from Brahmin or Chhetri communities expressing the Hindu mythology, culture, festivals and ritual practices. The situation was further worsening during the

Panchayat regime (1960-1990). King Mahendra tried to appropriate his direct rule by imposing monolithic Hindu Khas based nationalism in every sphere of socio-cultural elements. Like other modes of expressions, literature too was under surveillance and direct scrutiny of the state. Moreover, the Royal Nepal Academy established in 1957, was developed as a centre of exercising power over literary writers. Abhi Subedi in his Restructuring Organizations About Literature and Arts considers this organization as a “trope of royal patronage” that was managed and controlled directly by the state.

Subedi thinks the establishment of the RNA was intended to have sole state authority over literary creations:

Management of arts and literature institutions in Nepal was conceived

and cleverly organized by King Mahendra … At the academy, generic

divisions like poetry section, drama section, prose section etc were

made and plans and programmes were drawn accordingly …

Ideologically, the academy helped King Mahendra’s concept of

fostering a sense of nationalisms that would remain hands-in-glove

with the Panchayat polity. He successfully created a hegemony that

was accepted by people holding different ideological positions. (48-49)

The intentional or planned intervention of the state upon production and circulation of literary texts does not only discourage mainstream literary writers but further hindered the creation of literary texts from minority or ethnic communities. It was directed to reinforce the Panchayat ideology and value system among the people. The creation of political hegemony was detrimental for the growth of literary writings. The state

27 created certain national symbols based on Hindu culture and ritual practices. It declared Nepali as national language and prioritized only those poems that uphold such values.

There was a great impact of the then political system in the composition of the poetry as well. Previously practiced Romanticist free and spontaneous kind of poetry was replaced by abstract and experimental kind of poetry after the change of the political system in 1960. In this connection, Gautam writes:

Because of the political changes of 1960 and the ensuing political

scenario, romantic emotionalism, and progressive political tendencies,

poets started expressing themselves in complicated styles. The

establishment of the Panchayati System of governance curtailed

authorial pens and rights of expression. In reaction, the poets adopted

imagist, symbolic, and gestural styles. (Dancing Soul of Mount Everest

LV)

The poets started composing surrealist, absurd and symbolic form of poems. The main intention of writing such poems was to escape from being the direct political target.

The use of abstract forms, philosophical subject matters, influence of abstract painting in poems, deviated language, holistic view of life, exposition human frustration and anxiety as well as an existential quest are some of the features of experimental kind of poetry composed in 1960s and 1970s. Poets like, Mohan Koirala, Tulasi Divas,

Dwarika Shrestha, Krishna Bhakta Shrestha are influential poets who practiced experimental sorts of poems during this era.

Poetry is a great source of change in Nepal. Although there were restrictions upon the literary writings during the Panchayat period, the literary writers continued

28 their struggle against the dictatorial political system. Literary writers as the harbingers of the change wrote poems against the system and continued to make people aware about the socio-cultural injustices. During the referendum of 1979 and in the People’s movement first of 1990, literary writers used their pen to expose the hypocrisy of the then political system. The poets as freedom fighters began different movements resisting the then system which gave birth to different Aayamic (dimensional) movements. The poets like, Indra Bahadur Rai, Ishwor Ballav, Bairagi Kainla started

Tesro Aayam seeking freshness and novelty of subject matter. Similarly there were other movements like Ralpha movement (1967), Aswikrit Jamat (1969) etc. These movements initiated a unique tradition by challenging the political hegemony.

The people’s movement first of 1990 ended autocratic Panchayat system by reestablishing multiparty democracy in the country. The political change granted several fundamental rights to the people. Moreover, it paved the way for the plural and multicultural society. In the changing scenario, the poetry appeared after 1990 incorporated plurality of its themes, novelty in style as well as consciousness of the socio-cultural and economic disparities. The poets wrote about the marginalization, human rights, poverty and other themes that helped to spread new consciousness in the people. In this regard, Govinda Raj Bhattari in his preface to Dancing Soul of

Mount Everest writes about the emergence of new poets and their poetic tradition. He argues the consciousness of the identity, present and the past to be the major themes of those poems:

A host of young poets have emerged in the post 1990 era. They have

appeared with new styles and techniques, and new themes of writing

too. Many poets from indigenous communities came with a strong

fervor and zeal, questioning their status as race, as tribe or an ethnic

unit. Their share in national politics, their worries about the existence

of language and culture are reflected in modern poems. In this period

old generation or seniors are equally active whereas the young

generation is much different. They are in consonance with the

changing time. (xvii)

The above quote implies the presence of the new generation of the poets from ethnic and lingual background to be a new feature of the poetry. The political change paved the way for the democratic and diverse society which eventually gave voice to the indigenous and ethnic minorities in the literary forum as well. Revolutionary attitude, expression of contemporary social values and norms, opposition against oppressive political system and self-consciousness are striking features of the poems composed in the post 1990 era. The poets used literature as a medium to create awareness and consciousness in the society. They primarily concerned on exposing superficiality of the political system and their hollow existence.

A new wave of political consciousness is apparent in the poetic form and tradition as well. The literary writers grasped the heterogeneity and plurality of Nepali society as their main theme. The poems from the marginal community and ethnic groups too emerged in these times which were full of socio-political tensions.

Especially poetry composed during the Maiost insurgency (1995-2005) and People’s movement II (2006) reflect ethnic identity as well as marginal issues and concerns as main theme. These poets have created an alternative form of poetic tradition by incorporating their personal problems, historical exploitation, economic crisis, local rituals and so on. These poems herald the urge for the change and restructuring in every sphere of the society. Revolution, war, Self-consciousness and liberation became a major theme of the poems written during the war and thereafter. The poets

30 even challenge the previously dominated practices and wanted a change in the monolithic notion of nationalism as well. Bhattarai connects the issue of nationalism while talking about the themes of the contemporary poems composed during Maoist insurgency and after people’s Movement II of 2006. He states, “Nationality has become just a narrow limit to a modern poet. Different trends and movements, styles of writing and forms of poetry are borrowed, adapted, or developed on native soil.

Most of them have indigenous efforts and flavor, color and quality” (xvi).

While talking about the features of the contemporary literature, it is worthwhile to quote Khagendra Luitel who considers ‘contemporary’ not only moment/ time but also the trends of writing. He states, “ Although contemporary, in the field of literary history and criticism is literature composed at present, it is related with present subject, individual, creation, trend of writing as well as time” (Kavita

Siddhanta Ra Nepali Kavitako Itihas 333). Hence, the poetry composed at the present time having its unique features can be called contemporary literature. In this context,

Nepali poetry, in particularly those composed by the ethnic community is a response to the monolithic mainstream poetic tradition that overlooked the voice and sentiments of the margin. These poems assimilate contemporary issues and themes as they challenge the literary hegemony and banal tradition.

Most of the contemporary ethnic writers compose their creative pieces in

Nepali language considering literature as a compensating device to the previously marginalized, oppressed and excluded people from the mainstream of national identity. They challenge the canonicity of literary tradition by incorporating their own and unique style of writing. Specifically, the Kirant poetry composed in this contemporary time functions as a compensative and restructuring mechanism for correcting the official history of marginalization and domination. We find

31 perfromativity of the nationalistic ethos in the form of symbols, myths, history and culture in these texts. By employing local practices, cultural celebrations and ethnic identities such lyrical expressions try to reclaim their past. Their poetry provides space to articulate individual and communal imagination in order to create a beautiful present. The selected poems also challenge nationalism considering it as a flux entity; something not given but invented and improvised. They urge for rewriting, restructuring and rebuilding the concept of nation and nationality.

From this bird-eye view upon the history of Nepali poetry, many changes, turns and trends can be observed in different period of literary writing. There is a clear evidence of the shift in the poetic tradition along with the political changes of different era and epoch. The socio-cultural and political change did not only manipulate the mindset of the people but also brought variation and multiplicity of the themes and trends in writing. The shift in the politics is clearly visible in the literary writings as literature is primary mode of expression that helps to speak out ages long silenced voices.

Critics’ Response on the contemporary Kirant poetry

Contemporary Nepali ethnic literature has been diversely interpreted by different critics. It has provoked vigorous discussion of a wide variety of cultural, social and political themes. Kirant poetry as an ethnic literature can appear as good subject for critical readers to study how socio-cultural and historical symbols, motifs and forms are influencing the recent trend of nationalism and national politics.

However, there are not significant numbers of critical readings found on these texts in relation to nationalism. Contemporary Kirant poetry brings forth the issue of nation and nationality thereby making a strong rejection to the previous structures of nation,

32 national identity and exclusionary politics of the nation. They try to recreate an inclusive national identity asserting their historical, cultural and communal dream and aspirations. Abhi Subedi in his article, “A Study in the Shift of Self and Lyricism in the Post-conflict Poetry of Young Limbu Poets” observes the trend of the contemporary of ethnic poetry writing:

The post-conflict Nepal opened up new debates about rights and

equality among all groups of marginalized people and the neglected

but rich cultures. In a short time waves of self –assertion have swept

the country. Voices unheard before are heard. People have been using

different kinds of forums to speak from. But poets have used the most

subtle but very strong ways of presenting their cultural ethos, their

creativity and sense of resistance. (2-3)

Subedi argues that the new era of socio-political change has brought the new trend of literary writing in Nepal. The cultural values and ritualistic behaviourshave marked the style of poetry writing. Poets from different marginalized groups and ethnic communities regard the act of writing poetry as the way of presenting their cultural ethos, creativity and sense of resistance towards the creator of history. They present their counter history in order to challenge and question the official history of the country.

Similarly a critic, Amar Giri in his article “Contemporary Nepali Poetry” writes about the characteristics of the contemporary Nepali poetry. He views plurality of the theme and subject matter as the major feature of the present poetic trend:

Contemporary Nepali poetry has provided poetic expression of

different subjects. Plurality of the subject matter is the major feature of

the contemporary Nepali poetry which has prospered the field.

Contemporary poets have expressed different aspects of themes such

as economic, political, social, cultural life and contemporary world in

which the trend of contemporary poetry resides. (My Translation146)

Contemporary poetry as Giri states is an expression of various socio-political and cultural themes. As the socio- cultural world is changing, the new themes and subjects are also getting space as the form of literary expression. Poets write about on the plural subject matter in order to express their feelings and sentiments of the present time.

On the other hand, Bikash Sangraula quotes lines of Shrawan Mukarung to express the current trend of ethnic writing and the role of poetry in the nation building process. He states that an appropriate way of ensuring inclusiveness and inclusive identity of nationality is not mere picking up of individuals from marginalized communities and giving them political posts rather he believes: “Dreams give meanings to our lives. If a writer stops dreaming, he is dead. If a society stops dreaming, it is dead. People need dreams, they need hopes. This is what Nepal needs today. Dream is what our rulers need to inject in people” (14). Thus, it is the mind, sentiments and feelings of the people that carry the strong sense of nation and nationality. The identity formation process is the process of studding the dreams and aspirations of the people.

C.K. Lal in his article We the People You the Populace considers Shrawan

Mukarung’s poem “Bise Nagarchiko Bayan” (Confession of Bise Nagarchi) as an expression of agony and pain faced by the common people under the despotic rule:

Shrawan’s ode to‘Bise Nagarchi captures the continuous agony of two

centuries in its simplest form: the protagonist’s rebellion expresses

itself in feigned insanity. When King Gyanendra used the name of his

ancestors to usurp state power through a phased coup between October

2002 and February 2005, this unassuming poet resurrected the

forgotten Dalit counsellor of Prithivi Naryaan to pierce the pomposity

of Grand pretender. (61)

Lal here believes an awakening of a historically neglected character; Bise is a form of rebellion and protest against the atrocity and superficiality of state. He thinks the ancestral inheritance of the state power is just an act of pomposity pretension of the then ruler.

Talking about the poetic style and trend of Upendra Subba, in his article “Kavi

Khojdai Jada” Basanta Basnet highlights use of local dialects, symbols and myths as the basic features of his poetic style. He asserts, “Upendra does not hatch grand symbols. He uses local dialects, Mundhums, Chumlung, history and society. While searching new taste in the Jamboree of the poets, Upendra’s presence is different and striking” (My Translation11). Similarly, Sushanta Gurung reviews Subba’s anthology of poem, Kholako Geet Ra Purana Kavitaharu in the following lines:

Upendra’s poems are example that poetry exposes concealed social

chapters. The society he has portrayed is of eastern Kirant territory.

Kirant myths are depicted in his poems. His poems must be contented

on transferring Kirant collective consciousness, innate natural incidents

and feelings. Kirant community is nature worshipper. Myths are

believed to be created before the clear division was made between

nature and humans. There is presence of rainbow colour formed by the

mutual struggle and co-operation. (My Translation 6)

According to Gurung, Upendra’s poems expose social realities, especially that of ethnic communities. The myths and symbols of Kirant territory is his main focus. He writes about Kirant struggle, hardship and mutual co-operation as well. In totality,

Subba is considered to the conscious poet who presents the realistic picture of the society in its organic form.

In a similar line, Manu Manjil finds the freshness and clarity of expression in another poet; Heman Yatri’s poems. He comments on the introduction of Yatri’s poem anthology Pahad Ma Sangai Yatra Garchha:

Poet Heman is a voice of cultural margin and his sincere poems are

beautiful examples for civilization of the marginalized world. His

poems are like the voices of a dominated man that brings feeling of

sympathy at the heart. The poet has written in Nepali language but also

used original words of his mother tongue. By using Nepali language,

he has tried to give a due reverence to his original stories, myths and

primitive allusions. (My Translation 3)

Manjil’s perception of Heman Yatri’s poem is: they are about the society, social struggle and human psychology. He paints a beautiful canvas incorporating his local myths, rituals and cultural values. Although he uses Nepali language as a means of expression, he tries to voice his ethnic self using beautiful symbols. In his poems, the poet frequently visits his local world in order to dig out his person history and indigenous identity.

Poet Swapnil Smriti has also been interpreted in different way by different critics. Amar Giri in his article “Samartha Kavita” connects Swopnil to the world of faith, justice, consciousness and new generation. He comments:

The most powerful aspect of Swopnil’s poetry is disclosure of truth

and commitment towards it. He has fearlessly given poetic expressions

to the present day reality and has kept himself as the follower of the

truth. There is undaunted faith towards truth and its exposition.

Swopnil is a poet of light, hope, dream, struggle, new consciousness,

new generation and new era. He is critique of distorted reality, irony

and conflict. (My Translation 46)

Giri takes Swapnil as a poet who fearlessly exposes the socio-historical injustices and superficiality of the society. He thus, is a poet of dream, hope, new consciousness and regeneration. As a social commentator, Smriti writes about the social values, norms and paradoxes prevalent form ages. In this connection, Sanjeev Upreti is impressed by the minute presentation of his experiences in his poetry. Upreti writes on the blurb of the anthology Baduli ra Sudur Samjhanaharu, “Swopnil smriti’s poems are beautiful; they flow in tune and touch both; mind and heart. Some poems are revolutionary, they advocate for social justice (My Translation 1)”. From the above criticisms it is clear that both the critics are fascinated by Smriti’s way of handling socio-cultural issues.

Abhi Subedi claims Bhupal Rai to be one of the powerful poets among the ethnic writers. He considers Rai’s poems to be, “replenished with ethnic expression” in his article “Bhupal Diamond Ra Pipa”. Subedi further writes, “Bhupal Rai’s poems express history of bloodshed caused by a powerful race and force upon ethnic groups, especially Kirant” ( Kantipur 6). Similarly, talking in an interview, Bhupal Rai

37 regards his anthology Aesthetics of Margin as, “. . . a document written at the cost of domination and marginalization at every sphere by the state power. In this sense, it is an outpour of the historically cheated and sidelined values” ( Annapurna Post 5).

These two above mentioned quotes indicates that Bhupal Rai usually writes about his own Kirant ethnic community, their marginalization and suppression.

In the similar vein, Chandrabir Tumbapo, another Kirant poet, is introduced as a the “colourist poet” by Govindaraj Bhattarai in his translation of Tumbapo’s poem

“My Revolt in Pink Poetry” published in Journal of Nepalese Literature Art and

Culture. He writes ahead, “He is one of six members of Rangabadi samooha (the colourist poets) who introduced novelty in style, theme and interpretation of poetry and so of life” (135). As a member of the colourist poets, Tumbapoo and his fellow members attempt to bring racially, religiously, linguistically and politically divided people in to one colour. In the same journal, Abhi Subedi also writes about the poetic style of Tumbapo. According to Subedi, “[Tumbapo] projects a strong sense of poetic pragmatism and looks at his people’s identity in the emergent Post-conflict Nepal”

(7).

It is evident from the review of the criticisms available on the contemporary

Kirant poets selected in this dissertation that none of the critics have studied these poets in connection to nationalism and ethnicity. Therefore, this research will be tended towards exposing the contradictions inherent in the discourse of Nepali nationalism; proving contemporary Kirant poetry as a redressive mechanism of correcting the official history of the state that has marginalized and kept the minor voices silenced for centuries. These ethnic writers expose great contradiction: although they oppose the present monolithic values and systems but they use Nepali

38 language as their medium of expression. They try to rebuild their past, at the same time also advocate for the strong and powerful nation and national values as well.

This dissertation has been divided into three chapter altogether. Among them, the first chapter gives an overview of the whole research. It introduces the issue and hypothesis in the light of the critical discussion undertaken through the review of literature relevant to the Kirant poetry. It tries to figure out a nexus between nationalism and ethnic mode of expression. By giving overview of the development of Nepali nationalism, Nepali poetry and the place of indigenous groups in it, tries to establish the theoretical insights required for the analysis of the text in the following chapters. Likewise, the second chapter consists of the textual analysis undertaken in the light of the relevant theoretical insights. This chapter blends theoretical insights, criticisms on the poetry and extracts from the poems in its effort to prove the hypothesis. The final chapter concludes the whole dissertation reasserting findings of the study.

II. Kirant Nepali Poetry as a Critique of Hegemonic National Identities

People’s Movement II 2006 brought several changes in political and socio- cultural aspects of Nepalese society. As the post movement period is generally noted for the restructuring and reformation of the various spheres of the society, it paved the way for the redefinition of the established conventional values. In this scenario, a bulk of indigenous ethnic poets emerged in the post 2006 era with new forms of experimental poetry and a strong desire to change the existing nuances of poetry.

Within the panoply of indigenous Nepali literature, poetry by the poets belonging to indigenous Kirant ethnic community appeared as an intervention to the previously established rigid socio-cultural and poetic tradition. Poems composed by the Kirant poets in Nepali language are representative voices against historical marginalization, cultural evasion, and social exploitation. These poets have written against the oppressive state, domineering social hierarchies, cultural evasion, and ethnic marginalization. Their poetry is marked by pluralism in theme, novelty in style, rejection of conventional poetic diction, and expression of socio-cultural consciousness.

Considering nationalism as the heart or locus of their expression, the

contemporary Kirant poetry tries to redefine the nation and nationality in different

ways. Hence, this study makes a detailed analysis of the nature of nationalism

projected in the lyrical expression of these indigenous minds. This chapter analyzes

the idea of nation and nationality expressed in the poems of the selected poets for this

research. At first the researcher will show how the indigenous writers reject the

exclusivist history of this nation and express an urgency of rewriting it. Thereafter,

the focus will be on examining the notion of alternative identity constructed in these

40 poems in the form of indigenous consciousness, historical allusions, and mythical- religious symbols. Similarly, it is also worthwhile to see how the poets of this particular ethnic group view other communal and racial groups. Their perception and attitudes towards other racial communities will further clarify their perspective of

Nepali nationalism. Apart from this, most importantly, the study tries to bring forth playfulness of the strong sense of inclusive nationalism, faith, and optimism shared by the Kirant poets in their poetry.

The corpus selected in this study reflects nation and national sensibility in a creative and unique way. Specifically, their poetry is based on love-hate relationship with the nation. To substantiate the idea further, although these ethnic poets feel themselves as abandoned children of the history, they still hold an undaunted faith towards this nation. The writers have numerous grudges towards the present political system. They are bearing insurmountable difficulties and hardships since time immemorial, they even lack dignity and respect in this nation, they have carried out scars of injustices and cruelty; regardless of all these vicissitudes, these ethnic poets show their undeniable trust and unquestionable respect towards this nation.

The poems by these indigenous poets do not only portray bleak and darker aspects of the nation but also projects wider range of prospects and possibilities even amidst the crisis and disorder. The contemporary Kirant poets express strong sense of rejection to the existing system yet they advocate for making a stronger nation. They are often critical, sometimes even much radical in their expression however, they scarcely ever dream of a separate nation. These poets have embraced reformative and transformative tone in their poems, also projecting theme of the nationalism to revisit the history of ethnic marginalization. The poems are progressive in nature as they oppose status-quo of all types and advocate for a restructuring of the state. Gerard

Toffin considers contemporary Nepali society as an open society; a concept came against the notion of closed society. In the introduction of his text “Imagination and

Realities: Nepal Between Past and Present he views, “ Contemporary Nepali culture and society can be regarded as being torn between closed, communitarian forces and a more open, democratic pull. The social fabric is changing and old social bonds are often broken” (10). Hence, the literary expression from indigenous community can be regarded as expressions against those pervasive socio-cultural hierarchies.

On the other hand, Abhi Subedi prefers to call Kirant poetry as minor literature as it holds the features of Deleuze- Guattari’s observation of minor literature. He writes, “I find the Deluze Guattari observation about the minor literature very productive mode of discussion to use in the context of the Limbu poets’ use of

Nepali language and their pattern of intervention and their sense of immediacy” (5).

As minor literature uses a major language with high sense of ‘de-territorialisation’, it can also be called as a view from margin to intervene a center. In this sense, Kirant poetry as minor literature deals with the collective expression of the people. It does not only represent the particular poet or his intention but is also linked with the myths, symbols, historical memories and collective consciousness of the people.

The contemporary Kirant poetry is, writing against the grain- an attempt of deconstructing the established rigid centers. Nationalism, like other centers is one of such pervasive and hegemonic center that evades the minority voices from the national narratives. Nepali nationalism has remained a hegemonic national identity as it is appropriated by the state through different forces like education, language, development, communication technology and so on. Perpetuation and articulation of hegemonic national identities through the various means of expression have marginalized ethnic language, cultures and even their modes of expressions in the

42 past. In this context, it is not surprising that the opposition voices demand a noticeable change or correction in each of such category to make it more inclusive and plural.

Thus, while making a comprehensive study of the theme of nationalism; different issues are categorically dealt in the following paragraphs, which are directly or indirectly connected with the theme of nation, nationality and identity.

Kirant Poetry as Rejection of the Exclusivist Nationalisms

Contemporary Kirat poetry voices different ethnic, racial and cultural communities who are sidelined from the official narratives of this nation. It is representative of large number of people, who are kept under threat and suppression.

Kirant poets are critical of their historical marginalization and urge to rewrite the history of this nation. In their poems they try to seek the reasons of their exclusion from the mainstream of national narrative with an eye to question the existing hierarchies of nationalism. Almost all of the selected poets strongly object the unification campaign of Prithivi Narayan Shah and his policy of ethnic cleansing.

Some of the poets protest suppressive rule of the polity and show the necessity of rebellion. By pointing out socio-cultural, political and economic expulsions, the poets question about their identity and existence in the nation.

Sebastian von Einsiedel, David Malone and Suman Pradhan in the introduction of their Nepal in Transition: From People Wars to Fragile Peace summarizes the history of the formation of monolithic or hegemonic nationalism.

They talk about the ethnic marginalization or depravation in Nepal. According to them, the situation worsened after unification campaign. They state:

Before unification, tribal, ethnic, linguistic, and social caste groups in

Nepal’s constituent parts pursued their affairs largely autonomously

within their small boarders. The Nepali state’s expansion forced these

myriad groups to live together under the authority of the new Gorkha

rulers. By the time Nepal’s unification was completed, Nepali society

had become multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-lingual. The failure

to recognize and accommodate through active nurturing this new

reality would continue to trouble Nepal in the ensuing centuries. (5)

The socio-cultural and political intrusion hampered the situation of the ethnic groups, forcing them to accept other’s cultural values. Monarchical supremacy and hierarchical structures of the nation further undermined the position of ethnic groups.

On the other hand it also provided unlimited power to the monarchy. Monarch was regarded as the head of the state, and started to be taken in terms of Hindu mythological lord Vishnu. They further write, “The institution of the monarchy therefore drew its sustenance and support from a sense of nationalism embodied by as single religion (Hinduism), a single language (Nepali), and a single dress (Daura

Suruwal)” (5). As the state’s unnecessary privilege to Hinduism and high hill caste culture, it undermined the culture of ethnic and racial groups. That is how Nepali nationalism turned out to be an exclusive category. Hence, the literary expressions at present are critical about the hegemonic nationalism as well as encroachment upon their primitive history and culture. They oppose politico-cultural evasions, stressing upon the importance of the originality and uniqueness of indigenous history.

Among the selected poets, Shrawan Mukarung is one of the most acknowledged and active poet during the people’s movement II. Shrawan Mukarung’s poem, “Bise Nagarchiko Bayan” ( Bise Nagarchi’s confession) was the most acclaimed poem during that time. This poem is revolutionary in the sense that it questions the authority and legitimacy of the monarchy in the country. Written from the perspective of a historically forgotten character Bise Nagarchi, the poem

44 challenges the authenticity of the then ruler. In this poem, Mukarung attempts to bring forth all the subalterns, by employing Bise as the persona of the poem, who remained unheard or unsung for ages. Mukarung is trying to play with memory, linking them with three main standpoints: personal or collective identity, history and group phenomena. Toffin further claims, “[Memory] sites . . . transport the past into the present and represent various forms of loss in the face of change. In fact, they each portray a different facet of Nepali cultural and historical heritage” (86). In this regard,

Bise Nagarchi, a low-caste ‘untouchable’ is a character of memory. He encouraged

Prithivi Narayan Shaha during his unification campaign by suggesting him the way of resolving his financial crisis. The poem is about the sequential agony of all the marginalized people, who are sidelined and crushed by the brutal power of the state for centuries. Bise’s madness is expressed as a form of rebellion in the poem as he has gone insane due to perpetual traumas:

Master!

After 250 years in this Gorkha kingdom

I have lost my mind

My head is spinning

I see sky, beneath my feet

And earth above me

In my dizziness

I see ten heads on your shoulder

I am searching for my ground

Where is Bise Nagarchi

Master!

I have lost my mind (My Translation 1-11)

Shrawan Mukarung has tried to reflect socio-political reality from the eyes of a historical character that remained insignificant to the state. The history shaped by the power politics, ignores minor realities and tries to eulogize the power. In this poem

Mukarung is in the process of making invisible; visible. Bise Nagarchi, who once was a devotee of the monarch, has proclaimed a certainty of the downfall of monarchy. He is threatening his ‘master’ not to repeat the history as the time has changed. Moreover, he is conscious of his identity and existence. Most importantly, Bise is not an extremist, to demand a separate land or nation rather he wants his nation to recognize his past. Bise further speaks:

Master!

I have been in this country all along its history

How can I be an outsider?

I have really lost my mind

Master! (My Translation 83-88)

Hence, through the perspective of Bise Nagarchi, the poet is urging for reformation and restructuring of the state which has forgotten, and is also indifferent to the feelings and sentiments of the thousands of marginalized and pepople living in this nation. Here, Mukarung has used poetry as the medium of expression: of difference of opinion, revolution and expression against injustice.

Mukarung considers poetry as the only weapon to overthrow all forms of injustices and atrocity perpetuated against people. In his another poem “Utkhanan”

(Excavation), Mukarung is much critical about the paradoxes of the history. He tries to examine state actors from the indigenous perspective. This is an advocacy for the restructuring of the state. As per Prayag Raj Sharma, “Discourse on the modern state unavoidably turn to the questions of examining the polity, political process and the

46 political actors who engage in it and interact with one another that determine the political course of such a state” (Nepal: New Frontiers of Restructuring of State 145).

Most often, history is constructed by the power politics. In the official narratives pains, sufferings and emotions of common people do not exist. It often tries to wipe out the layman as an insignificant aspect of the ‘grand narratives’. Mukarung makes a strong urge for the revisiting and rethinking of the historical breaches, demanding for the correction or alteration of the history that has excluded its citizens. In the poem he remarks:

We must find out

The real culprit of history.

Got to recognize-

Who is the real builder?

Who is the true martyr?

Who is the right leader?

Who is the authentic poet?

Which is the genuine song? (My Translation 27-34)

The poet is concerned on finding out an authentic leader to inherit the previous possibilities and lead the nation. Even if the official document of the nation portrays someone as the builder, martyr, and leader of the nation, it never tries to recognize the contribution of common people. The tendency of the pervasive state is only to glorify the ruler at the cost of the existence of common people. In this scenario, this poem is an urge for the reconstruction of the history of this nation.

To bring another poet into discussion, Bhupal Rai’s poetry is also filled with the blend of national flavor. Rai’s poetry projects the nation and nationality along with his ethnic consciousness. Rai seeks freedom of expression in his poetry in order

47 to challenge the history of socio-cultural marginalization and domination. He basically looks back to the history of cruelty, injustice and cultural intrusion. Rai’s poetic anthology, Simanta Saundarya (Aesthetics of Margin) can be taken as a window to overview his perspective towards indigenous art, culture, society and human life. Bhupal Rai writes about the hollow and superficiality of the national history with a strong urge to redraw the various national paradigms. In his poems, Rai evokes historical characters, indigenous cultural practices and value of human identity as traces of self-awareness.

Rai’s poem “Dui Saya Tis Barsa Pachhi- Ek Jabaaf” (After Two Hundred

Thirty Years: A Response) is about the history of cruelty and injustice inflicted upon the Kirant people during the unification campaign of Prithivi Naryana Shaha. He tries to portray a picture of Hatuwagadhi (the then capital of the Kirant state in the eastern part of Nepal) and Waling Hang (a Kiranti king, who was killed in the attack of 1773

A.D.) in order to question upon the history of evasion and domination. He writes:

An afternoon in 2003 A.D.

Waling Hang Kirati of new millennium

Stands under Prithivi Narayan Shah’s statue

And ponders-

I have seen this man somewhere. (Suresh Hachekali’s Translation 1-5)

Rai here brings anecdote of Waling Hang Kiranti in order to show how people lost their territory, culture and civilization along with the fall of Hatuwagadhi fort. He equates all Kiranti people as the king Waling Hang who met a treacherous death at the hand of the settlers. According to John Whelpton, the Gorkhali evasion upon Kirant territory was “Alien presence in the Kiranti areas east of Dudh Koshi river” (A

History of Nepal 57). Rai strongly condemns the cowardice act of the internal

48 colonizers who killed feeble children and women during the attack. Rai further draws a horrible sight of the battlefield and regards it as a gory sight that caused an irreparable loss over the indigenous life history:

In the dream

A nasty evening

Of nearly two hundred thirty years back

Dilapidation full of smoke

Or Hatuwagadhi full of bloodshed

Where he was

Falling down with his own torso

Falling down with his own citadel. (Suresh Hachekali’s Translation

53-60)

In the lines above Bhupal Rai relates the history of Hatuwagadi as a common history and fate of all Kiranti people. He believes the pains and sufferings of indigenous ethnic Kiranti people as a collective pain that hurts each individuals belonging to the

Kirant community as they share similar history, myths and legends. Moreover, the poet tries to aware Kiranti people about the loss of their historical, social and cultural values due to the external domination.

Bhupal Rai is the poet of change and transformation. He strongly expresses his hatred against the suppressive political system. In one of his poem “Hatti Palnu

Hudaina” (No Elephant Rearing), the poet compares the gigantic animal as symbol of aristocracy and feudalism. He compares elephant with monarchical system of the country, and claims elephant rearing is not feasible in the country where poverty, unemployment, illiteracy and insecurity have prevailed. He thinks, spending national

49 income for the royal family is like feeding an elephant that does not belong the common creature’s category. Rather the poet appeals for stopping elephant rearing:

Elephant, which does not belong to common creature

Needless it is to populace.

Worn-out folk

Worn-out nation

Below the average economic life

At no cost can afford

The fleshy voracity of elephant. ( Suresh Hachekali’s Translation 41-

47)

The symbol of elephant presented in this poem is related to the then royal family of

Nepal which was based on ancestral lineage of King Prithivi Narayan Shah. Before the People’s Movement of 2006 A.D. there was a provision of allocating national fund for the royal family. Annually huge amount of budget used to be separated form national treasure, which in fact was the burden to the common people. The above lines hint upon the same fact: as the fleshy voracity of elephant cannot be fulfilled by the common people and their tiny expenditure, it would be better not to rear elephant at all.

On the other hand, Upendra subba is the next poet whose anthology Kholako

Geet is a collection of forty-four different poems where the poet has tried to rediscover his personal world, identity, culture and civilization. Like other poets of the Kirant ethnic community, Subba writes about the depravation and marginalization of the Kirant community and his reservation towards the national history. He tries to depict the microcosms of plural nations amidst the macrocosms of ‘grand nationalism’. In this process, he tries to dig out the concealed hypocrisy of

50 nationalism. Upendra plays with ethnic symbols and motifs in order to celebrate his indigenous life in his poems. His primary purpose of including local history in the poem is to counter the hegemonic form of nationalism perpetuated by the state terror.

In the other words, Upendra tries to see the nationalism from the ethnic perspective. His poem “Sagarmatha Hocho Dekhe” (I found Sagarmatha Shorter) is one of such poems in which the poet compares a national symbol, Mt. Everest with

Sohanamlang hill. Sohanamlang is one of the pilgrimages sites of Limbus that lies in

Panchthar district of Nepal. When the poet observes the tallest mountain Everest from the top of this hill, he finds Everest shorter. Although Everest is highest among all mountains, for the poet, it is incomparable to Sohanamlang. The poet is measuring the height of these two peaks by the scale of his heart where he finds Sohanmlang to be really tall and near. Through this comparison, Upendra tries to expose the worth of his personal world where he feels close affinity. Upendra’s attachment and reverence to

Sohanamlang is exposed on the following way in the poem:

When I watched Sagarmatha from Sohanamlang hill,

I found Sagarmatha shorter

Here,

I am really standing tall

This old chestnut tree

Has stood hollow like my nation

Little above, curved rhododendron tree has bloomed red

Down the hill stands slender alder tree

The old chestnut shall be shaded

By this ever-growing alder

The chestnut is really weaker

Seems the evil storm shall break it anytime

When I watched Sagarmatha from the hollow of the chestnut

I found it farther

I found it lower. (My Translation 1-15)

This poem is an example of glorification and celebration of local culture and ethnic awareness. Here, Upendra’s poetic imagination has created an alternative form of nation that is closer with him. The poet is highlighting importance of his religious and cultural world which has carried a significant value. The hill that the poet is describing in this poem is identity of Kirant community. It has carried a great historical, cultural and mythical significance. In the mean time, the poet is also criticizing arrogant and pompous ideals endorsed by the nation. He even satirizes colonial and domineering attitude of alder-like power holders who often try to invade culture and best practices of indigenous groups.

To bring another poet in to discussion, poet Swopnil Smriti is noted for presenting his strong against all forms of social brutality and malfunctioning. As

Smriti was directly involved in the decade long people’s war, his most of the poems aspire complete change and reformation of the society. He opposes social discrimination and exploitations in his poems, rebellion being the nucleus of his verses. Smriti calls himself a deceased author or “Swargiya” because he feels himself as a victim of socio-political disorders. He believes the socio-political system is strangling the throat of every individuals living in this country. In this study, the researcher has focused upon Smriti’s poem anthology, Baduli Ra Sudur Samjhana to analyze his poetic style and themes.

Smriti’s poem “Durbar” (Palace) tries to excavate the history of the modern

Nepal. He contends the way in which the then Kirant territory was occupied by the

Gorkhali soldiers. He views the foundation of the modern Nepal is weaker as it is laid by the violence and threat. The ‘Palace’ Smriti is talking in this poem is suggestive of the modern nation which is built upon the numerous dead bodies of his ancestors. He vehemently criticizes the use of excessive threat and violence during the war.

Furthermore, the poet considers the unification process as a campaign for spreading rigorous and monolithic sort of culture and civilization:

Two thousand years ago

A skinny foreigner speared a Trishul

And killed my ancestors

Buried the corpse near the main pillar of the home

And by licking a gory Trishul,

Declared himself a lord thereafter…

That’s how the foundation stone of the palace was laid

Then, my sovereignty buried under the land

Then raised a building snatching away my freedom

Plastered my voice on the cemented wall

Then this country turned,

Ugly, defaced and disfigured. (My Translation 35-46)

Through the close observation of the above verses, we infer that the poet is very much concerned about his ancestral history. He has a great longing for the lost tradition, culture and civilization of his race. He mourns over the decay of his culture, evasion of his territory, and disintegration of his rituals or heritages. More importantly, he claims the territorial loss as the loss of his sovereignty, freedom and identity. The poet tries to bring forth contradictions and anomalies prevalent in the national history of this nation. Even after the geographical expansion of this nation, the nation became

53 uglier and disfigured, which is the major concern of the poet. Smriti is critical of the disintegration and devastation of the historical and cultural values of his community.

In this sense, the poem is his conscious and creative attempt of questioning and challenging the ideals in which this nation has built upon.

On the other hand, in his poem “Aru Sambodhan” (Other Summons) Smriti has vehemently criticized the loathsome Nepali ‘nationalism’. He points out biased and prejudicial mindset of the rulers to be the causes of decay of national ideals and symbols. The poet has used various paradoxes to expose inherent contradictions prevalent in the Nepali nationalism. His ultimate targets are those corrupted and crooked leaders who are unconcerned about the problems and pains of the common people. The poet is really infuriated by the double standards of the rulers, who although try to expose themselves as sages, but in fact are celebrating the death ceremony of the people. He expresses, “They are hanging a hoarding board of vegetarian at their abattoirs” (20-22. Symbolically it is an act of enjoying the power at the cost of the death of the large numbers of common people. The poet is questioning those, who lack national identity and self respect in the nation:

What is in your hand?

Nothing,

Not even a handful of soil of this nation…

Still you have many things in your hand.

The most disgusting is

You have national flag in your hand

It is useful only to hide your shame

Let’s say-

Nationalism is your lust

Nation is your genital. (My Translation 33-42)

Above verses are thought provoking as the poet thinks having a national flag in the hand as the most disgusting thing. National flag is a symbol of the nation and nationality but the poet does not find the nation as a protector and promoter of every race, class and ethnicity. That is why common people do not find any kind of attachment and belongingness with it. National flag has simply turned out to be a ragged cloth for hiding shame of the rulers, who consider this nation as their ‘genital’- a private part. The poet is clearly indicating for the reformation and reconstruction of old structures, symbols and values to incorporate feelings and emotions of large numbers of people.

Likewise, poet Chandrabir Tumbapo’s poetry also attacks upon the hegemonic national discourses as well as monolithic national identities. Being one of the members of Rangabadi Samuha( colourist group), Tumbapo advocates for incorporation of socio-cultural pluralities in his poems. His poems are also filled with ethnic consciousness, urge for total freedom, nostalgia about the ancestral history and quest for ethnic identity. The most distinct feature of Tumbao’s poetry is play with historical-cultural allusions and myths. He often tries to portray his racial history in order to present its conflict with the present time. Apart from this, he wants to see an uncontaminated civilization there by reviving his lost heritages and its civilization

Tumbapo believes historical injustices, cultural invasions and political domination are responsible for subjugation of ethnic groups in Nepal. He is further critical about historical discourses that falsely interpret the reality of the history. In this context, Tumbapo has raised a serious question in one of his poems, “Sandharva

Itihasko” (A reference to History) where he questions over the official history of this nation. He asks, “Who made? /Why was it made? / The history of the winners” (1-3).

He believes history usually narrates the story of the winners and eulogizes them there by ignoring numerous tricks, flaws and treacheries of the so called winners. In another stanza of the poem, Tumbapo raises a striking question; “Is history factory of the winners/ For producing murderers? (18-21). As history of this nation has remained as the history of bloodshed and violence, the poet believes after the arrival of the outsiders indigenous people in this land are mistreated. They are displaced chased away from their land. The poet writes:

After your origin,

Like a shrunken size of a country;

From the world map

I have been disappearing from the crowd

I have been chased away by the crowd

And displaced. (My translation 41-46)

Tumbapo views the chains of historical injustices, brutalities and prejudicial treatments upon the people as responsible factors for the historical subjugation of local people, their culture and tradition. He claims it to be started right after the emergence of the outsiders in the ethnic land. Tumbapo asserts, historical mistakes and fractures can be compensated only by correcting previous mistakes. Therefore, he wants to write new and inclusive histories of this nation to generate feelings of ownership, love and respect from all citizens.

Heman Yatri is another poet, whose poetic anthology, Pahad Ma Sangai

Yatra Garchha and some of the other poems are taken in to consideration while analyzing his poetic features in this study. Like the poetry of other poets discussed so far, Yatri has also written about the cruelty of the history. Yatri’s language is simple but he crafts his poems in such a way that it invokes pluralities of themes and

56 messages to his readers. Yatri’s anthropological perspective is apparent in most of his poems, where he exposes disguised social realities in beautiful way. Yatri’s poems can be taken as the voice of the margin through which the poet hopes to bring certain change in the society. Obviously, the poet wants to re-correct the history of marginalization and domination by a collaborative and mutual effort of the dominated and suppressed communities.

Yatri has used a symbol of flute to portray present existence of the racial and ethnic groups in this country in his poem “Bansuri” (Flute). The flute in the poem is a representative of all the lost and forgotten voices. Most of the people in this nation are living an unidentified, unverified, and an unknown life, lacking respect and dignity, like the flute, whose melody has not been incorporated while composing the national song of the nation. Flute is specifically related with Kirant community; hence it functions as an identity of Kirant people. According to the poet, similar to Kirants, different socio-cultural groups are also forgotten or overlooked during the nation building process, and are still in search of their identity. The poet considers himself as an unverified flute that is living an isolated life due to the negligence of the nation.

Here, Yatri strongly criticizes the state for being indifferent and quiet even at the absence of the loss of popular musical instrument. In such a context, the poet expresses his dreams for change and transformation in the following way:

My dreams has been awaken

In this darkness

By digging the grave

Of your despotism

I am looking for wings

To fly over the sky

Whatever you say

I am an animated tune

Emerged from millions of eyes

In a body

I have been tuned unconditionally

For ages

In your each requests. (My translation 18-29)

In the above lines, the poet is alarming of certain change in the society. He wants to sing a song of revolt against the domination being a sparkling music of his land. As most of the people are remaining in darkness in his community due to the threat, the poet has a dream of breaking the chains of terror to free his people. The flute has been kept on playing despite of suppression and brutality of the player. The poet is aware of the fact that now the time has come, the flute has realized it worth itself. As an animated tune it will awaken the people, especially those, who are still under the deep slumbers of innocence and ignorance.

Hegemonic Nationalism and its Vicissitudes: Exposition of Socio-cultural

Hardships in Kirant Poetry

Contemporary Kirant poetry is a reflection of multitudes of sufferings and hardships of common people under the suppressive political systems. The literary writers try to expose struggle of people to show negative aspects of Nepali nationalism. They present how people are being dominated, exploited, and underestimated by the illusive state. These poets consider hegemonic political system, oppressive legal provisions, corrupted leaders, and unequal distribution of economic resources as some of the causes for the deteriorating conditions of people. Inequality,

58 poverty, famine, diseases, hierarchical social structures, political crisis, and unjust law are some of the common issues raised in the poems of the Kirant poets.

Rather than limiting themselves on exposing the problems of their community alone, these poets have equally focused upon issues of the common people living in this nation. Hence, their poetry has universal significance. For instance, poet Shrawan

Mukarung has tried to present the realistic picture of the nation employing different signs and symbols in his poems. He compares the nation with his mother in his poem

“Meri Aama” (My Mother), where he has attempted to capture a nation; ravaged by the corruption, disorder, and chaos. The poet has compared pain of the mothers’, facing in the rural areas of Nepal, with the deformities and anarchy prevalent in the nation. Murkarung finds similarities between nation and his mother as both of them are tormented by various problems:

In an unlimited pain

A woman

Heroine of Mahabharata

Naked

Disheveled hair

Staggering her scratched breast

Comes in front of me and tells-

“Son, I am living

Because you are alive”

Helpless I

Find the face of my mother

Like of my nation (My Translation 68-79)

The above verses try to portray the picture of the nation in the form of mother. Nation at present is messed by the lack of organized system and values. Its resources are limited within the handful of corrupt people. They exploit it as per their wish despite all these deformities, people are compelled to struggle further. Agonies, the mother is facing in this poem is the similar to the pain of all the people who are living a life of poverty and crisis. They are crunched by starvation, suffered due to diseases, and are dying in superstition.

Similarly, in his another poem, “Jado” (Chill) Mukarung writes more strikingly about poverty and deprivation. He shows a horrible picture of abjection in this poem from the eyes of Children. In the shivering winter, children are burning different things to get rid of cold. Cold here symbolizes barrenness and infertility.

They are in a continuous process of fighting against it, using all of their means and resources. The continual burning of different things by them is- an attempt to combat the problems of their life. The poet adheres:

Children are basking in the fire under the lamppost.

This chill has been prevalent for ages.

Long ago, they say, they burnt woods for heat,

And burnt water and air

But we burnt tyres of decrepit minibuses

And burnt newspapers, and pamphlets of statesmen

Children are burning the last pages of scriptures today

Filmfare and Modern Poems.

What will future children burn,

What will they, in fact, burn?

This chill has been prevalent for ages.

Children are basking in the fire under the lamppost. (Translation by

Mahesh Paudel 1-12)

The poet compares chill with the adverse situation of the nation. The chill is there for ages- symbolizing a continuous chain of hurdles and obstacles. It means it is the same kind of destiny of the people which has been continued for the centuries in this nation.

Although children are making attempts to overcome such situation, it is in vain as it has not brought any sort of significant result. According to the poet the act of burning newspapers and pamphlet is only for momentary warmth-not a permanent solution.

Regardless of struggles to avoid pain, common people are compelled to accept their destiny because pains and hardships are deeply rooted in the society. Attempts and wishes of getting rid of the chill in the poem in fact is the desire of the socio-cultural, political and economic transformation. The poet is not happy on the present because the situation has not been changed despite of a long struggle.

In the similar vein, in his poem “Chhala” (leather), Bhupal Rai writes about the history of domination and exploitation. He shows how indigenous groups are exploited in the society. Rai minutely observes the condition of marginalization in this poem in order to find the cause of it. After a meticulous study of a socially dominated-cobbler, he reaches to the conclusion that, social injustice and exploitation is the cause of inequality in the society. Rai expresses his rebellious tone in this poem

, expecting to end a long sequence of domination and exploitation:

Every sons is questioning-

“Father, where is your leather?

Now, another generation is-

Almost prepared to use it…”

In response, the father says-

“My leather is hung

In an immense parlour of

A miraculous stately mansion

Go, grab it back!

And relish…” (My Translation 11-21)

Bhupal Rai’s intention is apparent in this poem as he shows how the repressed and dominated emotion of people is evaporating in the changed circumstances. As most of the people have witnessed their ancestral history of brutality and massacre, they want to take revenge. The revenge they want is solidified by their present status, never ending chain of humiliation, and of course suffocation caused by domination. The above stanzas are filled with new and fresh consciousness of the people. They are trying to march forward to get their rights back. In fact, it is their revolt against the stats-quo and exploitation. It can also be called as a peaceful anarchy for restoring harmony in the society.

Similar with the theme of the above poem, Upendra’ Subba’s poem “Mero

Aamako Naam” (My mother’s Name) is also about the quest of identity amidst the harsh and domineering socio-political system of the country. The poet is speaking on behalf of those thousands of people, who are nameless and identity less in the official documents of the nation. He questions the prevalent male-chauvinistic governmental attitude that does not give space to the women in any official registers. Indigenous women are ‘doubly marginalized’, and are compelled to live a suffocating life without identity and existence. In this poem, the poet is dismayed as he does not find the name of his mother in any of his official document. He states, “In my citizenship, certificate or in other documents/Nowhere it is mentioned” (43). It is a great irony of the life to

62 be wiped out of the national history and its official narratives even being a citizen of a particular nation. Moreover, Subba has a great confusion over the name of his mother:

Chaappati?

Fulmati?

Dilmati?

Or Khawoti, Naamwoti, Lawoti?

What Might be my mother’s name? (My Translation 1-5)

The ‘mother’ described in the above stanzas is not only the mother or any particular woman rather she is the representative of all people who are living an unrecognized and devaluated life. They are remaining unknown citizens even in their own country.

Their life is buried under layers of hardships. Specially, females lack identity and individuality, and often are the targets of violence. Hence, this poem can be taken as an attempt of the poet to aware people for tracing out their originality and existence.

Symbolically, mother is taken in this poem as a source, origin and root of civilization.

Hence, it is the prime responsibility of every sons and daughters to find out their mother’s reality.

Likewise, Swopnil Smriti’s poem, “Itako Raato Jungle” (Red Jungle of

Bricks) presents a detrimental picture of city life. In this poem, Smiriti criticizes specious city life, its deceptive civilization, and crooked attitude of the dwellers.

According to the poet, city is full of confusions and disarrangements. He condemns inequalities, forgery, and corruption prevalent in the city. He finds city occupied by apathetic people; lacking humanity and fellow feelings. For this reason, Smriti wants to abandon city life. He even criticizes human activities that are responsible for degrading the beauty of the city. Unplanned housing, uncivilized people,

63 multinational companies, smuggling, hybrid culture, pollution etc. are some of the factors that detest him in the city. As the poet is fed up of the city life, he questions:

How does this city belong to me?

As my childhood passed in the village

When I grew

And started to dream

It is the truth that this city purchased me in low cost

And sold me in an expensive rate. (My translation 94-99)

These lines illustrate pang of city life, and expressions of poet’s loneliness. He is living a fragmentary life being neither of city nor of village. He has a regret of coming to the city where he lost his individuality and identity. In the city, the poet merely considers himself as a business commodity: purchased in a low cost and sold in a high rate. The contrast of city and village is indicative of incongruous aspect of development. It is a great challenge for the so-called modernity, which is generally administered as a form of nationalism. This is how the poet is showing a failure of one the ideals of nationalism in this poem.

“Katha- Ghumaune Chautarima Kabhrako” (The Story of the Kabhra Tree-

Under the Chautari) is another brilliantly crafted poems of Swopnil Smriti where he tries to dig out cultural root of Kirant community. This poem symbolically presents the decay of pristine civilization of the Kirant community, resulting in the sequential socio-cultural disasters. The poem describes lamentation of the ethnic community over the loss of their tradition caused by sudden cultural intrusion. Kabhra is a local name of a tree called Ficus Lacor, which is worshipped by Kirant community as a symbol of their origin. In this narrative poem the poet is recounting the tail of old

Kabhra. Kabhra tree was directly associated with Kirant cultures, festivals, and ritual

64 practices. It was a symbol of Kirant civilization, and their glorious historical dynamisms. The tree; as the poet expresses in the poem -was a memory of entire

Kirant community, their myths, and value systems. The poet relates the tree with major Kirant festivals, seasons, time and human activities:

On its tall crown, like a suspension to sky

The moon used to shine

The farmhands used to measure the days under its shadow

Shedding of the leaves, they say- was Udhauli

Growing of the leaves, was Ubhauli

They say – the ancient civilization of the primitives was

All in the heart of that Kabhra tree! (My Translation 11-17)

Although the Kabhra tree had great significance among Kirant communities, it is no more now. The Kabhra tree has been collapsed by the arrival of Peepal tree. Peepal; on the other hand is a sacred fig associated with Hindu mythology and Lord Vishnu.

Smriti considers Peepal as responsible for the falling of Kabhra. The falling of

Kabhra leads to the falling of history, culture and civilization of entire Kirant community. Here, the poet is critical of incursion upon Kirant cultural values, life systems and myths. In a simple sense, this poem is an attempt of the poet to create self awareness to the fellow youngsters of his community but in a deeper level the poet is opposing ideologies of envision, domination as well as politics of control and conquer. Smriti expresses:

But, when the Pipal trampled inside the Kabhra

And started to dance in the breeze,

The progeny of the old Kabhra mistook it for a new tree

Listen! – Once the old Kabhra fell, they say –

The heads of young men and women also fell

The children became lifeless, like dolls

The Mundhum of the wise old fell –

The hearts fell and the country fell

Misery alone found birth in the village

Hunger and thirst alone found new incarnations

Once the Pīpal trampled the Kavra under it-

They say- that is when the culture of oppression and exploitation

began.

When the yellow leaves of the Pīpal spread wide,

They say this round Chautari was built beneath it

With a grand ritual-fire and human sacrifice

And with each morning, an offering of blood

That is when it all started – they say,

Grandson – the history of envy and grudge...

When the history of Pipal began in the Kavra tree

Hatred was born in the people

Rage was born

War was born… (My Translation 46-65)

Swopnil Smriti has depicted a realistic situation faced by indigenous communities in the aftermath of cultural colonization. The poem portrays an adverse situation of cultural intrusion to show how it destroyed the best practices of indigenous community, including their religion, culture history and civilization. Smriti views that the loss of the primitive cultural values is due to the intervention of the foreign culture. Through the above lines the poet is giving a strong message that the primitive

66 culture and its pristine forms should remain intact and pure. He has exposed a very poignant picture of his ethnic community which faced a long turmoil of cultural impurity resulting in existential crisis. He believes the cultural colonization is the process of injecting hegemonic form of nationalism. It challenges the essence of national spirits as it prompts violence, jealousy and hatred in the society. On the other hand, it may also the cause of social disintegration as exploitation generates dissatisfaction and revolt respectively.

Poet Chandrabir Tumbapo also exposes inherent paradoxes of Nepali nationalism by presenting wretched condition of the people. Tumbapo’s poem

“Sanyog Haina Milna Gaye Yo Katha” (No Coincidence if this Story Matches) is about the current national problem of unemployment. Everyday a large number of youths are compelled to leave this nation in search of better opportunities. The problem is further intensified by the lack of visionary leaders, unscientific distribution of economic resources and nepotism-favoritism prevalent in this nation. Specially, the mass emigration of people to foreign countries has adversely affected the village areas of Nepal. The local cultures, traditions, and rituals of rural areas are disappearing.

Even the image of this nation has been perceived as a country of a cheap labour force.

Toffin rightly argues that it deteriorates the image of Nepal. He states:

The exodus of Nepali workers to the Gulf for a life of hard labor has

also contributed to portraying a blacker picture. The sight of these

workers, badly dressed, anxious, with inadequate luggage, unable to

find their own seat on board a plane, and most of whom are travelling

by air for the first time in their lives, has amazed Westerners. Idealist

views of Nepal have been thoroughly transformed: suddenly the stark

reality cannot be denied. (49)

The flow of the migrants as a cheap labour to the Gulf has jeopardized the idealist image of Nepalese nationality. The previous images of self-respect, dignity, and patriotism seem nugatory at present as many youth are leaving this nation. Due to this local values and cultures are in great crisis. The markets, forests, pastures, and houses are quiet. There is no more joy and enthusiasm in the village as people have forgotten their collaborative behaviours and co-operative value patterns. The poet is anxious about such scenario in the village:

In which forest of Malaysia

Did they get confused or lost

Cross the sea of sand and buried?

This wind blowing from thither

Sad, sad has returned again

To the same direction

They have not arrived yet

Echoing slogans of victory processions

Furling flags of hope in sky

Processions of Pakandis;

Going dry are the leaves of hope

On the summit of waiting. (Abhi Subedi’s translation 32-42)

The poem above illustrates the struggle of the people living in the rural areas of

Nepal. The poet is really worried about the loss of human and cultural beauty of the village. In a nostalgic tone, he portrays the reality of this country where millions of people are compelled to leave their native soil in the hope of fulfilling their needs and necessities. They have no option than to mortgage their land for loan. The detachment with the family further leads them to live a lonely and isolated life. The family

68 members back in the village have nothing left except their memories. They merely keep on waiting without any certainty of further reunion.

Similarly, Heman Yatri has also written about social incongruities in his poems. He sketches a picture of the society where different cultural values are dying due the cultural hegemony. Yatri shows how his society is affected by the influence or blind imitation of foreign culture. In some of his poems Yatri’s intent desire of exploring personal cultural and mythological history is also apparent. Yatri shows the decadence of glorious tradition being spoiled by so the called modern values. For instance, in his poem “Museumma Kokpako Mochhapma” (The Forlorn Museum) he satirizes the forgetful tendency of the new generation. At first he provides the details of cultural rites practiced by his forefather and later exposes the devastation of that tradition. He has shown how old values, rituals, cultural practices and, objects are abandoned at the modern time. In a pathetic note, the poet has tried to capture emotions of Kokpa (grandfather in Kirant, Rai community) after his religious utensils been thrown away from his house. The poet expresses, “[Kokpa’s] Mochhapma shall be flung out of home/And the picture of a stranger Shall squat the family shrine/And with it the first page of the Bible shall slowly unfold” (Mahesh Paudel’ translation 23-

26). As Kokpa’s offspring do not like their ancestral ‘burden’ to carry on; the old traditions, values, practices, and religious objects will remain only in the museum.

The poet has a great fear if his tradition will become only the matter of museum research or study. That’s why he satirically expresses:

From a distant land of time

If ever you happen to remember Kokpa

Make it a point to visit

The Yalambar Museum Hall

Wherein, I have treasured

Kokpa's remaining souvenir:

soloinba wabu1

Drum

Cymbals

Bow and arrow

And pomi2. (Mahesh Paudel’s Translation 30-40)

The act of replacing grandfather’s utensil has important significance in this poem. It

shows the tendency of replacing old or ancient values with so-called modern values. It

has not only hurt the grandfather but the poet is also sad due to the loss of original

culture and identity of their community .Through this poem, Heman Yatri is hinting

on the fact that due to the blind tendency of changing the religion, there will be an

unavoidable crisis in the local tradition of the racial and ethnic communities. On the

other hand, the poet also finds a great chance of the demise of such valuable cultural

and traditional values.

Exploration of Self: Expression of Indigenous consciousness in Kirant Poetry

While analyzing the features of Kirant poetry, exploration of the self or

expression of indigenous consciousness is also one of the major themes of their

poems. Contemporary Kirant poetry includes elements of Kirat tradition and culture

as major subject matter of their poetry. The primary concern in literature is the

question over the Gorkhali invasion over their Limbuwan territory during Prithivi

Narayan Shah’s unification campaign. Historically east of Arun river and Koshi river

was the Kirant territory which they lost during 1774 A.D. After the Gorkhali

occupation over their territory, Hindu Khas culture prevailed at the cost of their

1 a pitcher 2 yak's tail—locally called Chammar—used during the Sakela dance of the Kirats 69

70 valuable historical presence in this region. For this, contemporary Kirant poets use revisionary attitude and critical insight in order to challenge and question existing socio-cultural practices.

The exposition of the cultural assets as a way of expressing long-rooted pains and political turmoil is also one of the prime agendas of the contemporary Kirant poets. These poets are concerned about the invasion over their culture, unique identity, customs, and ritual practices. It constitutes the major theme of their poetry where nostalgia and memory remains as their prime issue of their literature. In fact, the poets want their stories to have heard by large numbers of people. They want to paint a colorful picture of their ritualistic values and patterns in order to show the hollowness of the nationalism. The evasion or external intrusion upon Kirant identity can be compared with the Willam F. Fisher’s assessment of Thakali identity of

Thakstase. Fisher writes:

The process of forming the Nepali state in the nineteenth and twentieth

centuries provided the context within which one small subgroup of the

Thakali from Thaksatsae first gained and then eventually lost the

ability to manipulate the image of the Thakali held by ruling elites and

foreigners-that is, to have their story accepted to a significant extent as

the real story-at critical points in history. As Hegel noted, the rise of

the state provides a context within which family and clan stories enter

history. (Fluid Boundaries 45)

Fisher here accesses the case of Thakalis, one of the ethnic communities of Nepal.

According to him, the communal stories can be the history of nation. It is a process of formation and reformation of the identity. The transformation of communal identity to

71 the national identity is possible through an articulation of personal history. Hence, portrayal of the life style of Kirant community in their poems is a continual search for their position in the national narratives. The poets try to paint a life-like dynamism in their poetry with an attempt to depict agony caused by the present political and economic structures. Indigenous sense and ethnic consciousness is expressed in such poems with brilliant craft of linguistic mechanisms as well as novel and distinct patterns. The poets very often try to find out a holistic meaning of life as most of the

Kirants are living a disintegrated and fragmentary life.

For instance, celebration of local colour is one of the major themes of Shrawan

Mukarung’s poems. He worships nature, rural life style and its surroundings in his poems. Mukarung creates similarities between mother and village his poem “Gaun ra

Aama” (Village and mother). He believes village to be the best place for creativity, simplicity and peace. Comparing village with different body parts of mother, the poet is placing nature at the top of everything. He considers nature as the greatest pleasure and divine soul:

Returning from the city,

Far-

The village looks like mother.

Forest and frost like her hair

Hill like forehead

School and monastery as eyes

Healthpost, V.D.C. office;

Glittering Fuli and Bulaki of mother’s nose

Sparse houses like row of her teeth

Creek and brook like wrinkles on her cheek

Perennial river- mother’s sweat

Flying flock of birds- mother’s smile

Colourful flowers are blooming on slopes

-That’s mother’s dream

Plain is mother’s heart

-Where paddy has bowed

Busy people in the field

-Her Great soul (My Translation 1-18)

The poet is great devotee of the nature. He admires the hills, mountains, woods and rivers. Nepal itself is a microcosm of the great nature due to its great geographical diversities, undulating hills, mountains, gorges and valleys. In the poem above, the beauty of the motherland has been depicted and the poet is euphoric by its serenity.

The poem presents an idyllic picture of the village, glimmered by joy, happiness and peace. Hence, the poem is the glorification of this nation which is full of different villages and filled with pastoral scenes. Moreover, this is an example of the expression of the national feeling filled with the exotic beauty of the local colour.

Similarly “Mukti Geet” (Freedom Song) is another finest example of

Mukarung’s expression of local or indigenous consciousness. He portrays a realistic situation of the encroachment of the local culture, tradition, myths and lifestyle by an outsider. He thinks local values and ideals are polluted and contaminated by the external intervention. Mukarung questions over the subjugation of the local people and culture. At the same time, he wants the situation to be changed where the real owner has always been exploited and treated brutally by the power structure. He presents great despair, anxiety and utter rage of those indigenous people whose

73 culture, value system and civilization has been encroached by the outsiders.

Mukarung further expresses:

This tree was never theirs

This soil, land, Khaliyan and trail

This forest, river, bird and song

Nothing was theirs

This house, courtyard and well

Mother, father and sky

Nothing-nothing was theirs

I was like this tree

Neither this tree was theirs.

Amazing!

How does this tree

Become their possession?

Today -

How do I belong to them? (My Translation 43-54)

The poet vehemently criticizes those outsiders who claim the land, soil, language, people and culture of this nation to be their own inheritance. The poet is asking: if the entire resources and property belong to the indigenous tribe and communities how does that belong to them who arrived lately in that soil. It is simply their futile attempt to exploit the resources and people of this land as the locals are unconquerable. So,

Mukarung is stressing upon the fact that local consciousness is very important for reenergizing the lost value system of the indigenous people. Hence, this poem makes a plea to reclaim the history, myths, symbols, and resources of local tribes.

Similarly, poet Bhupal Rai is also equally alert about the present day marginalization of indigenous Kirant ethnic culture. Along with exposing social anarchy and disorders, Rai consciously depicts the deprivation and exploitation of

Kirant community. He blames biased and prejudiced attitudes of the rulers for the further exclusion of the Kirant community. His poem “Himal ra Naulakh Putra ko

Savyata” (Mountain and Civilization of Nine Lakh Sons) describes the present situation of Kirant community that has lost its glorious history and civilization:

The same mountain

But no one ever climbed

Chomolongma

Neither of them rose

The ancient flag of bow

Nobody ever tried to understand

The mountain and civilization of Nine lakh sons. (My Translation 24-

30)

Chomolongma, the mountain described in this poem is another name of Mt. Everest.

Chomolongma is a Kirant name which is associated with cultural history of Kirant civilization. Although the mountain has been called with different names, its ancient name has forgotten by the people. Similarly, ‘nine lakh sons’ refers to Kirant people who have glorious history but it has been erased from the history. The poet is nostalgic about the loss of the ancient values, symbols, dress codes as well as linguistic pattern of the indigenous tribes. He regards such loss as the loss caused by the indifferent attitudes of the state. The ancient flag of bow mentioned in this poem is a symbol of Kirant communal identity that never got priority of government and policy makers. Cultures, myths, and indigenous practices in John Tulloch’s words is

“a site of transgressive negotiations” (2), which “reproduce, enable, sustain, challenge, subvert, critique, and naturalize” the existing ideologies, beliefs, and practices within and outside the community (5).

Similar to the writing of previous poets discussed in this study, Upendra

Subba is one other Kirant poet who is very famous for his unique diction, characters and issues in his poetry. As one of the members of a poetic group called “Shrijanshil

Aarajakta” (Creative Anarchist) Subba’s poetry has special features and forms. He is basically noted for his subtle style, themes and motifs in his poems. By bringing local myths, symbols, and allusions, he tries to present the flavor of local colors in his poems. The most striking feature of his poetry is incorporation of mythical allusions and cultural glory. He departs from the mainstream poetry by rejecting conventional forms and styles of the poetry. As in the words of Stuart Hall culture has “the double movement of containment and resistance, which is always inevitably inside it”

(“Notes on Deconstructing” 65).

In other words, contemporary Kirant poetry rejects tradition of mainstream poetry by rejecting the banal themes, styles or pattern of writing and most importantly, including their own symbols, themes and mythical allusions. Upendra’s poems oppose status-quo of the society and offers plurality of messages. He is conscious about his race, its history, culture and aesthetics. In his poem

“Singhkhyale” he highlights the dance practiced in Limbu community. He has created a scenario of playing Singhkhyale and tries to aware people belonging to this community about the value this dance. He considers it as Limbu identity and culture that tries to bring them together within the harmonious cultural tie. Subba writes:

Come, all you adults get ready

Let’s play Singhkhyale

By joining hands

Adding voice upon voice

Chhui Khyap Khyap

Chhui Khyap Khyap (My Translation 1-6)

In this poem Subba attempts to bring forth the historical heritages and cultural practices that are neglected and marginalized by the nation. Singhkhyle is popular dance in Limbu community in which people belonging to any age or sex play in group pushing each other by their hand, shoulder, elbow and hips. Although it is one of the popular dances among Limbu communities, its practice is decreasing day by day. The poet wants to portray aesthetic aspect of this dance in order to highlight its importance. It can also be regarded as an intervention upon the mainstream poetic tradition by the poet where he wants to add ‘marginal’ or ‘peripheral’ subject matters as theme of his poetry.

Likewise, Swopnil Smriti also tries to explore his ethnic and cultural identity in his poems. Smriti is nostalgic about his childhood, village life and the joy he perceived in the nature of countryside. Most often he compares his present life with the past to show his loss for being in the city. He claims his past life to be far excellent than his present as he is separated from his village and living a fragmentary life. In this connection, Gerard Toffin in the section called, “My village, My Land” of his book, Imagination and Realities: Nepal Between Past and Present talks about the feelings of the people who migrate to the city areas. He argues the writings of the people living in the cities are nostalgic about the rural life and their native locality. He further writes:

When talking about their villages, they speak about their roots, their

relatives and friends. People cannot simply leave these attachments

behind: one’s native village is a basic marker of personal identity.

Migrants miss the congenial environment of these ancestral places and

the stable social bonds they have lost. (174)

Accordingly, Smriti’s poem“Pashcim Kshitiz Bata” (From Western Horizon) is also one of the examples of poet’s longing for his root and originality where the poet is nostalgic towards the past. Here, the poet shows a great yearning towards his belongings of his countryside. By remembering his mother, her dreams, pains and struggles of upbringing him. He also talks about the life of village which is full of joy and freedom; it was full of fun with the colours of Dhan naach, food stuffs of Haat

(market fair), local festivals and rituals. The poet tries to reconnect his memory with hills, mountains, woods and wild flowers of his village. At the same time, he finds his present life meaningless and disappointing as he is far from his place. Although physically he is within the boundary of Nepal, he feels as if he is very far from his nation. The city where he dwells neither excites nor offers solace of his soul. Rather the poet looks towards the eastern horizon that reminds him of his mother:

When thunder strikes at a distant horizon

When lightning occurs far away

I remember my mother

I stare towards the eastern horizon…

There is no nation for me far from that

There is no human settlement across that (My Translation 1-6)

As the poet is from the eastern part of Nepal, he is very much delighted by the memory of this direction. The east is his origin, which is connected with his

78 individuality and originality. Smriti is feeling distressed due to his detachment with his birth place. For Smriti, East is the cradle of civilization. In one of the lines above, he claims there is no other human settlement across his place. It clearly indicates that the poet is very much concerned about the indigenous civilization, history, culture and tradition. He has a great reverence towards the eastern horizon that in fact is his tribute to his race and soil.

According to Toffin, indigenous groups in Nepal try to express their identity in the form of indigenous culture. Indigenous groups at present, “defend minority cultures against intervention by the state, which is conceived as a foreign coercive force” (69). It means ethnic groups are critical about the intrusion of state on their culture. In this sense, Chandrabir Tumbapo’s poem “Kumbhakarna Urf

Phaktanglung” (Kumbhakarna Alias Phaktanglung) critically explores mythological and cultural allusion but also on expresses a strong rejection of political subjugation and cultural intrusion upon indigenous culture. Phaktanglung is Kirant name of

Kumbhakarna Mountain which is considered as a symbol of justice and harmony. It is taken as one of the sacred religious symbol among Limbu community. According to the Kirant scripture- Mundhum, it protects people from natural calamities and other disasters. Kumbhakarna, on the other hand is a Hindu mythological character from

Ramayana where he has been described as a symbol of ‘sleep’. In this poem, the poet compares the names: Kumbhakarna and Phaktanglung in order to dig out their associative values. The name Phaktanglung is associated with Kirant identity, originality, and with organic values of Kirant community. To change its name is an act of evading historical-mythological values of Kirants. Moreover, it is a direct attack upon their cultural identity and existence as well. The poet accounts sequence of tragic events after the arrival of a ‘tale teller’ in his land. The ‘tale teller’ here refers to

79 an outsider or an invader who has created hegemonic effect upon the mind of the innocent people changing name of Phaktanglung to Kumbhakarna:

Arriving after millions of years

The tale teller bathed me with his tales

Slowly, I started to drowse thereafter

Finally I entered

Into the endless tunnel of sleep

Yes, from that time

I; Phaktanglung changed into Kumbhakarna (My Translation 4-10)

The poet asserts that the transformation of Phaktanglung to Kumbhakarna has brought various negative effects. He believes the history of violence, jealousy and hatred started form that time. The poet is really concerned over the loss of the Kirant cultural identity. He is annoyed for portraying Phaktanglung in narcoleptic Hindu cultural image. Moreover, the poet is also dissatisfied for not excavating the real history of

Phaktanglung by the young generation. He says, “Rather than excavating my history/The pen of each generation/ Started to portray me on the narcoleptic image”

(My translation 48-50). The poet believes the desired change can only be brought by the strong forces of revolution. For this, he expects a great upsurge to restore his lost cultural identity.

In the similar line, Heman Yatri’s indigenous consciousness is remarkably exposed in his poem “Dungma”. In this poem he has tried to sketch a portrait of

Dungma- archeologically and historically significant Kirant place of eastern Nepal.

The poet has tried to highlight the importance of this place which has almost being forgotten by the state, people, and even by the Kirant community. Yatri considers this place as a palimpsest of the Kirant indigenous history. Emphasizing upon the

80 importance of historical monuments, Toffin writes, “ historical monuments play a crucial role in the symbolic imagination and are closely linked with the identity of human groups” (103). Hence, ruins of houses, old palaces, graveyards, historical objects, tattered scriptures, and dilapidated structures of the present Dungma prove this place as a historical-cultural center of Kirant civilization. Yatri remembers an ancient war that destroyed the civilization of this place. He is nostalgic about the people killed in that treacherous war. In the poem he talks about the present sorrow of the locals living in this place. They are living as a remnant, and fragments of their history- incomplete, unnoticed:

This archeological breeze

Still buzzing at the Dungmali chorus

Reminding the song of ancient Hangbas;

Of Pungbat, Pauben, and Chhibatpangs

The state has forgotten

Such clear-translucent mirrors

That can reflect its real face. (My Translation 32-38)

The lines emphasize upon the importance of one of the Kirant historical places

Dungma. Although Dungma was a place of historical and cultural glory, it is almost wiped out from the official history of this nation due to prejudicial mindset of the rulers. Yatri has used different images in this poem that stimulate his senses to perceive the greatness of this place. As he feels the wind, hears the song and looks after the ruins of Dungma, he finds his ancestral root in that place. Moreover, the poet has tried to give a clear-cut message in this poem: to protect Dungma as it is connected with an identity of large numbers of Kirant people. In addition, it is also a mirror that can reflect the real face of this state.

Kirant Poets and Their Attitude towards other Communal Groups

Although contemporary Kirants poets belong to one of the marginalized ethnic community, they equally focus upon the issues of nation, nationality and collective identity of the people. This indigenous literature can be considered as a representative voice or collective expression of different ethnic, racial and cultural communities who are marginalized and sidelined from the mainstream national socio-economic and cultural boundaries. It is because despite of differences, disadvantages groups have similar problems in Nepal. As per Mahendra Lawoti, “. . . despite these differences within the various groups, individuals belonging to any of the disadvantaged groups face collective discrimination based on their ethnic/caste identity” (132). That’s why the literary expression of different writers belonging to different ethnic groups has similar themes. Literary writers try to bring forth voices that are kept under the threat, terror and fear for centuries. As the poets seek a break through or freshness in their perspective, they try to bring multi-cultural flavor in their poem. The multi-lingual, multi-religious, multi-ethnic realities of the nation are captured by the poets in order to counter hegemonic form of nationalism.

As the literary writers want independence from traditional formative and domineering nation and national identities, they seek newness in all the social aspects, expressing their dissent with tradition. The most salient character of such poetry lies in its aim to strengthen the existence of new norms and values in all areas and subjects, and sustain the forthcoming challenges. In this process, contemporary Kirant poets concern on writing about the entire nation, nationality as well as seen and unseen problems of the society. Their broad vision is manifested in their poetry in the form of inclusive society, pluralistic attitude, faith in co-existence, and in projection of multicultural society. Incorporation of pluralities of voices has helped to bring

82 forth diversities of themes and messages in the contemporary Kirant poetry.

According to Toffin, it symbolizes a rejection of the “claustration”. He believes

Nepali society at present has been more democratic and open in regard to the inter- cultural social practices. He writes, “New forms of cosmopolitanism undermine the social closures and the semi-hermetic social boundaries of the past” (9).

Cosmopolitanism according to Toffin here refers to the mobility of the people and openness in their thoughts.

To substantiate the above idea, Shrawan Mukarun’s poem “Anuhar Khoji

Rahechha Rambharos” (Rambharos is Looking his Identity) expresses a concern of an inclusive nation from the point of view of a Madhesi; one of the secluded ethnic group of Nepal. Rambharos is demanding the unified and strong nation which can respect feelings and address sentiments of the large bulk of people. Rambharos criticizes the tendency of excluding people from the mainstream of the nation building process and protests against it:

Shocking!

Those who remained Kamaiya for years

Doesn’t have their own identity

Shocking!

Those who remained Kamalri for years

Doesn’t have their own face

Shocking!

Those who remained Badini for years

Doesn’t have their own existence

Oh! What has happened here?

Where did my near ones

Disappeared?

Rambharos gets tired (My Translation 61-63)

Kamaiyas, Kamalaries and Badis are the most deprived and oppressed people who reside in the western part of Nepal. They were mistreated by keeping as a domestic slave for centuries. Thus, they are looking for the reparation of their historical exploitation. In this poem, the poet denounces the national ethics that remains silent upon the condition of these people. Furthermore, as it is the stigma and shame of the state, it often tries to hide the issue of these marginalized people under the glimmering superficiality. The poet considers it as a futile attempt of the state because it is an obvious fact. The true face of the nation; the poet believes lies in those darker and ugly realities which should neither be hidden nor should be concealed.

Bhupal Rai has written about the historical exploitation of other tribal communities as well. In his poem, “Kirtipur” he has expressed his resentment against the bloodshed and treacherous attack upon the locals by Shaha king during the unification campaign. It is a well known fact that Prithivi Narayan Shah used extreme violence during his attack upon Kirtipur. Therefore the poet is mocking the history of deception and cruelty exposed by king Prithivi Narayan Shah and his soldiers:

Some of you need to excavate

There is seed of liberation

Suppressed since thousands of years back

Let it issue forth

A nearby neighbor has suppressed spark of revolution

Kindle the spark

Otherwise again

In revenge of a Gorkha commander-in-chief

Sur Pratap’s single eye

Kirtipur

Kiratipur or kiraatipur

Will be compelled to live forever

Bearing a ghastly wound of

Losing seventeen dharni noses and ears. (Suresh Hachekali’s

Translation 63-76)

Bhupal Rai’s present poem tries to foreground how Kirtipur and indigenous local

Newars were treated by the Gorkhali king. He considers Kirtipur as a symbol of liberation and rebellion. He wants to take revenge against the historical treatment of the Kirtipures who lost their ears and nose after their defeat with Gorkhalis. He treats

Kirtipur as the battlefield for the germination of the new seeds of liberation and freedom. At the same time, he calls Kirtipur as ‘Kiraatipur’- both of them have witnessed the similar predicament of socio-cultural loss at the hand of the internal colonizers. Hence, the lines appeal for the revolt to change the present exploitative situation. The poet is depicting a conscious and revolutionary attitude, filled with energy and intent desire, to overthrow the century’s long suppression and domination.

In the similar vein, Bhupal Rai has a very broad perspective towards evasion of indigenous culture and civilization. He finds a similar fate of the indigenous values throughout the world. He does not only limit himself on exposing the pains or suffering of the Nepali indigenous people but also writes on the issues of Red Indians.

His attempt to write about the fate of Red Indians can be taken as an act of politicizing the personal. He finds the similar condition and plight of the indigenous people living throughout the world. Furthermore, it can be called as collective

85 unconscious in Jungian psychoanalytical term. In“Rato Nasla” (The Red Breed) he writes:

Oh, Red people!

Red breed!

Effaced your millennia old history

From the very day

Snapped- the inseparable natural string of soil

And pathetically you shrank

Into the narrow Gregorian calendar of

Hardly four hundred years

Spread the terrible virus of cholera

From the heap of garbage that came from the east

And at once infected

Your hearth to tomb

The infectious civilization of cholera

Uprooted you

From your origin

There after it never stopped-

The flock of epidemic vessel. ( Suresh Hachekali’s Translation 38-54)

The poem above is about the indigenous people their identity crisis as well as the loss of their glorious ancestral values. The comparison of Red Indians with other indigenous societies seems worth appropriate as they usually undergo similar experience and destiny. These societies are usually at the brink of the loss of their valuable socio-cultural values due to the interference of the foreign culture. The poet is nostalgic about the original civilization of the Red Indians who are forced to accept

86 other’s civilization, rituals, codes and practices. Rai considers such imported civilization as an epidemic-cholera that affects local life and its value system.

At the same time, Upendra subba tries to recreate a larger society in his poems. He wants to demolish all sorts of walls build to divide humans. He thinks caste, creed, colours create gaps or divisions in human for this, all forms of walls should be destroyed to build a harmonious and prosperous society. Subba often brings forth the marginalized and neglected voices in order to challenge legitimacy of the center. Also, he wants to diagnose absurdities and contradictions prevalent in the society that hamper the harmony of the people. For instance, in his poem, “Kavitako

Faudari” (Objection of Poetry) he writes:

Caste

Religion

Class

Colour

Mix whatever to raise the wall

You can’t assume the supremacy of the poetry

Your are the King

Greater than God

Or whoever

You can’t be victorious to poetry

Now accepting your defeat

Destroying yourself

Those egotistic walls

Surrender before the poetry

I will touch your heart by poems. (My Translation 25-39)

Above verses makes us clear about the intention of the poet. He is writing about the supremacy of literature, being one of the emotional aspects of human being in totality.

As reason creates walls between people, emotions should be prevailed to feel the pain of others. The wall created between men is the outcome of the negative and narrow minded mentality. Hence, the poetry has power to overthrow any kind of walls that is erected by ego and boastful attitude of people. Through this poem the poet wants to appeal for the removal of the disparities and discriminations which are the cause of division.

In the similar vein, poet Swopnil Smriti has used an old shoemaker as the persona of his poem “Purano Majdur” to project socio-economic exploitations and discriminations prevalent in the society. Unlike the poets discussed so far, Smriti is distinct in his style as most of his poems are based on the theme of war, revolution and radicalism. He does not only write about these problems but also encourages the oppressed and underprivileged people to fight against such hegemonies. In this poem the poet has employed the old labour as a representative of the socio-culturally underprivileged community. Through the incorporation of socially underprivileged character as speaker of this poem, the poet is intending to show how marginalized communities are exploited by the rich people. At the same time, he is also trying to reflect the growing consciousness and feelings of revolt of the people belonging to such communities. The following lines portray the progressive attitude of the speaker:

Barefoot;

How long shall I step on the burning fire?

At this last moment

I want to show my final skill

I want to sew a new pair of shoes

And that pair,

I want to wear myself

Where is the skin of the king?

Where is the king? Where is he? Where? (My Translation 69-78)

Through these lines the poet expresses his concerns over the deprivation and exploitation of the poor and underprivileged communities. The speaker in this poem is tired of his lifelong services to the high caste and high class people. He has mend thousand pairs of shoes for others but he is still barefoot. His rebellious bent of mind is projected in the poem as he expresses his desire to wear shoes made up of the skin of the ‘king’. King in Nepal was regarded as a divine power, having authority to govern the nation as pre his desire. Ali Riaz and Subho Basu states, “the ruling class universalized their interest through the careful creation of various layers of myths that present the monarch as a descendant of the Hindu god Vishnu and the true protector of Hindu religion” (12). The rule on the basis of so-called divine lineage had made the monarchy more dominative and suppressive. The present poem, written during the time of People Movement II, is revolutionary in nature as it challenges the power of the King. It means the speaker is in the favour of change and complete transformation of socio-political structures of the country. The king is a symbol of all the traces of feudalism prevalent in this nation. Feudalism exploits people creating a wide gulf of inequalities where poor people are forced to accept rich people as their lord or patron.

For this, this poem makes a plea for the collective effort to end all forms of servitudes.

Likewise, Chandrabir Tumbapo in the poem entitled “Aaina Nadiko Daha” presents satirical attitudes towards leaders who entrench their petty political philosophy in order to legitimize their rule. The poet presents a picture of the world that is viewed from the perspective of a female persona who has been exploited by the

89 state. At the same time, the poet is critical to those leaders for distributing false promises. In one of the stanzas of the poem, the speaker reflects how she is betrayed by the state. While placing a hoarding board of her skin she was promised to be honored in the state but it went in vain as she is still forced to live a pathetic life in the society:

Coming up to this stage,

Time passed like Dinosaurs

Where- did my original beauty drown and disappear

Where- did my sovereignty drown and disappear

Where -did my existence drown and disappear

In the mirror pond of river. (My Translation 49-54)

The speaker of the poem is disillusioned by the so called nation builders who once promised freedom, security and happiness to the people. Instead of concerning about sufferings and hardships of the people, leaders are busy in erecting tall buildings and establishing multinational companies. Females in such states are considered as mere images of advertisement to be placed at the courtyard or alleyway of the city. The poet is talking about the marginalization of a female through these lines. The speaker of this poem is struggling to find her existence and selfhood amidst the adverse political condition of the nation. She is compelled to sell her beauty in the society even if she is devoid of respect and freedom. It shows how apathetic are the power holders as they have no any concern about their citizens. By selecting the words like originality, sovereignty and existence the poet is making his personal reality as political.

Heman Yatri’s poems are true snapshots of his society as they expose social reality in life-like dimensions. They represent multi-cultural, multi-social, and multi-

90 ethnic facets of the Nepalese society. These pictures are distinct in nature because

Yatri presents humanitarian perspective of every problem. He finds some flicks of hope and optimism amidst the great socio-political turmoil. His poem “Soul of the

Disappeared” is one among such poems where the poet has tried to express agony of a disappeared soul. The ‘soul’ of the disappeared is very impatient when he looks at the mental torment of his parents. The soul knows it’s all in vain because there is no any chance for him to return back. That’s why he wishes the message to be conveyed to his parents as he does not want to give further torture to them. He wants his death ritual to be carried out according to Kirant tradition that can pacify his tormented soul:

Do please place aside for me now

A handful of rice

A little cornmeal

A measure of millet

A little buckwheat

A piece of ginger

A pitcher full of jaar,

A jar of water

A single khukri

A set of utensils

A pair of clothes

And for expense

A coin worth one rupee,

And build for me

A cottage near our home,

Big enough for me to lie

Thereafter, never shall I make visitations

In dreams, and torment ( Mahesh Paudel’s Translation 28-45)

The above lines are the voice of the kidnapped speaker who is killed by the state in accusation of rebellion. When the speaker was on the way to college, he was taken away, and buried alive because he had carried the book of politics and war. At present he is neither among dead nor alive, swinging back and forth like a pendulum.

He is not alive because he has been killed already; he is not dead because cultural rites have not been performed. That is why the speaker wants his rituals to be carried out in as per Kirant culture. He wants his grave to be dug near his home along with different objects. The objects mentioned in the poem are essential entities required to carry out religious function as per typical Kirant tradition. In this context, the poem can be taken as the voice of all lost, disappeared, and forgotten people during the political insurgency in this nation.

Renewed Optimism: A Plea for the Inclusive Nationalisms

Although the contemporary indigenous poets are not satisfied with the present, they have greater hope of rebuilding a good future. In this sense, these poets at a time are the poets of reality and dream: They dream of a beautiful future even at the present chaos and disorders. Their poems are grounded upon apparent optimism, and achievable possibilities. While analyzing the themes of their poetry, readers can find a plea or an appeal of stronger nation. Nations/states are not self-generated entities; they are made with the involvement of different forces. In the word of Ali Riaz and Subho

Basu, “states are not natural entities; they are the products of complex social and historical forces. The capacity, authority, structures, legitimacy, and sovereignty of states depend on the forces that participate in the process of state- making” (Paradise

Lost ?: State Failure in Nepal 33). Hence, there should be equal participation and involvement of all in the process of nation building.

Contemporary Kirant poetry looks after the same possibility of inclusiveness.

They are not extremists to demand a separate state, rather envision the possibility of an inclusive and multicultural society with in this nation. They are ready to fight for the injustices in order to restructure the present system despite of numerous dissatisfactions, disappointments, and resentments towards it. It does not mean that they are utopian dreamers rather these dreams are palpable, and tangible. Rejection of the traditional values and formation of new ideals of nation and nationalism is the most important symptom of contemporary Kirant poetry. Unlike expressing segregationist or separatist stance in terms of nation building, these poems show possibilities of change and transformation within the society.

For instance, Shrawan Mukarng’s poems are not filled with any sort ethnic extremism or separatist ideology. Instead, he wants to contribute on the nation building process by making a unified, inclusive and stronger nation. He advocates and appeals to solve the problems; to correct previous mistakes, and to minimize clashes.

In the poem “Aafnai Desh Sanga” (With Own Nation) he expresses:

I understand the fraud gesture of your face

I understand the cruel language of your silence

Nation! Still I am your citizen

I understand the slow poison of your national anthem. (My Translation

34-37)

Mukarung is very clear on asserting that he belongs to the soil of this nation. He simply wishes for ending of the fraud behaviour, cruelty, atrocity and injustices inflicted upon people. State perpetuates violence through different mediums. Through

93 the formation of national symbols, signs, slogans and songs; it tries to manipulate common people and compels them to accept the state order. Mukarung wants to revise and reform those signs that do not represent the large number of people or which are simply constructed and forced to accept by the state agents.

Similarly, Bhupal Rai is the poet of change, dream, hope and reformation. The locus of his poems is society, culture, rituals, social absurdities and way of life of people. Through his poems, he aims to show negativities prevalent certain any sector with an expectation to aware people about it. Along with exposing social exploitations and discriminations, Bhupal Rai also urges to fight for such injustices in his poems.

He opines that tolerance and patience cannot bring expected change in the society.

Hence, it is the primal need to fight against the social disorders. His poem entitled

“Mansahari Kavita” (Carnivorous Poem) criticizes submissive attitude of the socially oppressed and marginalized people. He considers such docile and feeble attitude as

‘vegetarian’ attitude and wants it to be replaced with revolutionary attitude. The poet writes:

If somebody is near to my surrounding

Abandon your-vegetarian ideology

Disarmed repast

Some battles are indispensible for survival

And, you need armed preparation

Cook within yourself

Salty atomic verities

Sharpening hand like an iron-blade

Converting fingers into formidable paw

Subvert all suicidal steps

And, come out of the enclosure. (Translated by Suresh Hachekali 68-

78)

Here the poet is appealing to adopt the radical attitude for the change in the society.

He appropriates revolution on the ground that it paves the way for the transformation.

For the rebuilding of the society, older values and systems must be dismantled and destroyed. Thus, the poet here urges for a violent protest and a battle that is indispensible for the survival and existence of the oppressed. Rai wants a complete renewal of decayed values, systems and beliefs in the society. He aspires to rebuild a nation which is free from socio-cultural dominations and discriminations. For this, social progress and reformation is vital in every sphere.

Mahendra Lawoti in his text “Ethnic Politic and the Building of Inclusive

State” is hopeful for the transformation of the Nepali state. He asserts, “Both Nepal and the country’s ethnic politics are undergoing significant transitions. The emergence of poly-ethnic politics could eliminate the prevailing mono-ethnic hegemony and create a just and equitable society” (Nepal in Transition: From

People’s War to Fragile Peace 148). Lawoti believes that there will be complete change in the society as poly-ethnic voices are in constant conversation. To strengthen

Lawoti’s ideas further, it is worthwhile to bring Bhupali Rai’s poem, “Kankal

Bisarjan” (Consignment of Skeleton). In this poem, Rai considers Singhadurbar- the chief administrative building of Nepal as a house of skulls and skeletons. Clearly, the poet is excavating the history of building of the palace where hundreds of people lost their lives.

For the poet, Sighadurbar merely functions as a symbol of inequality, domination and torture. Its indifference toward the pain and plight of the people is responsible for further marginalization. Hence the poet has detestation towards the

sight of Singhadurbar. The poet wants the building to be destroyed and reformed in

different way as he dreams for the new dawn of justice and harmony in the society.

Indigenous and ethnic voices are pervasive in Nepal as they challenge the hegemony

of the nation and nationality. In the poem he utters:

For a while

Just for a moment

Displace Sighadurbar from Singhdurbar

And dispose it there

Where there are no Singhadurbars

Remove human-bricks from there

Assemble skull-concretes

From the map of –domination

Separate primitive carvings of cerebrum and souls of stone

And take a glance at the

Deconstruction of Singhadurbar. (My Translation 57-67)

The poet regards the palace as a frightening sight of terror and horror that’s why he wants it to be deconstructed. Deconstruction of the Singhadurbar is indicative of the reformation of the administrative and political system of the country. As the poet longs for ending of the history of exploitation, he advocates for the change, reconstruction and rewriting of the past. Bhupal Rai’s progressive attitude is seen in the above verses as the poet wants equity and harmony in the society. For the harmonious and balanced development of the society, revisionist policy, reconstruction and reformation of the societies are must. The fruits of development should be shared equally by addressing dissatisfaction of the people.

In one of his poems, “Adhyaroko Geet” (Song of the Darkness) Upendra

Subba compares Kirant communities with stone. Though Kirants were treated as stones by others but the poet envisions of the day when the stone will shed its own light. The poem symbolically hints for the upcoming better future of all the indigenous ethnic groups. He has a great hope that all of them will be distinguished and treated fairly in this nation:

My Lord!

My tail shines itself in the darkness, what can I do?

Bastard firefly!

Diamond shall shine

We-the stones shall be distinguished. (My Translation 12-16)

In the above stanza, Upendra presents a great optimism for socio-cultural transformation of Kirant communities in specific and of all indigenous groups in general. He is optimistic of the sunshine that will help to shine all undistinguished stones. Subba compares the rays of the diamond with the rays of the stone and hopes for the better moment for sparkling of those objects. His present poem is very striking as it presents a dream or aspiration of a beautiful present. The poet has a great hope that the quest of happy and joyous moment will be fulfilled of the poor and underprivileged people as they are striving for it.

At the same time poet Swopnil Smriti realistically presents misery and anguish of his community and society. He considers socio-cultural and economic exploitation as major evils and hindrances for the harmonious and prosperous society. The poet aims of destroying such systems for the formation of a stronger nation. Moreover,

Smriti is confident of changing domineering practices by removing the traces of

97 feudalism and servitude. In most of his poems the poet is hopeful of the emergence of the new dawn of rebellion, change and transformation. For instance, in the poem

“Aadhi ko Aakhyaan” (The Tale of the Storm) Smriti hints upon the arrival of the revolution in the form of ‘storm’. He believes the storm will wipe out every sort of absurdities and social disorders. He writes, “From the black-blue horizon/ Appeared a glimmering signature of lightening/And wrote ‘revolution’ on every forehead” (My translation 1-4). The revolution which the poet is talking here is consciousness, strong realization and high sensibility towards the change and transformation. In other stanzas the poet imagines a situation after the presence of storm-‘revolution’ in the city:

When the storm arrived in the city,

Sky and earth roared by its footsteps

Rain sparkled over people’s face

And their consciousness is swayed by its speed

Pinnacles, lampposts

Hoarding boards of democracy at chowks

Statue of the king at roundabouts

King’s cloths on the balcony of the palace

Good-governance spread by king on the street

Everything was swept away by the storm

Or that was a mere dust. (My Translation 37-47)

The poet has shown urgency of revolution. It is because the storm has a great power to sweep away all the traditional and rustic thoughts of the people. People will be conscious of their rights. There will be complete change in the traditional systems and practices. Moreover, the poet has presented a very striking scenario after the arrival of

98 the storm. The storm will not only sweep away negative thoughts of the people, it will also wipe out cultural dogmatism, political marginalization and social discriminations. People can feel the change and there will be the beginning of new world of harmony and equity where there will not remain any forms of dividing wall between people.

Like other Kirant poets, Chandrabir Tumbapo is also hopeful for the birth of new dawn of civilization. In his poem “Gulabi Kavitama Bidroha” (My Revolt in Pink

Poetry), considering himself as revolutionary poet, he rejects to incorporate insignificant and mundane issues as the subject matter of his poetry. He expresses a strong desire to sow the seed of change in his poems as that will ascertain a promising future. He writes, “And I have to string thin rays of hope/Ready to drop, the colours of future/ Before they wither away in my poetry” ( Govinda Raj Bhattarai’s translation 11-14). The poet wants to paint his poems with hope and colours of future dreams. At the same time, he wants to use poetry as medium to bring consciousness among the people:

Even if I wish I cannot portray

Your desires in pink poetry

A brilliant sun-revolution should rise

Form the pass of words and raid the night

That rules with its darkness

By frightening the light. (Govinda Raj Bhattari’s Translation 1-6)

The above lines are about the importance and power of literature. According to

Tumbapo, as poetry has power to challenge the socio-political hierarchies, the poets must cash this strength in order expose socio-cultural realities. He thinks poetry should aware mass, shedding light in the darkness, and being the voice of the

99 voiceless. The poet is concerned to expose the issue of subalterns, their revolt and socio-economic transformations. Tumbapo is critical of the poets who write about customary issues like love, beauty and imagination in their poems rather he believes poetry should bring socio-cultural elements in to play. He criticizes superficial and obscure presentation of the issues in the poem by the literary writers. In contrary he wants to grow spring sowing the green seeds of poetry.

Simultaneously, Heman Yatri in his poem “Yatrama Pahad” (The Journey of the Hill) shows the importance of home and belongingness. The poet calls hill as his home- it is simply because Nepal is a hilly country. He finds the value of life even though the hill is tormented by multitudes of agonies and grief. Despite of problems, the poet wants to be in the hill. It is because he finds undefeated spirits, and invincible souls in the hills:

After all, it is a hill

Even in its heartbreak

Or utter misery,

It’s fine.

The value of life blooms at the edge of the field,

Time elapses like smoke from hearth

The hill is alright,

Yearly,

The rain of hunger, fear and scarcity drips down

Even so, it is living for ages

The only evidence of self-existence is

Hill

That’s why,

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I am in a carefree journey of this hill. (My Translation 17-30)

Yatri’s present poem describes his attitude towards the nation and nationality. He believes his existence is incomplete without the hill. Hence, hill is the proof of his existence. It means the poet is concerned on minimizing hardships and agonies of hill rather than abandoning the hill. Although the hill is affected by hunger, fear, and terror, the poet does not have any hesitation to return back to his village it is because hill is associated with his identity and originality.

Talking about the hope or dream of new Nepal, Nischal Nath Pandey quotes

Khagendra Thapa in his book New Nepal: The Fault Lines. According to Thapa,

Nepal needs a strong leader to listen the voices and desires of people belonging to different racial and ethnic groups. He furthers asserts:

Since Nepal is a multi-ethnic nation where no group is in majority, we

need a leader who is completely unbiased and can get along with the

people of all regions and ethnic backgrounds irrespective of their

culture, language, political affiliations, and caste. In other words, the

leader must be able to live and work with Kamis, Sarkis, Sherpas,

Tharus, Danuwars, Satars, Limbu etc. This can only happen if the

leader has the interest of the people and the nation above his/her

personal interests. (60)

As Nepal is a multi-ethnic country, people belonging to all racial groups must get priority. For the creation of new and stronger Nepal, leaders must try to settle down the conflicts between people. It is possible only if the leader works renouncing his personal interests and biased attitudes. The notion of new and stronger nation will be materialized only if we work together by respecting the differences. The contemporary Kirant poetry respecting such multi-cultural, multi-ethnic, multi-

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101 lingual, and multi-religious dynamisms of Nepali society; advocates for the restructuring of the state.

Finally, the most significant aspect of tradition and culture is its capacity of enduring time and change. Although there may appear multiple socio-political changes in the history, some of the indigenous cultural, aesthetic and ritualistic expressions remain intact or pristine. In this regard, poetry by Kirant poets is expression of their persistent cultural and aesthetic values intact in the human psyche being a collective symbol of Kirant community. On the other hand, it is also a process of energizing the local world by correcting the previous breaches that the modern nation has committed against those ethnic expressions. Kirant poetry manifests how the marginalized indigenous community responds hegemonic nationalism imposed by the state in the nation building process. Hence, their poetry is a symbol of socio- cultural glory that exists despite of the numerous socio-political upheavals. Finally, these poems can be taken as what Kapila Vatsayan calls -a double-reed flute, embracing the theme of both: past and present, “one reed is a perennial strain, a tonic , immutable trans-space and time; the other reed plays the tune of immediate time and space. The one is repetitive but stable; the other changing. The two together create the music that sounds different at different times” (40).

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III. Conclusion: Kirant Nepali Poetry as a Response to Fractured Nationalisms

Culture [identity] is not composed of rigid institutional and cognitive

pieces that form stable and static structures; it is instead flexible,

permeable, and malleable, with fluid boundaries. It is continually

reinvented and modified without being totally transformed. Cultures

[identities] in general . . . have always become what they always

already are; they are formed and reformed as individuals and groups

confront their world and create their own histories. (William F. Fisher,

Fluid Boundaries, 13)

As Fisher’s quote suggests, cultures and identities are in flux. They are formed and reformed in the process individuals or groups encounter the socio-political and cultural changes. As an indigenous ethnic community, Kirant community has also witnessed numerous political upheavals, cultural intrusions, and internal and external challenges. Despite such multitudes of experiences, Contemporary Kirant aesthetics are different in expression about nation and nationality. They do not only make one- sided scathing criticism about nationalism but also advocate for restructuring and correcting the mistakes that Nepal as a modern nation state has committed. Hence, contemporary Kirant poetry as a response to the hegemonic nationalism tries to address the breaches caused against ethnic languages, culture and other mode of expressions over the centuries.

The research, after a meticulous study of Kirant aesthetics focusing upon the issue of nationalism, concludes that the bulk of poems composed by contemporary indigenous Kirant poets embrace a greater degree of optimism for nation building.

Though composed by different writers, the poems composed by those poets

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103 encompass a similar perspective towards the nation and nationality. The poets analyzed in this study are distinct or unique in their expression for they portray wider range of alternatives and possibilities even amidst the chaos and disorder. They are critical towards the state not towards the nation; they reject the monolithic nationality not the nation. All in all, they appeal for making a stronger nation respecting the myriad ethnic-racial groups, their cultures, civilizations, and plural identities.

Different indigenous ethnic groups in Nepal agonized for centuries due to the monolithic or hegemonic nature of nationalism that excluded large numbers of people in the process of nation building. In the meantime People’s Movement II, as a landmark in the Nepali socio-political history, invigorated ages long silenced voices with new perspectives and consciousness. Kirant poetry composed after the

Movement embodies an interventionist attitude against hegemonic nationalism and exclusivist national politics. They want to redraw the boundary of nationalism; respecting the heterogeneity of Nepali society. Moreover, the peculiarity of the corpse of poetry analyzed throughout this study lies in its expression; it neither upholds the politics of segregation nor ethnic extremism. In contrary, it endorses a multicultural, multiethnic, and divergent nature of the nationalism.

In their attempt to redefine the nationalism, Kirant poets at first look after the causes of the historical marginalization of their community. They reflect how their ancestors were brutally treated and exploited by the then state mechanisms. For this, the poets try to excavate the history of the nation with expectation to rewrite it. At the same time, they also portray how the hegemonic or monolithic nationalism perpetuated violence excluding ethnic languages, cultures, and their best practices from national discourses. They consider the present nationalism as authoritative form of nationalism as it is forcefully appropriated by the state through different forces like

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104 education, language, development, communication technology and so on. Thus, the thrust of the contemporary Kirant poetry is to destabilize the integrity of Hindu-Khas- hill based nationalism by projecting its damaging effects upon indigenous identities.

In this sense, Kirant literature is a creative response against the exclusivist national identities.

The poets, whose works are analyzed here, differ from the mainstream Nepali poetry as they reject banal forms and hackneyed themes. Instead, their poems are infused with a sense of self-exploration. They use their primitive cultural practices, myths, symbols, historical anecdotes, and religious allusions as primary elements of their poetry. The poets use memory and collective consciousness as a repository for adding the ingredients of their poems. That’s why their poems are not always bright; exposing the positive aspects of the society, they also present bleak and ugly realities of the society. It is a process of creating life-like dynamism in order to capture a real picture of the society. Moreover, indigenous consciousness and ethnic identities are expressed in such poems with scrupulous analysis of the indigenous psychology.

One of the important features of the Kirant poetry is incorporation of the universal subjects as the content of their poetry regardless of their belonging to particular ethnicity community. The poets advocate for peace, harmony, and co- existence among all the disadvantaged and secluded ethnic and racial groups of this nation. They are not pre-occupied with in the periphery of their own culture rather express their concern towards the nation, nationality, and entire ethno-communal groups. They believe the collective effort of all the scheduled and disadvantaged groups can bring a new dawn of happiness. Their generous poems project humanity as essence of their aesthetics. They appeal individuals to end discriminatory practices, biased attitude as well as hatred and animosity.

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To wrap up, contemporary Kirant poets are the poets of change and renovation. Their poems are filled with optimism of rebuilding a good future despite the ongoing crisis in the nation. They show undeniable faith and unquestionable respect towards this nation. The poets urge for restructuring the nation and redefining the nationality. For this, they believe, the state must accept the diversity of the poly- ethnic society. It should function as a protector and promoter of socio-cultural, lingual, and ethnic heritages of this nation. At the same time, it must address the divergent dissatisfactions and grievances of the citizens on time. The poets regard it as an ultimate way of strengthening the relationship between the nation-citizens, and citizens-citizens.

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