Test No: 2 Date: 12.01.2019 Max. Marks: 250 Max. Time 3 Hours

ANTHROPOLOGY- ALL INDIA TEST SERIES ARCHEOLOGY, GENERAL ANTHROPOLOGY PAPER-1, CHAPTERS- 1.1 to 1.8 & PAPER-2, CHAPTERS- 1.1 to 1.3

KEY

1a. Visual Anthropology

• Visual anthropologists look at the visual aspects of a culture, such as art and media, and are also interested in how anthropological data can be represented visually, • Visual anthropologists are concerned with both the visual aspects of culture and using media to present data visually. • study a wide range of cultural aspects, including art, dance, ritual, jewelry, body adornments; also intersects with archaeology in the study of prehistoric art, such as cave paintings • Visual anthropology is a subfield of social anthropology that is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, new media. More recently it has been used by historians of science and visual culture. • study of all visual representations such as dance and other kinds of performance, museums and archiving, all visual arts, and the production and reception of mass media. • research topics include sand paintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings and photographs • Displaying data visually presents unique advantages that aren't always found through writing. For example, something as detailed and visually-focused as a dance is easily conveyed through a video, where the viewer can get a sometimes stronger sense of the experience • So-called "collecting clubs" included the British anthropologists Edward Burnett Tylor, Alfred Cort Haddon, and Henry Balfour, who exchanged and shared photographs as part of an attempt to document and classify ethnographic "races." • Bateson and Mead took more than 25,000 photos while conducting research in Bali, and published 759 photographs to support and develop their ethnographic observations. • Film as ethnography is an innovation generally attributed to Robert Flaherty, whose 1922 film Nanook of the North is a silent recording of activities of an Inuit band in the Canadian Arctic. • Anthropologists such as Adolphe Bertillon and Arthur Cervin sought to objectify the images by specifying uniform focal lengths, poses, and backdrops to remove the distracting "noise" of context, culture, and faces. Some photos went so far as to isolate body parts from the individual (like tattoos) [http://www.visualanthropology.net]

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b. Scope of Archeological Anthropology

REFER from Booklet Sosin for Anthropology: Archaeological anthropology and Indian Archeology: Page no 9-18

• Archaeological anthropology is the study of past humans and cultures through material remains. It involves the excavation, analysis and interpretation of artifacts, soils, and cultural processes. • Archaeology tells us about the technology used in the past by analyzing the tools people have left behind. On this basis it can shed light on the economic activities of the people. The engravings on the pottery, jewellary etc reveal the artistic capacities of the people. Certain aspects of religious beliefs can also be guessed by observing burial sites and the articles kept there. • The Archaeological Anthropology makes an attempt to understand the geological processes particularly the climatic phases that have left evidences in earth's surface. The archaeological evidences are found in abundance mainly in river terraces. The chief methods of archaeologists are excavation to discover artifacts dating to assign an approximate time period and to build the cultural history of man's past based on that. • Historical archaeology • Experimental archaeology • Archaeometry • Pseudo archaeology

1c. Living megaliths of India • Megaliths were constructed either as burial sites or commemorative (non-sepulchral) memorials. The former are sites with actual burial remains, such as dolmenoid cists (box- shaped stone burial chambers), cairn circles (stone circles with defined peripheries) and capstones (distinctive mushroom-shaped burial chambers found mainly in Kerala). The urn or the sarcophagus containing the mortal remains was usually made of terracotta. Non- sepulchral megaliths include memorial sites such as menhirs • Megaliths are spread across the Indian subcontinent, though the bulk of them are found in peninsular India, concentrated in the states of Maharashtra (mainly in Vidarbha), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. • According to archaeologists R.K. Mohanty and V. Selvakumar, around 2,200 megalithic sites can be found in peninsular India itself, most of them unexcavated. • Even today, a living megalithic culture endures among some tribes such as the Gonds of central India and the Khasis of Meghalaya • The living megalithic culture in India provides strong hints regarding the belief systems of prehistoric megalithic people. “The Gond people believe in life after death, they believe that every human being has two souls: the life spirit and the shadow. • tribes who still include megaliths in their religious beliefs, for example, the Gadabas, Gonds, Kurumbas, Marias, Mundas, Savaras, Garos, Khasis, Nagas, Karbis, Tiwas, and Marams. These groups still construct megalithic manuments for the dead. ‘Megalithism’ may be considered as a living tradition. • The Gonds, Kurumbas, Morias and Savaras plant and worship stone menhirs and sometimes erect wooden pillars. The Gonds believe that the spirit of the dead resides in a stone.

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• The veneration of the wooden and stone pillars is evident in the practices of the Morias who apply turmeric and oil on them. They sacrifice a buffalo and offer rice and worship these stones in the belief that the spirit of the dead resides in them. The Savaras, before sowing, present the seeds in front of the pillars and sacrifice animals to promote the fertility of the seeds • Similarly, the Kurumbas approach the megalithic monuments of their ancestors whom they implore to help them tide over their difficulties

[DO MENTION FEW of above mentioned examples in the answer]

d. Ethno Archeology in India

• Ethnoarchaeology is an ethnographic approach to the study of contemporary, living human societies that seeks to identify behavioral realities that structure the potential archaeological record. • The term 'Ethnoarcheology' was coined by Jesse Fewkes to mean an archaeologist "who can bring as preparation for his work an intensive knowledge of the present life • In order to understand the material culture preserved in traditional practices, ethnoarchaeology tries to study the possible correlation between the material culture of the people on one side and the unobservable social relations or spiritual life on the other. In this way, archaeology contributes directly towards historical reconstruction when conventional historical sources are lacking or when other forms of preserved traditions require substantial support. • The concept of 'Thunder Axe' in North East India ✓ The concept of 'thunder Axe' is one of the many distinctive aspects of ancient belief systems which probably dates back to a very remote period. This belief is retained in the form of tradition by almost all the tribes that inhabited the North East region of India. Thus by applying the general comparative analogy for the concept of 'Thunder Axe', great insights could he gained about the cultural and cognitive patterns of prehistoric life. The Neolithic stone tools, owing to their peculiar nature, have always mystified the common man who cannot diagnose them scientifically. These stone objects are assumed to be material products of thunder and lightning. ✓ Various tribes of North East India consider the Neolithic stone tools as 'thunder axe' with magical and medicinal properties. The Kachari tribe of Assam refer to these stones in their local language as Sarak, ni-Ongthai (Sarak= Heaven, ni=of Ongthai=stone) ✓ In Santhali dialect these stones which came along with a thunder strike are called Ceter or thunder Axe. The traditional Sanatal people believe that the stones also have medicinal properties. They would rub the stone on a rough surface and whatever dust particle that comes out of the grinding process is dissolved in water and served as medicine. • the ethnoarchaeological studies of tribal groups on the Indian subcontinent have also stressed the degraded nature of the contemporary environment and the loss of many

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wild plant and animal resources as a result of agricultural expansion and modernization • Roy examined the technology of swidden agriculture, in particular, the tools used and patterns of use wear. The axes and hoes used by modern agriculturalists are of metal, but Roy's work has demonstrated that the wear patterns they develop as a result of use in particular activities are quite similar to those found on prehistoric stone tools in the same region, and may result from similar kinds of use. • the most comprehensive ethnoarchaeological studies dealing with material culture and social structure and strategies is the by Miller on pottery use and distribution in Madhya Pradesh. Miller examined the role of goods in symbolizing social status in a caste-based hierarchical society.

[DO MENTION FEW of above mentioned examples in the answer]

e. Protein Synthesis

✓ Protein synthesis is one of the most fundamental biological processes by which individual cells build their specific proteins. Within the process are involved both DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and different in their function ribonucleic acids (RNA). The process is initiated in the cell’s nucleus, where specific enzymes unwind the needed section of DNA, which makes the DNA in this region accessible and a RNA copy can be made. This RNA molecule then moves from the nucleus to the cell cytoplasm, where the actual the process of protein synthesis take place.

✓ Transcription is the first of overall two protein synthesis steps. During transcription, the information encoded in the DNA is copied to a RNA molecule as one strand of the DNA double helix is used as a template. The RNA molecule is sent to the cytoplasm, which helps to bring all components required for the actual protein synthesis together – amino acids, transport RNAs, ribosomes, etc. In the cytoplasm the protein polymers are actually “synthesized” through chemical reactions – that is why the process is known as “protein synthesis” or even more precisely – “protein biosynthesis” ✓ The RNA copy of the protein genetic information encoded in DNA molecule is produced in the nucleus and it is called messenger RNA (mRNA). Each mRNA encodes the information for a single protein and is much smaller in size compared to the DNA molecule. ✓ When the mRNA interacts with the big ribosome sub-unit, this triggers the approach of another RNA molecule, called transfer RNA (tRNA). The tRNA molecule possess a specific sequence of 3-bases (anti-codon), which hast to complement a corresponding sequence (codon) within the mRNA sequence.

The process of protein synthesis takes place in multiple ribosomes simultaneous and all throughout the cell cytoplasm. A living cell can synthesize hundreds of different proteins every single second

[ Draw Schematics ]

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Source: proteinsynthesis.org

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2. a. Applied Linguistic Anthropology. 15

✓ Linguistic anthropology is the study of speech and language as a socio-cultural phenomenon across space and time. The linguistic anthropologist is also interested in the many relationships between language and other aspects of culture, including study of the ways in which the language spoken by a group of people is related to their status and social position. ✓ The linguistic anthropologist can contribute to cultural anthropology's understanding of the nature and direction of the processes by which language is transmitted from one generation to another which leads to the understanding of the way ideas are transmitted within cultures and of the ways beliefs, ideals and traditions are perpetuated. ✓ Branches Of Linguistic Anthropology: Historical Linguistics; Structural Linguistics; Socio-Linguistics; Ethnosemantics; Psycho-Linguistics

Applied LA may be elaborated on the basis of above classification

1. Historical Linguistics 2. Structural Linguistics. 3. Socio-Linguistics: 4. Ethnosemantics 5. Psycho-Linguistics b. Relation between Anthropology and History. 20

REFER from Booklet Sosin for Anthropology: Social Anthropology: Page no 9

• ‘It is by seeing ourselves amongst others that the largeness of mind comes’. It is not enough to see ourselves (historians) as others (anthropologists), borrowing concepts in a sham interdisciplinary brotherhood. It is by understanding their place within the larger academic and political context that History and Anthropology can benefit most from each other. [Geertz] • There was a time when History was seen as merely involved with events and politics and Anthropology with structures and the non-political (religion, kinship) • Anthropology becomes both a scientific and humanistic study. Its methodologies are highly abstract and sophisticated as of science. In one way, it perceives human beings as a product of socio-cultural process, and compels human feelings and sentiments to lead a group life demanding cooperation, competition, accommodation and adjustment. At the same time, it initiates human imagination to find expression in arts, artefacts and other mental faculties. On the whole, the subject offers both biological and social dimensions to be a master-science. • Anthropology was synchronic, timeless, while History was diachronic, changing. The first operated in the field while the later worked within the archive. They studied different places at different times. Even more, History was seen to be specific, fragmentary, while anthropology tended to generalisation • Geertz’s symbolic anthropology included a theory of culture that has been highly influential for social and cultural historians. Geertz defined culture as a web of meanings encoded in +91 – 99899 66744 www.sosinclasses.com

symbolic forms that serves humans to communicate with each other and to understand the world • Anthropology engages history not as one but instead as many things: (1) sociocultural change or diachrony; (2) a domain of events and objects that make manifest systems of signification, purpose, and value; (3) a domain of variable modalities of the experience and consciousness of being in time; and (4) a domain of practices, methods, and theories devoted to the recording and the analysis of temporal phenomena • Lévi-Strauss’s The Savage Mind (1966): A treatise devoted to the analysis of the analogical – and ahistorical – matrices of mythic and totemic thought, The Savage Mind, concludes with an extended polemic against the ‘historical, structural anthropology’ • Marshall Sahlins offers an alternative, which also takes history as its analytical object, but further as its analytical mode. It preserves the structuralist principle that systems of signification are never mere derivatives of their social or material environment. • In fact, different disciplines are held together in an invisible fine thread from which anthropology harvests the essence of life. Man being the greatest wonder of the world when deserves to study himself, it surpasses all other disciplines of own creation.

2c. Primate Behaviour. 15

• Scientists study behavior in free-ranging primates from an ecological and evolutionary perspective, meaning that they focus on the relationship between behaviors, the natural environment, and various physiological traits of the species in question. This approach is called behavioral ecology, • Among primates: the proportion of behaviour that’s due to learning is substantially increased, and the proportion under genetic control is reduced. • Behavioral genetics: behavior must be viewed as the product of complex interactions between genetic and environmental factors. One of the major goals of primatology is to determine how behaviors influence reproductive fitness and how ecological factors have shaped the evolution of these behaviors. • Social behaviour (like feeding or mating etc ) among primates: important variables that influence social structure: 1. Body Size: larger animals require fewer calories per unit of weight than smaller animals because they have a smaller ratio of surface area to mass than smaller animals. Since body heat is lost at the surface, larger animals can retain heat more efficiently, and so they require less energy overall. 2. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): in general, smaller animals have a higher BMR than larger ones Consequently, smaller primates, like galagos, tarsiers, marmosets, and tamarins, require an energy-rich diet high in protein (insects), fats (nuts and seeds), and carbohydrates (fruits and seeds). Some larger primates, which tend to have a lower BMR and reduced energy requirements relative to body size, can do well with less energy-rich foods, such as leaves. 3. Distribution of Resources: Leaves can be plentiful and dense and will therefore support large groups of animals. Insects, on the other hand, may be widely scattered, and the animals that rely on them usually feed alone or in small groups of two or three. [Fruits, nuts, and berries in dispersed trees and shrubs occur in clumps. These can most efficiently be exploited by smaller groups of animals, so large groups frequently break up

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into smaller subunits while feeding. Such subunits may consist of one-male– multifemale groups (some baboons) or matrilines (macaques). ] 4. Predation: responses to predation depend on their body size, social structure, and the type of predator. Typically, where predation pressure is high and body size is small, large communities are advantageous. These may be multimale-multifemale groups or congregations of one-male–multifemale groups. • Five different areas of primate behavior:

I. Sexuality II. Infant care and other care-giving III. Grooming & touch IV. Aggression & violence V. Communication ❖ Communication • Communication, particularly our ability to create and use symbols, is the core of our culture, and thus at the core of our humanity. With non-human primates it has for some been at the core of our fears regarding these animals and our evolutionary closeness to them. • Communication has four aspects: signal, motivation, meaning, and function. Among primates, signals can be made in any of four modes: olfactory, visual, auditory, and tactile. • The strongest of all signals are tactile signals. Tactile signals involve one individual touching another in some manner, such as grooming, caressing, hitting, licking, or biting. 3. a. Write a detailed note on the controversies related to Homo neanderthalensis. 30

• Neanderthals were our closest evolutionary relatives. Their ancestors left Africa before modern humans, venturing into Europe as far back as 500,000 years ago, and were still there when our ancestors embarked on the same journey about 70,000 years ago. Neanderthals and modern humans actually lived alongside each other in Europe for several thousand years before Neanderthals vanished some 30,000 years ago. Their disappearance is one of the most enduring mysteries in all of human evolution. • Neanderthals were shorter than modern humans, and had barrel chests, stocky limbs, and large noses—traits that were well suited to the frigid climes of Europe during the last Ice Age. Ancient DNA retrieved from the bones of two Neanderthals suggests that at least some of them had red hair and pale skin. • Neanderthals have long been depicted as powerfully built brutes that were able hunters, capable of taking down large, dangerous prey, but too primitive to have exhibited modern human behaviors. But starting in the 1950s, scientists began making a series of discoveries that have challenged the stereotype that has long plagued Neanderthals. • Shanidar cave in northern Iraq: Fossilized pollen found at the site even suggested that the dead had been buried with flowers. What’s more, some of the adult skeletons showed evidence of injuries that had been tended and healed—which suggests Neanderthals cared for their sick and wounded.

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• Recent findings also suggest Neanderthals used a diverse set of stone tools, controlled fire, appreciated music, and may have even communicated through song, and that they knew about the medicinal qualities of certain plants. • With so much evidence in favor of their humanity, a growing number of scientists have argued that the Neanderthals’ similarities to modern humans far outweighed any differences, which makes their disappearance all the more baffling.

Neanderthal Vanishing Act

• "Out of Africa" hypothesis says that Neanderthals were no match for the better-adapted, quicker-witted Homo sapiens. They were out-competed, pushed out of their habitats, and ultimately driven to extinction by a superior species . • But in 2006, a discovery was made that challenged this theory. Scientists excavating a site in the Republic of Georgia discovered thousands of bones and teeth belonging to mountain goats that looked as though they had been killed by Neanderthals. The animals were largely prime-age adults, meaning they were large, fast, and hard to capture, so bringing them down would have required considerable skill. Such able hunters, the scientists argued, would not have made easy victims for modern humans. • Another idea is that Neanderthals died out because they couldn’t reproduce fast enough to keep up with modern humans, who eventually outnumbered them. • One study of Neanderthal skeletons found that the species grew quickly but reached sexual maturity later than modern humans. Furthermore, Neanderthals may have had a harder time during childbirth due to the head shape of Neanderthal babies. • Yet another theory suggests Neanderthals may have just been the unlucky victims of an environmental catastrophe that mainly affected them but spared modern humans.

Interbreed between Humans and Neanderthals

(source: https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/neanderthals-article/)

❖ The most controversial theory for why there are no more Neanderthals is that they interbred with modern humans and the two lineages merged into one. ❖ The Neanderthalers’ genetic contribution to each new generation became ever smaller. Eventually, this percentage became so small that all people began to look like humans rather than a Neanderthal individual. Scientists refer to this scenario as genetic swamping. ❖ A comparison of Neanderthal DNA against modern human DNA suggests that there are enough genetic differences to warrant labeling them as a separate species. ❖ Most scientists, therefore, prefer seeing “Homo neanderthalensis” in the scientific literature. Since interbreeding and subsequent genetic swamping cannot occur in this scenario, the disappearance of the Neanderthalers is blamed on outright genocide practiced by our ancestors, or greater hunting skills on the part of the newcomers.

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3b. . 20

✓ The Iron Age was a period found at different points around the world where societies recovered from the collapse of Bronze-Age civilization, developed new tools, and built bigger, more complex civilizations than ever before. ✓ India's Iron Age laid religious, philosophical, social, and political foundations that would go on to influence people across the world. Maybe there is something special about that metal. ✓ In the prehistory of the Indian subcontinent, an "Iron Age" is recognized as succeeding the Late Harappan (Cemetery H) culture. The main Iron Age archaeological cultures of present-day northern India are the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200 to 600 BCE) and the Northern Black Polished Ware (700 to 200 BCE). This corresponds to the transition of the or tribal kingdoms of the to the sixteen or kingdoms of the proto-historic period, culminating in the emergence of the historical Buddhist towards the end of the period. ✓ Use of Iron metal have eventually led to the establishment of large cities on the basis of a sizeable surplus and a super structure drawing upon this for its political power. Iron enters at different parts of India within different social contexts and hence the manifest resultant develops entirely different Iron Age features in different areas.

Gangetic Region

• The colonization of Ganga basin by Iron users can be taken as one of the best evidences of second urbanization of India. • Terra cotta figurines become much larger in frequency and they include horse, camel, humans as also in the form of riders. • The most important feature of this phase is the first time appearance of barley and rice cultivation in this zone. • Iron Age west of the Indus can be broadly ascribed to the time bracket of 1100-900 B.C. • These are usually large complexes of graves and are entirely known and defined from the accompanying grave goods. , Charsada and Timargarha are some of the important sites from this complex. • City structures in this region are not identifiable till about 500 B.C. Thus, like Pirak in south west, Gangharas receive this metal without any change in their pre-existing culture.

❖ Remarkable evidence of iron smelting and forging has come to light from Jodhpura. Iron implements also are varied and include such types as spear heads, arrow heads, socketed tangs, blades, sickles, axes, knives and tangs.

The Southern Zone: ✓ The Iron Age in South India till today is known entirely from a large and complex variety of burials and their accompanying grave goods like the Grave culture

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✓ Since these graves have elaborate stone arrangements around them these have traditionally been nicknamed as Megalithic culture. ✓ The iron implements which are common to all the Megalithic sites are flat axes with crossed straps, sickles, tripods, tridents, spear heads, multiple lamp hangers, arrow heads and lamps

New Evidences of Iron

The discovery of a site called Malhar in Chandauli district south of Banaras has changed the entire picture of iron having entered India from the west. Textual references of were usually cited to indicate that iron smelting technology arrived from the west between 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. The excavation carried out at Malhar revealed a sequence of four periods. 4. a. Explain any three absolute dating methods. 20

REFER from Booklet Sosin for Anthropology: Archaeological anthropology and Indian Archeology: Page no 82-85

4b. Social Stratification. 20 ❖ Social stratification is a society’s categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political). As such, stratification is the relative social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or social unit. ❖ Features of Stratified Society

• Formal, permanent, social and economic inequality. • Some people are denied access to basic resources. • Characterized by differences in standard of living, security, prestige and political power. • Economically organized by market systems (usually). • Based on intensive cultivation (agriculture) and industrialism. • Often associated with a form of political organization called the state. • Societies place people in categories. Social groups relate differently to each other depending on their status. • Achieved Status: CLASS • Ascribed Status: Race, Ethnicity, Caste ❖ Dimensions of Stratification i. Power—control resources in one’s own interest. ii. Wealth—accumulation of material resources or access to the means of producing these resources. iii. Prestige—social honor or respect ❖ Ascribed Vs. Achieved Status: Ascribed Status Social position into which a person is born. (sex, race, kinship group); Achieved Status Social position that a person chooses or achieves. (professor, criminal, artist) +91 – 99899 66744 www.sosinclasses.com

❖ Caste System o System of stratification based on birth. o Movement from one caste to another is not possible. o Castes are hereditary, endogamous, ranked in relation to one another and usually associated with a traditional occupation ❖ Hindu Caste System ❖ U.S. Racial Stratification Systems

4c. Cultural relativism. 10

❖ It is a method whereby social and cultural phenomena are perceived and described

1. With scientific analysis and detachment. 2. In terms of their significance in a given socio-cultural context. 3. Without using the values of one culture to judge the worth of another. ❖ Cultural Relativism as a method in Anthropology: Franz Boas calls Cultural Relativism as Axiomatic (necessary and self-evident); Herskovitz “Judgments are based on experience and experience is interpreted by each individual in terms of his own enculturation” ❖ However, It does not give intellectual warrant for some group to behave in whatever way they deem fit - its appropriateness should always be evaluated based on wider cultural significance ❖ Proponents of this philosophy insist that it’s a strong movement toward pluralism and tolerance. By making all ethical and moral opinions equal, the relativist eliminates the possibility for cultural “wrongness” and instead terms other cultures as simply different. This makes the ethnocentricity of the past impossible. The relativist insists that he or she is being inclusive, open minded and culturally sensitive. As our world becomes smaller through globalization, we must abandon the habits of cultural judgment and labeling. ❖ Critics of cultural relativism point out the dangers of this philosophy. Instead of making us more sensitive and tolerant to other cultures, we are knowingly allowing injustices to occur around the world. According to cultural relativism, human rights are culturally relative.. ❖ Critics argue that the philosophy leaves no room for the human capacity to reason, investigate, and perhaps ultimately come to a new conclusion. ❖ CONCLUSION • Cultural relativists believe that all cultures are worthy in their own right and are of equal value. Diversity of cultures, even those with conflicting moral beliefs, is not to be considered in terms of right and wrong or good and bad. • Today’s anthropologist considers all cultures to be equally legitimate expressions of human existence, to be studied from a purely neutral persecutive. • Cultural relativists are generally opposed to missionary work. • Also, The current movement to “understand” radical Islam—rather than to fight it—is a sign that relativism is making gains.

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5a. Homo erectus narmadensis • The discovery in 1982 of a fossilized skull in the central Narmada valley in Madhya Pradesh, India, provides the first scientifically recorded evidence of human skeletal remains from the Indian subcontinent dating to the late Middle Pleistocene of 300,000 to 150,000 years ago. • Dr. Arun Sonakia found this fossil • Preserved parts of the specimen are the left side of the cranial vault, most of the base of the skull, and the left half of the brow ridges and orbit • The fossilized animal remains in the deposit—cattle, buffalo, elephant—include some species that are now extinct, but they are reliable “index fossils” of the late Middle Pleistocene • The French investigator, Dr. Marie-Antoinette de Lumley, recognized that some physical features of the calvaria were not typically those found in Homo erectus fossils from southeast Asia, China, and Africa. For example, the cranial capacity of these Early and Middle Pleistocene specimens averages 1,000 cm3, but estimates for the Narmada cranial vault fell between 1,155 and 1,421 cm3, values within the range of anatomically archaic Homo sapiens. Dr. de Lumley christened Narmada Man as an “evolved Homo erectus.” • The archaeological data do not rule out the possibility that Homo erectus had inhabited the Indian subcontinent, but fossil remains of this species have not been recovered. The importance of the Narmada calvaria is that it demonstrates that the Acheulian tool tradition was practiced by early sapiens in a part of the world that lies between the richer hominid fossil sites in Africa and in southeast Asia and the Far East.

5b. Central Indian • A gradual process of development speeded by favorable climatic changes and increased cultural contacts led to the development of the Chalcolithic cultures of Central India between 5000–3200 B.P. Existing Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities with rural economies based on agriculture and pastoralism gradually developed first into incipient chiefdom-based societies and later after 4400 B.P. with Harappan contact flourished and developed into chiefdom societies centered on regional centers. • Division: The Early Chalcolithic (3200-2600 B. C.), which includes the early Ahar and Banas cultures of central Rajasthan, as well as the early Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture in the north. The Mature Chalcolithic (2500-2000 B. C.) is best represented at sites such as Balathal and Gilund, but also includes the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture in the north. The Late Chalcolithic (2000-1700 B. C.) corresponds to the final phases of the Harappan and the Late Harappan period of the Indus Valley. • The geographical diversity of western India, the variable rainfall patterns, and the orientation of major river systems allowed the development of regional variations in cultures

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• The subsistence economy was based on a combination of farming (wheat, barley, and millet) and animal husbandry (cattle, with some sheep and goat), supplemented by hunting and gathering. • The major ceramic tradition is painted black on red pottery, • Lithic technology included a stone blade industry, using agate and chalcedony as well as locally available cherts, and ground stone objects such as adzes and axes, There is only a limited use of copper. • Evidence for cotton, flax, and silk have been discovered at Inamgaon. • House: During the Chalcolithic, houses were generally built using either a rectangular or a circular floor plan. The lower walls were packed mud and stone, and the upper part of the building was made with reed walls, plastered with clay, and thatch roofs. • Several large residential structures, found outside the fortified building, have small rectangular rooms used for hearths or storage. A north-south street runs through the settlement and would have accommodated two-way cart traffic. Evidence for the use of carts is based on an inscribed pot from Inamgaon . • Terra-cotta bull figurines, as well as male and female figurines, have been found at most sites. • Chalcolithic burials are quite simple, and during the Savalda Phase at Kaothe, both adults and children were buried beneath or between the huts, laid in extended supine position, in an oval pit with no grave goods. • The Chalcolithic cultures of central India show a sudden decline around 1000 B. C., probably due to increased aridity. Though some settlements, such as Inamgaon in the southern Deccan, continue to be inhabited until around 700 B. C., many other regions appear to have been abandoned. • Iron-using peoples who built megaliths began to arrive in the Deccan around 800 B. C., and they may have been instrumental in the final demise of sites such as Inamgaon. 5c. Sivapithecus • Sivapithecus occupies an important place on the prehistoric primate evolutionary flow chart: This slender, five-foot-long ape marked the time when early primates descended from the comforting shelter of trees and started to explore the wide-open grasslands. • Features: 1. Habitat: Woodlands of 2. Historical Epoch: Middle-Late Miocene (12-7 million years ago) 3. Size and Weight: About five feet long and 50-75 pounds 4. Diet: Plants 5. Distinguishing Characteristics: Chimpanzee-like feet; flexible wrists; large canines • The late Miocene Sivapithecus possessed chimpanzee-like feet with flexible ankles, but otherwise it resembled an orangutan, to which it may have been directly ancestral.

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• This primate's large canines and heavily enameled molars point to a diet of tough tubers and stems (such as would be found on the open plains) rather than tender fruits (such as would be found in trees). • Sivapithecus is intimately associated with Ramapithecus, a now-downgraded genus of central Asian primate, discovered in the country of Nepal, that was once considered to be directly ancestral to modern humans. • There are three named species of Sivapithecus, each dating to slightly different time frames. The type species, S. indicus, discovered in India in the late 19th century, lived from about 12 million to 10 million years ago; a second species. S. sivalensis, discovered in northern India and Pakistan in the early 1930's, lived from about nine to eight million years ago; and a third species, S. parvada, discovered on the Indian subcontinent in the 1970's, was significantly bigger than the other two and helped drive home the affinities of Sivapithecus with modern orangutans.

5d. Bhimbetka • The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site in central India that spans the prehistoric paleolithic and mesolithic periods, as well as the historic period. It exhibits the earliest traces of human life on the Indian subcontinent and evidence of Stone Age starting at the site in Acheulian times. It is located in the Raisen District in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. • They were discovered and revealed to the world by V.-S. Wakankar from 1957 onwards. • Cave paintings show themes such as animals, early evidence of dance and hunting. • One rock, popularly referred to as "Zoo Rock", depicts elephants, barasingha (swamp deer), bison and deer. Paintings on another rock show a peacock, a snake, a deer and the sun. Hunting scenes with hunters carrying bows, arrows, swords and shields.. • The paintings are classified largely in two groups, one as depiction of hunters and food gatherers, while other one as fighters, riding on horses and elephant carrying metal weapons. the first group of paintings dates to prehistoric times while second one dates to historic times. • In one of the desolate rock shelters, the painting of a man holding a trident-like staff and dancing has been named "Nataraj" by archaeologist V. S. Wakankar 5e. Mount Carmel man

• Progressive Neanderthal man; Mount carmel,Palestine • Situated on the western slopes of the Mount Carmel range, the site includes the Characteristics.

1) the cranial capacity less than classic, about 1400cc, closer to average of modern man. 2) the skull was longer than la chapelle and was less broad giving a higher caphalicindex. 3) skull was comparatively high vaulted. +91 – 99899 66744 www.sosinclasses.com

4) Forehead was less receding and occipital region was slightly projecting. caves of Tabun, Jamal, el-Wad and Skhul. 5) the supraorbital torus,though slightly present did not make a continuous rounded ridge as a la chapelie man. 6)orbits were comparatively more rounded. 7) Maxilla did not project in muzzle like fashion 8) the nose was less broad with nostrils less widely separated 9) Lower jaw though slightly larger than modernman had distinct chin 10)skull was less rough,suggesting lesserdevelopment of attachment surfaces in comparision to that of la chapelle TOOL TYPOLOGY

• Flint tools, animal bones and human burials found in the Carmel Caves : understanding of the physical and cultural evolution. • The site depicts human evolution demonstrating the unique existence of both Neanderthals andEarly Anatomically Modern Humans within the same Middle Palaeolithic cultural framework, the Mousterian.

The Tabun Cave (Cave of the Oven)

• The earliest deposits contain large amounts of sea sand. This, and pollen traces found, suggest a relatively warm climate. The cave dwellers used handaxes of flint or limestone for killing animals and for digging out plant roots. • The diet of the people consisted of fruit, seeds, roots and leaves with a supplement of meat gazelle, fallow deer, roe deer, and wild boar.

The Skhul Cave (Cave of the Kids)

• Numerous human burials dated to approximately the same time were found in this nearby cave. Fourteen skeletons were uncovered, defined as an archaic type of Homo sapiens, closely related to modern humans in physical appearance. The finds from these graves also show evidence of cult and rituals related to death and the spiritual realm

The El-Wad Cave (Cave of the Valley)

• Important finds from this cave are of the Natufian culture (10,500 to 8,500 BCE), a highly developed culture . It signals the transition from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic cultures, from plant-gathering and animal-hunting to plant-growing and animal-domestication. • The settlement is believed to have been permanent • There were microliths of lunate shape, used as arrowheads, for harpoons and as fish hooks and larger tools made of rough chunks of flint for cracking bones and hard- shelled seeds. +91 – 99899 66744 www.sosinclasses.com

6. a. Rhodesian man 15

• Rhodesian Man (Homo rhodesiensis) is a hominin fossil that was described from a cranium found in an iron and zinc mine in Northern Rhodesia (now Kabwe, Zambia) in 1921 by Tom Zwiglaar, a Swiss miner. Kabwe cranium, also called Broken Hill cranium, fossilized skull of an extinct human species (genus Homo) found near the town of Kabwe, Zambia (formerly Broken Hill, Northern Rhodesia), in 1921. It was the first discovered remains of premodern Homo in Africa • The nearly complete cranium was found in association with a jaw fragment, a sacrum, and portions of pelvis and limb bones. The fossils, popularly known as Rhodesian man and at first given the taxonomic name H. rhodesiensis, convinced some scholars that African Homo lagged behind Eurasian Homo in acquiring modern anatomy • they are usually attributed to the archaic human species H. heidelbergensis, • Other designations such as Homo sapiens arcaicus and Homo sapiens rhodesiensis have also been proposed. Scholars like White (2003) have suggested Rhodesian Man as ancestral to Homo sapiens idaltu (Herto Man)

Features:

1) the skull reconstructed from available bones indicate to be narrow and long in the shape.

2) the cranial capacity has been variously measured tobe from 1280-1400cc.

3) supraorbital ridges are prominent and fore-head is receding

4) Maxillae and pallate are massive.

5 )orbits are high and enlarged

6) teeth ingeneral are like those of modern sapiens.

7) face is muzzle like in appearance. Rhodesian man exhibits erectus neanderthal and sapiens features at the same time hence its taxonomic status has been a matter of controversy.

✓ The Kabwe skull has archaic features, being massive and flattened in profile with brow ridges that are very large and continuous across the nasal bridge.The cranial capacity of 1,280 cc is nearly as large as that of modern humans. • The age of the remains is difficult to establish, but animal fossils also found at the site imply a date of 500,000 to 300,000 years ago. Unlike sites of comparable age in this region, the tool collection lacks Acheulean hand axes, although some were found in an excavation 280 km (170 miles) away. 6b. Upper Paleolithic culture in India 25

REFER from Booklet Sosin for Anthropology: Archeological anthropology and Indian Archeology: Page no 126 +91 – 99899 66744 www.sosinclasses.com

6c. Hathnora. 10

• The emergence of anatomically modern Homo sapiens in South Asia is hotly debated due to a great gap in fossil record. A solitary partial cranium from Hathnora interpreted as “evolved” Homo erectus or “archaic” Homo sapiens or Homo heidelbergensis or even Homo indet. • Narmada fossils and archaeological findings support the presence of three hominins- two ‘archaic’ and one ‘early modern’. • The femur was recovered from the same Middle Pleistocene stratigraphic level that yielded calvarium at Hathnora and shares robust mosaic morphology of Homo erectus and archaic Homo sapiens.

• The mega mammalian fauna and large flake Acheulian artefacts excavated from the femur and the calvarium beds support existence of a large robust hominin at ~250 kya.

• Conclusion

The Narmada Pleistocene hominins thus would throw open several possibilities and secrets of human evolution in South and Southeast Asia. It is also because Narmada valley occupies a strategic mid- place in South Asia as well as between Africa/Europe in the west and the South-East Asia in the east, and was the major East-West inter-continental link and passage. The equable climate of Narmada valley, the Central Narmada valley and thousands of prehistoric rock shelters of the Satpura and Vindhyan hills served the ancient abodes and centres of artistic activities down through history. I therefore viewed the region as a “paradise of the Prehistoric man” in South Asia.

7. a. Underwater archaeology wing in Archaeological survey of India. 15

✓ Marine archaeology, also known as maritime, nautical or underwater archaeology deals with the 'scientific study of the material remains of man and his past activities on the sea'. ✓ Marine archaeology is primarily concerned with the documentation, investigation and recovery of material remains and physical traces of maritime communities, technologies and practices. ✓ The material remains of the activities of men can be traced in and alongside seas, lakes and rivers. Sunken ships, cargo, tools and anchors lost in voyages are important sources of information. Maritime archaeology is defined as "the scientific study of the material remains of man and his activities on the sea". ✓ India has 7,516 km long coastline, 1197 islands and 155,889 sq. km of territorial waters and 2,013,410 sq. km exclusive economic zone. The vast water area of the country is rich in underwater cultural heritage. The importance of underwater archaeology was realized as early as in the VI five-year plan. ✓ Beginning of underwater can be traced back to 1981. Off shore explorations in the country have generated a lot of popularity to this discipline. Establishment of the Underwater Archaeology Wing (UAW) in the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 2001 marked a major step towards the development of the subject.

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✓ Since its inception the UAW is actively engaged in conducting underwater archaeological studies in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.

The UAW is engaged in –

▪ Documentation of underwater sites and ancient shipwrecks. ▪ Training of professional archaeologists, young researchers and students. ▪ Conduct of seminars to discuss various aspects and to bring awareness . ▪ Protection of underwater cultural heritage.

❖ The foremost objectives of marine archaeology are: (i) to discover, excavate, interpret and preserve for posterity the underwater cultural heritage of our country, (ii) to reconstruct the history of maritime trade and maritime structures such as docks, wharves, warehouses, ship repairing yards, etc., (iii) to trace the development of boat building and navigational technology by excavating submerged ports and sunken ships, (iv) to preserve antiquities for scientific and educational purposes, (v) to study shoreline changes, coastal erosion, sedimentation, and the like through a study of habitational remains in areas adjoining the sea, and (vi) to study the effect of marine environments on metal and wooden objects and on other perishable materials.

b. Contributions of H D Sankalia to Indian Archeology. 25

REFER from Booklet Sosin for Anthropology: Archaeological anthropology and Indian Archeology: Page no 162

c. Adaptive radiation. 10

✓ An adaptive radiation is a rapid evolutionary radiation characterized by an increase in the morphological and ecological diversity of a single, rapidly diversifying lineage. Phenotypes adapt in response to the environment, with new and useful traits arising. This is an evolutionary process driven by natural selection

✓ With their remarkable species richness, which is often accompanied by striking morphological diversity, adaptive radiations are the ultimate showcases of evolution through natural selection.

Characteristics Four features can be used to identify an adaptive radiation:

1. A common ancestry of component species. 2. A phenotype-environment correlation. 3. Trait utility: the performance or fitness advantages of trait 4. Rapid speciation

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Conditions Adaptive radiation tends to take place under the following conditions:

1. A new habitat has opened up: a volcano, for example, can create new ground in the middle of the ocean like Hawaii and the Galapagos. 2. This new habitat is relatively isolated.. 3. The new habitat has a wide availability of niche space. Example Darwin's finches: Darwin's finches Represented by approximately 15 species, Darwin's finches are Galapagos endemics famously adapted for a specialized feeding behaviour

8. a. Out of Africa theory. 25

1. There are two competing hypotheses on the origin of modern humans: the Out-of-Africa hypothesis and the multiregional hypothesis. Both agree that Homo erectus originated in Africa and expanded to Eurasia about one million years ago, but they differ in explaining the origin of modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens). The first hypothesis proposes that a second migration out of Africa happened about 100,000 years ago, in which anatomically modern humans of African origin conquered the world by completely replacing archaic human populations.The multiregional hypothesis states that independent multiple origins or shared multiregional evolution with continuous gene flow between continental populations occurred in the million years since Homo erectus came out of Africa. 2. Anthropologists, like Milford Wolpoff, challenge the ‘Out of Africa’ theory and suggest that all living humans did not come from one place, but rather evolved together over time in several geographic regions. 3. Wolpoff coined the term ‘multiregional evolution’ and developed a hypothesis that suggests ancient humans existed in multiple parts of the globe, as they do today, and evolved and adapted separately to their respective environments. 4. “Out Of Africa” theory was questioned: due to inconsistent evidence in Australia. The skeletal and tool remains that have been found there are strikingly different from those elsewhere on the “coastal expressway” – the route through South Asia taken by the early settlers. 5. The farther the population was from Africa, the less varied its genetic makeup. The reason being that, as humans spread out from the cradle of civilization, their population sizes dropped. That also meant there was less genetic diversity to go around. • Counter Argument: Australia's archaeological record provides several apparent inconsistencies with the “Out Of Africa” theory. In particular, the earliest known Australian skeletons, from Lake Mungo, are relatively slender and gracile in form, whereas younger skeletal finds are much more robust. • The archaeological data also indicates an intensification of the density and complexity of different stone tools in Australia during the Holocene period (beginning around 10,000 years BP), in particular the emergence of backed-blade stone technology. The first dingos arrived at around the same time, and it is thought both were brought to the continent by new human arrivals – leading to theories of a secondary migration that has resulted in disputes regarding the single point of origin theory. CONCLUSION : Anthropologists have these two plausible theories for the origins of humanity — each one having substantial evidence to both support and deny its validity. There +91 – 99899 66744 www.sosinclasses.com

is still much to learn, find, and explore. For now, if no one can clearly define what constitutes a modern human, then how can we begin to identify which ancient hominin is “the first” modern human — Homo sapiens. b. Skeletal changes due to erect posture. 25 ➢ Evolution is characterized by two attributes: one is to find sustenance for life and the other, the need to multiply. Any or all changes in shape, size, cerebration and adaptations are engendered by need to meet these primary requirements . ➢ Acquisition of a bipedal mode of locomotion is considered the first and most important apomorphy in hominin evolution. ➢ The anatomical changes associated with erect posture and bipedal gait are found throughout the body- toes, legs, vertebral column, pelvis, skull, and various muscles. ❖ It is proposed that bipedalism increased the energetic efficiency of travel and that this was an important factor in the origin of bipedal locomotion. 1. Foot The big toe or hallux is enlarged and projects beyond the other toes, but it is in line with other toes. The bones of the foot are arranged in such a way that a marked longitudinal arch is formed along the inner side of the foot. There is a less marked longitudinal arch along the outer side, They ensure that the weight of the body is evenly distributed over the sole.. 2. Knee Joint The large human knee joint is particularly well adapted for weight bearing and locomotion. The lower limbs are elongated. The femur is angled inward so that the legs are directly under the body. 3. Pelvis The ilium bones become shorter and broader for balancing the weight of the body and for transmitting it from the vertebral column to the limbs. 4. Vertebral Column The Vertebral column of man is adapted to his upright posture. It has two distinct curves, a backward thoracic one (convex) and a forward lumbar one. These two curvatures keep the trunk and weight centered above the pelvis. 5. Upper Limb Man’s upper limb shows some anatomical specializations including the freedom and mobility of the shoulder joint. Also the human hand can be brought into almost any position. 6. Skull The cranium becomes globular and voluminous. The foramen magnum at the base of the skull is placed further forward and as such the head is balanced on the vertebral column.

❖ Implications ✓ The evolution of erect posture may be associated with the disappearance of thick forests and their replacement with small woods where bipedalism became the mode of locomotion as an adaptive response to life in the tall grasses of savanna. They could thus spot ground ✓ Another model accounts for better dispersion of body when the head is raised and less surface is exposed to the sun during the hottest time of the day. Resulting in thermoregulation of the brain.

✓ Tool use and tool making favoured bipedalism. It was an appropriate adaptation for hominids to scavenge food.

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