Kamil Burkiewicz*

Cosmogonic and Anthropogenic Myths in Sui Oral Literature DOI: http://dx.doi.org/1 0.12775/LC.2019.028

Abstract: This article provides a brief and selective introduction to the Sui oral literature, thematically limited to cosmogonic and anthropogenic myths. An essential description is provided of the Sui living in southern , mainly in rural areas of the southwestern region of Province, their society, numbering 400 thousand people many of whom still preserve indigenous customs and traditions, and their language which, as other members of the Kam-Sui branch of the Tai-Kadai family, possess analytic, isolating and tonal features. The description is followed by an explanation of the most popular motifs of the Sui oral literature, many of which are shared with neighbouring ethnic groups. Separate paragraphs are also dedicated to the genres and structural characteristics of Sui oral literature that have a special social function as the repository of people’s collective memory. The literature is exemplified through fragments of two songs recorded in Li Fanggui’s Studies on the (1966), accompanied by English glosses and poetic renderings. The latter constitute the first attempt to translate Sui literature while preserving its syllabic structure and rhymes. 183

Keywords: Sui, oral literature, myths 2(30) 2019

* PhD in linguistics; assistant professor at the Chair of Oriental Studies, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. His research field concern languages and cultures of ethnic minorities in China, especially the , and their relations with and culture.

E-mail: [email protected] | ORCID: 0000-0002-7839-1051. LITTERARIA COPERNICANA ISSNp 1899-315X 183–195 ss. Kosmogeniczne i antropogeniczne mity w literaturze ustnej Sui

Streszczenie: Artykuł stanowi szkicowe i selektywne wprowadzenie do literatury ustnej ludu Sui w południowych Chinach, ograniczone tematycznie do mitów kosmo- i antropogenicznych. Przegląd najpopularniejszych motywów, często spotykanych także wśród sąsiednich grup etnicz- nych, poprzedzony jest zwięzłym opisem społeczności Sui, której populacja, licząca około 400 tys. ludzi, zamieszkuje głównie rolnicze obszary południowo-wschodniej części prowincji Guizhou, oraz jej języka, który, podobnie do innych członków gałęzi kam-sui rodziny taj-kadajskiej, charakteryzuje się analitycznością, izolacyjnością i tonalnością. Osobne akapity poświęcono gatunkom i specyfice literatury oralnej. Dla Sui, którzy wciąż pielęgnują tradycyjne zwyczaje i kulturę, pełni ona szczegól- ną funkcję nośnika pamięci zbiorowej. Całość została zilustrowana wybranymi fragmentami pieśni zebranych przez Li Fanggui’a w Studies on the Sui Language (1966). Umieszczone pod nimi angiel- skie tłumaczenia stanowią pierwszą próbę przekładu utworów literatury Sui z zachowaniem orygi- nalnej struktury i rymów.

Słowa kluczowe: Sui, literatura ustna, mity

184

2(30) 2019 versions, constituting the first attempt to translate Sui literature while preserving its syllabic structure and rhymes.

Key words: Sui, oral literature, myths Brother and sister taking refugePODPIS in a giant ILUSTRACJI gourd during an apocalyptic flood Author: Kamil Burkiewicz

FragmentFragment 1: Verses 1: Verses 1- 61 –of6 of the the opening opening song song (Li (Li 1966: 1966: 2). 2). tsaːu4 ttsisaːu5 4 zəntsi1 5 ʔzbənə1n 1 me2 ʔbɕəən1n me1 2 ɕətin61 ti6 begin begincreate create man man skysky NEGNEG become become earth earth Ere man’s dawn, sky stuck on earth.

LITTERARIA COPERNICANA Ere man’s dawn, sky stuck on earth. ʔbən1 tsaːu4 tsi5 ti6 me2 ɕən1 ʔbən1 1 4 5 6 2 1 1 ʔbən skytsa ːubegin tsi create tiearth NEGme become ɕən sky ʔbən sky Erebegin sky’s create birth, earth stuckearth on NEG sky. become sky Ere skyme’2s ɕə birth,n1 ʔearthbən1 stuckɕən1 on sky.ʔnam 1 tin2 lan2 NEG CLF 2 1 become sky1 become1 rock1 big2 2 me ɕFormerən sky,ʔb əhugen formɕ ofən rock. ʔnam tin lan NEG becomeʔdaːn3 ʔdau sky1 qu 3 lu3 sjen1become CLFpan 1rock bigsum 3 ɕau3 fu2 ho3 Formerhard sky, hugewheel form deity of divide rock. SUC know wealth poverty Hard disk split by god’s knock, judged wealth from few. ʔdaːn3 ʔdau1 qu3 lu3 sjen1 pan1 sum3 ɕau3 fu2 ho3 ti6 qaːu5 qo3 mi4 ɣo3 fuŋ1 tsən1 hard wheel deity divide SUC know wealth poverty ancient times MODP NEG know word proper Hard Olddisk times split phew, by god none’s knew knock, what’s judged right. wealth from few. ti6 qaːufə5n 1 tən1 qo3 m̥ a1 miɕə4 n1 ɣo3 li6 tshuŋfuŋ13 tskʰaːiən1 3 ancientprimordial times MODP chaos come NEGbecome know knowledge word proper open Tight matter, foresight came through. Old times phew, none knew what’s right. fən1 tən1 m̥ a1 ɕən1 li6 tshuŋ3 kʰaːi3 primordial chaos come become knowledge open Tight matter, foresight came through.

0. At the dusk of the 1930s, after the Republic of China’s military forces once again succumbed to the Japanese invading army and eventually lost control over the important region of Wuhan (武汉 Wǔhàn), all governmental institutions, along with the masses of refugees, were transferred to Chongqing (重庆 Chóngqìng). Since then, the heart of the war-torn state started to beat in its erstwhile southwestern periphery – an area ethnically, culturally and linguistically unfamiliar to the immigrants displaced from the unsteady eastern provinces. Despite the difficult conditions, the academic staff of the evacuated universities was able to partially return to their proper activities. Various so far remote and little known ethnic groups, including those living in Guizhou Province2, henceforth became one of the few accessible research objects for the resettled linguists and other scholars. Among the many local communities on which systematic field surveys were conducted were the Sui people3, inhabitants of the southwestern part of Guizhou Province and its surroundings. It did not take long for the pioneer papers exploring selected aspects of the Sui culture to come out and intrigue academic circles. Cen Jiawu’s article titled “The Books of Sui and the Origin of Sui Ethnicity” provided preliminary insight into the original logographic

2 Guizhou (贵州 Guìzhōu) – a province in the People’s Republic of China, located in the southwestern part of the country. 3 水族 Shuǐzú, [sui³]. Original Sui terms are annotated with superscripted numbers from one to eight, repre- senting the respective tones. versions, constituting the first attempt to translate Sui literature while preserving its syllabic structure and rhymes. Key words: Sui, oral literature, myths

Fragment 1: Verses 1-6 of the opening song (Li 1966: 2). tsaːu4 tsi5 zən1 ʔbən1 me2 ɕən1 ti6 begin create man sky NEG become earth Ere man’s dawn, sky stuck on earth. ʔbən1 tsaːu4 tsi5 ti6 me2 ɕən1 ʔbən1 sky begin create earth NEG become sky Ere sky’s birth, earth stuck on sky. me2 ɕən1 ʔbən1 ɕən1 ʔnam1 tin2 lan2 NEG become sky become CLF rock big Former sky, huge form of rock. ʔdaːn3 ʔdau1 qu3 lu3 sjen1 pan1 sum3 ɕau3 fu2 ho3 hard wheel deity divide SUC know wealth poverty Hard disk split by god’s knock, judged wealth from few. ti6 qaːu5 qo3 mi4 ɣo3 fuŋ1 tsən1 ancient times MODP NEG know word proper Old times phew, none knew what’s right. fən1 tən1 m̥ a1 ɕən1 li6 tshuŋ3 kʰaːi3 primordial chaos come become knowledge open Tight matter, foresight came through.

0. At the dusk of the 1930s, after the Republic of China’s military forces once again succumbed to the Japanese invading army and eventually lost control over the important region of Wuhan (武汉 Wǔhàn), all governmental institutions, along with the masses of refugees, were transferredAt the dusk to Chongqingof the 1930s, (after重庆 the Chóngqìng Republic of) . SinceChina’s then,military the forces heart once of againthe war suc--torn state started tocumbed beat into theits Japaneseerstwhile invading southwestern army and peripheryeventually lost – ancontrol area over ethnically, the important culturally region and linguistically of Wuhan (武汉 Wǔhàn), all governmental institutions, along with the masses of refugees, unfamiliar to the immigrants displaced from the unsteady eastern provinces. Despite the were transferred to Chongqing (重庆 Chóngqìng). Since then, the heart of the war-torn difficultstate started conditions, to beat in its the erstwhile academic southwestern staff of periphery – the evacuated an area universities ethnically, culturally was able and to partially return tolinguistically their proper unfamiliar activities. to the Various immigrants so fardisplaced remote from and the little unsteady known eastern ethnic provinces. groups, including those livingDespite in the Guizhou difficult Province conditions,2, henceforththe academic becamestaff of theone evacuated of the few universities accessible was able research to objects for thepartially resettled return linguists to their proper and otheractivities. scholars. Various so far remote and little known ethnic groups, 1 includingAmong those the living many in Guizhou local communitiesProvince , henceforth on which became systematic one of the field few accessible surveys were conducted research objects for the resettled linguists and other scholars. were the Sui people3, inhabitants of the southwestern part of Guizhou Province and its Among the many local communities on which systematic field surveys were conduct- 185 surroundings.ed were the Sui peopleIt did 2,not inhabitants take long of thefor southwestern the pioneer part papers of Guizhou exploring Province selected and its aspects of the Sui culturesurroundings. to come It did out not andtake long intrigue for the academic pioneer papers circles. exploring Cen Jiawu’sselected aspectsarticle of titled the “The Books of SuiSui cultureand the to Origincome out of and Sui intrigue Ethnicity” academic provided circles. Cenpreliminary Jiawu’s article insight titled into The theBooks original of logographic Sui and the Origin of Sui Ethnicity provided preliminary insight into the original logographic used by the Sui shamans and its role in people’s daily life (1943). At about 2(30) 2019 2 the Guizhou same period, (贵州 LiGuìzh Fanggui,ōu) – aa renownedprovince in historical the People’s linguist, Republic focused of hisChina, field located works inon the the southwestern part of phonologythe country. of the Sui language. Studies on the Sui Language, a collection of his research, was 3 水族 Shuǐzú, [sui³]. Original Sui terms are annotated with superscripted numbers from one to eight, repre- published in 1966 and covered 119 pieces of oral literature, mostly songs, representing the senting the respective tones. region of Shuiyan3 (the first 84 pieces), as well as Shuili4 (the other 35 pieces). These pieces

1 Guizhou (贵州 Guìzhōu) – a province in the People’s Republic of China, located in the southwestern part of the country. 2 Shuǐzú 水族, [sui³]. Original Sui terms are annotated with superscripted numbers from one to eight, repre- senting the respective tones. 3 Shuiyan Township (水岩乡 Shuǐyán Xiāng) – an administrative division in the eastern part of Dushan Coun- ty, bordering Sandu Sui in the east. 4 Shuili Township (水利乡 Shuǐlì Xiāng) – an administrative division in the northern part of (荔波

县 Lìbō Xiàn), located south of Sandu Sui Autonomous County. LITTERARIA COPERNICANA writing system used by the Sui shamans and its role in people’s daily life (1943). At about the same period, Li Fanggui, a renowned historical linguist, focused his field works on the phonology of the Sui language. “Studies on the Sui Language”, a collection of his research, was published in 1966 and covered 119 pieces of oral literature, mostly songs, representing the region of Shuiyan4 (the first 84 pieces), as well as Shuili5 (the other 35 pieces). These pieces can serve as a guide through the most popular motifs in Sui cosmogonic and anthropogenic myths, and provide an opportunity to gain a cursory glimpse at the characteristics of this still imperfectly known literary heritage. This article constitutes a brief and selective exploration of Sui oral literature, thematicallycan serve limited as a guide to thethrough myths the mostdescribing popular the motifs creation in Sui cosmogonic of the world and andanthropogenic human beings. The myths, and provide an opportunity to gain a cursory glimpse at the characteristics of this part devoted to the most popular motifs, many of which can also be observed among the still imperfectly known literary heritage. neighbouringThis ethnic article groups,constitutes is apreceded brief and selectiveby an essential exploration introduction of Sui oral literature, to the thematiSui, their- society and theircally language. limited to the A mythsseparate describing paragraph the creation describes of the the world characteristics and human beings. of Sui The oralpart literature, includingdevoted basic to genres, the most structural popular motifs, and manyfunctional of which properties can also be. observed among the neigh- Oralbouring literature ethnic that groups, will is be preceded described by anin essentialthis article introduction is exemplified to the Sui,through their societyfragments of two and their language. A separate paragraph describes the characteristics of Sui oral literature, opening songs of Li Fanggui’s work, dealing with the creation of the world and mankind. including basic genres, structural and functional properties. “Studies onOral the literature Sui Language” that will be is described still the inmost this articleextensive is exemplified compilation through of fragmentsSui literary of pieces in native two language opening form. songs of Other Li Fanggui’s available work, sources, dealing with apart the creation from a of few the world stories and and mankind. songs presented mostly Studiesin non on-dedicated the Sui Language publications is still the (cf. most Pan extensive & Wei 2004, compilation Zeng of2004, Sui literary Wei 2011, pieces Lai in 2012, Wei 2012), nativeappear language as translations form. Other or available only cursory sources, storylines apart from ina few Chinese stories and(cf. songs Fan present1987, -Zu & Zhou ed mostly in non-dedicated publications (cf. Pan & Wei 2004, Zeng 2004, Wei 2011, Lai 1988). Since some of the symbols utilised by Li Fanggui for phonetic notations differ from the 2012, Wei 2012), appear as translations or only cursory storylines in Chinese (cf. Fan 1987, presentZu standard & Zhou of1988). the InternationalSince some of thePhonetic symbols utilised by (IPA), Li Fanggui in this for article, phonetic the nota original- has beentions adjusted differ from according the present to commentary standard of the found International in Lai Jingru’s Phonetic PhDAlphabet thesis (IPA), “A Linguistic Study ofin this Li article, Fanggui's the original Sui Language script has Text been Collection”adjusted according (2015) to. commentary Phonetic transcriptions found in of the fragmentsLai Jingru’s of songs PhD given thesis inA Linguistic this article Study are of Li acco Fanggui’smpanied Sui Language by English Text interlinearCollection glossing, (2015). Phonetic transcriptions of the fragments6 of songs given in this article are ac- abbreviated according to Leipzig Glossing Rules , as well as by nonliteral, poetic renditions, companied by English interlinear glossing, abbreviated according to Leipzig Glossing which Rulesconstitu5, aste well the as firstby nonliteral, ever attempt poetic torenditions, translate which Sui constitute literature the while first preserving ever attempt its syllabic structureto translate and rhymes. Sui literature Other while than preservingliterary citations its syllabic, this structure article and also rhymes. employs Other IPAthan for all Sui languageliterary terms citations, and names. this article Chinese also terminology employs IPA appears for all Sui both language in a romanised terms and formnames. according to the HanyuChinese terminology standard appears and bothin the in a original romanised notation form according, represented to the Hanyu by simplified Pinyin Chinese standard and in the original notation, represented by simplified . All characters. All translations and illustrations included in the paper, with the exception of those translations and illustrations included in the paper, with the exception of those other- otherwisewise credited, credited, areare this author’sauthor’s own own work. work. 186 Fragment 2: Verses 7-18 of the opening song (Li 1966: 3). ʔjət7 ʔnam1 ʔbən1 ʔɣaːi3 ᵐbjeŋ5 ʔnam1 pjo6 tjo6 ta5 ȶʰiu1 ku3 one CLF day grow look like CLF gourd thick middle thin end On one day, gourd-like plant blew, true middle, thin ends. 2(30) 2019 sjen1 ɣo3 ʔbaːk7 pan1 waːk4 he4 ɣa1 deity know grow up divide split become two When grew fit, god split in two.

4 Shuiyan Township (水岩乡 Shuǐyán Xiāng) – an administrative division in the eastern part of , bordering Sandu Sui Autonomous County in the east. 5 Shuili Township (水利乡 Shuǐlì Xiāng) – an administrative division in the northern part of Libo County(荔波 县 Lìbō Xiàn), located south of Sandu Sui Autonomous County. 6 Meanings of abbreviations used in glossing are explained in Table 4 in the Appendix.

5 LITTERARIA COPERNICANA Meanings of abbreviations used in glossing are explained in Table 4 in the Appendix. ɕən1 ɣa1 ɕim3 kwaːŋ5 ham3 kwaːŋ5 lja2 become two CLF CLF face down CLF face up Made two parts, one up, one prone. mja1 ʔȵam1 kon3 tai2 tsa5 vaːt7 paːi1 ʔu1 hand CLF lift hold SUC wave go up Thrown by his hand, tossed against sky. vaːŋ1 jet7 nu2 tsən2 te3 ʔbən1 hoŋ1 haːu1 high over mountain slope below sky vast space Over high peak, streak across space. jaŋ2 tsʰjen3 li4 tsi5 ni4 ⁿda1 van1 PR create CLF.FEM sun [jaŋ2 tsʰjen3 li4], created suns. sup8 ȵi6 ni4 ⁿda1 van1 kaːŋ1 tʰau5 van1 saːn2 twelve CLF.FEM sun bright to night Twelve luminous suns, keep bright till night. sup8 ȵi6 ni4 njaːn2 kaːŋ1 tʰau5 van1 ɕət7 twelve CLF.FEM moon bright to morning Twelve moons on sight, show might till morn. ʔbən1 tsaːu4 sət7 tan3 tjum1 ɕət7 tjum1 qaːŋ1 sky begin produce wear hat iron hat steel Light was born, so put on steel hat. tan3 su4 ɕaːŋ1 tjum1 qaːŋ1 tjum1 toŋ2 wear screen from sunlight hat steel hat copper Screen from that, steel hat, copper hat. tun1 laːu4 ljo3 joŋ2 tin2 paːk7 m̥ a1 heat up big CPL dissolve rock uneven 187 So hot ugh, stones crack rugged. tseŋ4 me2 ʔdai3 paːi1 peŋ5 ⁿda1 van1 bear NEG POT go shoot sun

Can’t bear it, let’s shoot those suns. 2(30) 2019

1. The1. Sui The people, Sui their people, history and their culture history and culture AtAt thethe time time when when Li Fanggui Li Fanggui was engaged was in collecting engaged language in collecting data in the language southwestern data in the southwesternpart of Guizhoupart of GuizhouProvince, theProvince whole region, the whole was still region only partly was controlledstill only bypartly the state controlled by administration. Even in the early years of the People’s Republic of China, local life in these the statemountainous, administration. poorly Evenaccessible in the areas early was organisedyears of accordingthe People's to its Republic own rules. ofIt wasChina, not local life in theseuntil mountainous, the fifties of poorlylast century accessible that the communistareas was governmentorganised initiated according a program to its of own sys- rules. It was nottematic until surveysthe fifties and effortsof last aimedcentury at acquiring that the knowledge communist about government the various communities initiated a program

of systematic surveys and efforts aimed at acquiring knowledge about the various LITTERARIA COPERNICANA communities that formed the complex ethnic patchwork of the region. Eventually, many minorities were officially recognised, including the Sui people. Today, with a population reaching 400,0007, the Sui are concentrated in Sandu Sui

7 According to the Fifth National Population Census of the People’s Republic of China: http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/renkoupucha/2000pucha/pucha.htm. that formed the complex ethnic patchwork of the region. Eventually, many minorities were officially recognised, including the Sui people. Today, with a population reaching 400,0006, the Sui are concentrated in Sandu Sui Autonomous County7 and the adjacent administrative divisions, including Libo County, Dushan County (独山县 Dúshān Xiàn) and City (都匀市 Dūyún Shì). This part of Guizhou Province, where members of Sui communities live in the neighbourhoods of Han (汉 Hàn), Bouyei (布依 Bùyī), Miao (苗 Miáo), Dong (侗 Dòng), Yao (瑶 Yáo), Zhuang (壮 Zhuàng) and other ethnic groups, is not, however, believed to be their place of origin. One view, held mainly by the ethnic Sui researchers, maintains that the roots of the Sui can be traced back to the times and lands of the Shang Dynasty (商 Shāng, 1600–1046 BC) (cf. Pan & Wei 2004: 11). On the other hand, the majority of Chinese scholars see the present Sui people as descendants of a branch sprouted from the tribes8 (cf. Zeng 2004: 37). Even the approximate period when the Sui settled in the present area remains a matter of controversy. The first known written source mentioning Sui people is a collec- tion of various myths and stories Red Ya (赤雅 Chì Yǎ), compiled in the last decades of the Ming Dynasty (明 Míng, 1368–1644). The Sui were at the time already submitted to the Chinese state and administered through officially recognized native chieftains. Regardless of the actual course of history, both the Sui and other ethnicities living in the same region reflect strong influences from the Central Plain civilization9. After settling down, the Sui people developed a highly patriarchal agricultural society. Living in char- acteristic wooden houses, traditionally two stories high and covered with shingled gable roofs, they opened up vast paddy fields as well as farmed fish and kept livestock. The Sui also became skilled in handicrafts, the most renowned of which is known as horse tail em- broidery10. Despite continuous struggles against the feudal oppression exercised by rep- resentatives of the imperial government, Chinese influences not only permeated the vo- cabulary of the Sui language, but also traditional customs. Sui shamans to this day refer to ancient Chinese astrological concepts to calculate auspicious dates for performing different 188 activities like funerals, weddings or celebrations of annual festivals. The most popular of the latter is [tsje1twa3], whose date falls at the end of each year in the traditional Sui calendar, ca. the ninth or tenth month of the Gregorian calendar. 2(30) 2019

6 According to the Fifth National Population Census of the People’s Republic of China; cf. on-line data avail- able at: http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/renkoupucha/2000pucha/pucha.htm. 7 Sandu Sui Autonomous County (三都水族自治县 Sāndū Shuǐzú Zìzhìxiàn), located in the southeastern part of Guizhou Province, contains over 60 percent of the Sui population. 8 Baiyue (百越 Bǎiyuè) is the collective name for the conglomeration of partly or completely unsinicised peoples who inhabited the southeastern part of present China between the first millennium BC and the first millennium CE. 9 The Central Plain (中原 Zhōngyuán), covering the area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River, is tradition- ally considered as the cradle of Chinese civilization. 10 Horse tail embroidery (马尾绣 mǎwěixiù, [ʔba3ȶe2]) is a needlework technique in which threads are made of

LITTERARIA COPERNICANA horse tail hairs wrapped in cotton fibre. 2. The Sui language Although the traditional lifestyle of the Sui is challenged by inevitable changes, and wood- en villages one by one have given way to well-connected concrete and brick settlements, the vitality of the local culture remains strong. This can be testified by, for instance, the current status of the native language. Classified within either the Kam-Sui branch of the southwesternTai-Kadai Mandarinfamily (by Western dialects scholars) in more or the urban Sino-Tibetanized communities, family (by Chinese including scholars), county -level towns theand Sui cities language like Sanheremains12 in. daily use among over 200,000 speakers (Frawley 2003: 210). LikeWhile other unquestionably members dominatingof the same in thelanguage countryside, branch, however, Sui isit turnsan analytic, out to be isolating partially and tonal language.replaced Its phoneticby southwestern complexity Mandarin is dialects especially in more evident urbanized in the communities, Sandong including(三洞乡 Sāndòng) county-level towns and cities like Sanhe11. dialect, one of the three local dialects recognised by most researchers in the field 13. The Like other members of the same language branch, Sui is an analytic, isolating and 阳安 潘洞 other twotonal arelanguage. Yang’an Its phonetic ( Yáng’complexityān) andis especially Pandong evident ( in thePānd Sandongòng), which(三洞乡 in terms of geographicalSāndòng )coverage dialect, one and of populationthe three local hold dialects by far recognised the minor by mostposition. researchers The Sandong in the dialect, illustratedfield 12by. The the otherfragments two are ofYang’an songs (阳安 included Yáng’ān )in and this Pandong article, ( 潘洞possesses Pāndòng an), which inventory of 44 consonantsin terms (cf. of Tgeographicalable 1 in thecoverage Appendix). and population With hold the additionby far the ofminor labialised position. and The palatalised clusters,Sandong these dialect, illustrated provide by the a fragments total number of songs of included 73 possible in this article, possesses onsets. Only six an inventory of 44 consonants (cf. Table 1 in the Appendix). With the addition of labi- consonants, i.e. stops [p, t, k] and nasals [m, n, ŋ], occur as codas. , which can be alised and palatalised clusters, these consonants provide a total number of 73 possible composedsyllable of onsets. eight Only available six consonants, (i.e.cf. stops Table [p, 2t, k] in and the nasals Appendix [m, n, ),ŋ], are occur restricted as co- to open .das. TheDiphthongs, system which can includes be composed six tones of eight spe cificavailable to vowels open syllables(cf. Table 2 and in the those ending with finalAppendix), nasal are consonants. restricted to Theopen othersyllables. two The tones, tone system whose includes values six differtones specific depending to on the length openof nucleus syllables vowels,and those appear ending withexclusively final nasal on consonants. syllables closedThe other with two stoptones, consonants whose (cf. Table 3values in the differ Appendix depending). Monosyllabi on the lengthc ofsingle nucleus-morpheme vowels, appear words exclusively are predominant on syllables in the Sui closed with stop consonants (cf. Table 3 in the Appendix). Monosyllabic single-mor- language vocabulary, and cases of polysyllabic constructions are mostly modern borrowings pheme words are predominant in the Sui language vocabulary, and cases of polysyllabic from Chinese (Lai 2015:25-33). constructions are mostly modern borrowings from Chinese (Lai 2015: 25–33). 189 Fragment 3: Verses 1-8 of the second song (Li 1966: 5). tsaːu4 tsi5 zən1 ɕin1 van1 pu2 paːk8 tsi5 laːk8 pu2 kwa3 begin create man become seed gourd white create CLF gourd white Ere man’s birth, white gourd seed blew, white hue gourd breed. 2(30) 2019 van1 pu2 kwa3 maːŋ6 ʔdaːu3 ja4 wu2 seed gourd white hope only PR White gourd seed, deed of [ja4wu2]. kaːi5 ja4 wu2 ʔdai3 ȵui6 pu2 m̥ a1 rely on PR obtain seed gourd come Trust [ja4wu2], gourd is due gained. naːi6 ʔdai3 m̥ a1 ᵐbja1 ho4 ⁿdjoŋ3 nau1 DEM obtain come plant do place INT 11 SeedSanhe obtained,Town (三合镇 now Sānhé need Zhèn) isplant an administrative scheme. center of Sandu County. 12 Andy Castro proposed a further division of the Sandong dialect into four local subdialects, among which the southernⁿdaː uone,1 tupresent3 in Liboʁa ːCountyu5 and southernⁿdjoŋ3 areas nau of1 ʔ Sandujau3 County,ʔdai3 is said to particularly differ from the

other three (Castro & Pan 2014: 13–14). LITTERARIA COPERNICANA 1.PL.IN mutually consult place INT think proper Let us deem, which place seems right. ja4 haːi1 ȵui6 ɕui6 ho4 ʔaːu3 fjaːn1 PR give seed ask do middle land [ja4] gave seed, need find field’s middle. van1 paːi1 ⁿdaːi5 ʔdau1 ho4 ȶaːi5 ȶin1 day go field SUC do side right Go by light, put at right side.

12 Sanhe Town (三合镇 Sānhé Zhèn) is an administrative center of Sandu County. 13 Andy Castro proposed a further division of the Sandong dialect into four local subdialects, among which the southern one, present in Libo County and southern areas of Sandu County, is said to particularly differ from the other three (Castro & Pan 2014: 13-14). dialects in more urbanized communities, including county-level towns and cities like Sanhe12. Like other members of the same language branch, Sui is an analytic, isolating and tonal language. Its phonetic complexity is especially evident in the Sandong (三洞乡 Sāndòng) dialect, one of the three local dialects recognised by most researchers in the field 13. The other two are Yang’an (阳安 Yáng’ān) and Pandong (潘洞 Pāndòng), which in terms of geographical coverage and population hold by far the minor position. The Sandong dialect, illustrated by the fragments of songs included in this article, possesses an inventory of 44 consonants (cf. Table 1 in the Appendix). With the addition of labialised and palatalised clusters, these consonants provide a total number of 73 possible syllable onsets. Only six consonants, i.e. stops [p, t, k] and nasals [m, n, ŋ], occur as codas. Diphthongs, which can be composed of eight available vowels (cf. Table 2 in the Appendix), are restricted to open syllables. The tone system includes six tones specific to open syllables and those ending with final nasal consonants. The other two tones, whose values differ depending on the length of nucleus vowels, appear exclusively on syllables closed with stop consonants (cf. Table 3 in the Appendix). Monosyllabic single-morpheme words are predominant in the Sui language vocabulary, and cases of polysyllabic constructions are mostly modern borrowings from Chinese (Lai 2015:25-33).

Fragment 3: Verses 1-8 of the second song (Li 1966: 5). tsaːu4 tsi5 zən1 ɕin1 van1 pu2 paːk8 tsi5 laːk8 pu2 kwa3 begin create man become seed gourd white create CLF gourd white Ere man’s birth, white gourd seed blew, white hue gourd breed. van1 pu2 kwa3 maːŋ6 ʔdaːu3 ja4 wu2 seed gourd white hope only PR White gourd seed, deed of [ja4wu2]. kaːi5 ja4 wu2 ʔdai3 ȵui6 pu2 m̥ a1 rely on PR obtain seed gourd come Trust [ja4wu2], gourd is due gained. naːi6 ʔdai3 m̥ a1 ᵐbja1 ho4 ⁿdjoŋ3 nau1 DEM obtain come plant do place INT Seed obtained, now need plant scheme. ⁿdaːu1 tu3 ʁaːu5 ⁿdjoŋ3 nau1 ʔjau3 ʔdai3 1.PL.IN mutually consult place INT think proper Let us deem, which place seems right. ja4 haːi1 ȵui6 ɕui6 ho4 ʔaːu3 fjaːn1 PR give seed ask do middle land [ja4] gave seed, need find field’s middle. van1 paːi1 ⁿdaːi5 ʔdau1 ho4 ȶaːi5 ȶin1 day go field SUC do side right Go by light, put at right side.

12 Sanhe Town (三合镇 Sānhé Zhèn) is an administrative center of Sandu County. 13 Andy Castro proposed a further division of the Sandong dialect into four local subdialects, among which the southern3. one, Overall present in Libo characteristics County and southern areas of Sandu Sui County, oral is saidliterature to particularly differ from the other three (Castro & Pan 2014: 13-14). One of the greatest treasures of the Sui cultural legacy, officially recognised on China’s Intangible Cultural Heritage List13, is its original logographic writing system, known under the native name [le1sui3], which refers to both the script and the books written with it. As far as we know from the research studies hitherto conducted, the Sui script has always been, however, limited only to divinatory purposes (cf. Figure 1). Due to its special applica- tion and lexical constraints, extensively analysed in this author’s PhD thesis (Burkiewicz 2015), the script was insufficient for recording more complex narrative contents. Therefore, people’s collective memory of historical events, traditional customs and models of ethical 190 specificand moral social values function were passedof this downoral literature. through generationsCountless songs in the and form parables of oral served,literature. and The to a certainspecificremarkable extent social vitality still function serve, of this of as culturalthis a socializing oral phenomenon literature. tool notCountless amongonly during Suisongs communities festive and parables celebrations, was served, largely but anddeter also to -in a everydaycertainmined extent by life. the still Thespecific serve, level socialasof aacquaintance socializing function oftool withthis not oralliterary only literature. during pieces, festive Countlessespecially celebrations, songs rhyming and but parablessongs also orin aphorisms,everydayserved, and life. remains to The a certain anlevel important extentof acquaintance stillindicator serve, of withas personal a socializingliterary refinement. pieces, tool notespecially only during rhyming festive songs cel -or aphorisms,ebrations, remainsbut also anin everydayimportant life. indicator The level of personal of acquaintance refinement. with literary pieces, especially rhyming songs or aphorisms, remains an important indicator of personal refinement. 2(30) 2019

4 1 3 2 8 5 1 ju van ja si ljok tjoŋ ɕoŋ In the summer,ju4 van1 jathe3 siyou2 ljok days8 tjoŋ and5 ɕtimesoŋ1 bring misfortuneIn the summer, from thea demon you days named and [ljoktimes8 tjoŋbring5]. misfortune from a demon named [ljok8 tjoŋ5]. Figure 1. Fragment of a passage from The Volume of the First and Seventh Months of the Qilin FigureFigure 1. Fragment(Yang 1. Fragment & Weiof a 2010:ofpassage a passage 22), from annotatedfrom The The Volume withVolume itsof of thepronunciationthe FirstFirst andand Seventh Seventh and EnglishMonths Months oftranslat the of theQilinion. Qilin (Yang & & Wei Wei 2010: 2010: 22), 22), annotated annotated with with its pronunciation its pronunciation and English and English translation. translation.

13 The China’s rhyming Intangible compositions Cultural Heritage along List with (中国国家级非物质文化遗产名录 prose creations constitute twoZhōngguó main Guójiā Jí Fēi Wùzhì Wénhuà Yíchǎn Mínglù) is cyclically updated by the Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the

LITTERARIA COPERNICANA IntangibleThe rhyming Cultural Heritage, compositions then approved along andwith published prose creations by the People’s constitute Republic two State main Council. The rhyming compositions along with prose creations constitute two main categories of Sui oral literature (Fan 1987: 19). Both are used to cover similar topics, such as legends and myths depicting the process of world-creation, the appearance of the first human be- ings and their struggles against unfavourable forces of nature. The variety of prose tales also provides explanations for, i.a., the origins of traditional festivals and customs, agricultural and other technologies used in everyday life. Another, equally popular narrative genre concerns the motifs of love, jealousy and sacrifice. Topics related to romantic affection are widely -ex plored in rhyming compositions as well, especially in so-called “single songs” (单歌 dāngē, [ɕip8tsik7]), also often referred to as “mountain songs” (山歌 shāngē). Performed by indi- viduals, enamoured couples or choirs, they can be heard mainly during important festivals, country fairs and field work. In terms of internal arrangement and structure, these “single songs” contrast with “double songs” (双歌 shuānggē, [ɕip8tsau8]), also identified as “festive songs” (酒歌 jiǔgē) by some researchers. These are pieces wherein subsequent calls and responses, usually exchanged between a host and his guest, constitute the essential part of the composition, preceded by a spoken introduction. Other popular rhyming forms include dou (蔸歌 dōugē, [ɕip8hoŋ2]), comprising spoken and melodic sections, and children’s songs (儿 歌 érgē, [ɕip8laːk8ti3]), which include lullabies and counting-out rhymes with didactic and entertainment functions. There is also a separate kind of song that praises [Qoŋ5 Ljok8to2] – the legendary creator of the Sui script. The most relevant creations in the context of this pa- per are, however, epic “narrative songs” (古歌 gǔgē, [ɕip8tsi5]), devoted to traditional tales and legends. These pieces, exemplified with the fragments cited in this article, are performed mostly by the elderly on various occasions such as grand celebrations, matchmaking and dis- pute-solving gatherings (Pan & Wei 2004: 436–467, Li & Zhang 1998: 602–604). All the aforementioned kinds of rhyming literature share similar structural properties. They are usually based on lines of seven syllables with pauses separating the first three units from the next four, thus reflecting the phrasal prosody typical for the Sui language. Much less frequent are verses containing eight, 11 and 12 syllables, wherein pauses occur respectively after the fourth syllable, after the third and seventh syllable, and after the fourth and eighth 191 syllable. Rare exceptions from such arrangements are predominantly caused by the presence of polysyllabic phrases functioning as subjects, predicates or compliments. Both regular as well as sporadic forms of rhyming literature adhere to a mixed rhyming pattern combining intra- and inter-verse relations. Intra-verse relations, depending on the number of pauses in a single line, appear as one or two rhyme pairs, each of which comprise the final and one of the non-final syllables in two consecutive phrases. Inter-verse relations occur between the 2(30) 2019 last syllable of a line and an inner syllable of the initial phrase in the subsequent verse. Apart from similarities in terms of nuclei and codas, rhyming structures also involve specific tonal combinations. Pairs of equal tones, arranged in a manner where the first tone corresponds with the second tone, the third tone corresponds with the fourth tone and so forth, are the most commonly applied (Lai 2015: 36–40). LITTERARIA COPERNICANA 4. Selected myths in Sui oral literature

As in the piece whose fragment opens this article, narrative songs devoted to cosmogonic and anthropogenic myths usually begin with the words [tsaːu4 tsi5 zən1], meaning ‘at the beginning of mankind’s creation’. Long before the first humans could leave their footprints on the vast tracts of untouched fertile lands and enjoy the life-giving rays of the sun, there was no heaven or earth as all matter existed in the form of a solid rock. It was only after the intervention of celestial powers that the universe took its present shape and became suit- able for life (cf. Fragment 1). Most widespread narratives credit this achievement to the female deity referred to by the name [ja4vu2] ‘divine grandmother’, although less popular stories mention [qoŋ5ɣəŋ3] ‘celestial grandfather’ as the initiator of all creation. While the figure of [ja4vu2] is seen as a remnant of the matriarchal system that once prevailed among Sui communities, the latter deity originates from the Chinese Pangu14 (Fan 1987: 43–44). The world brought into being by either of the two was, however, still far from the condi- tion needed for the expansion of life. At the dawn of the mankind’s history, days and nights were brightened by respectively twelve suns and twelve moons, causing even solid rocks to dissolve under the disruptive power of their lights. In the face of impending calamity, [ja4vu2] armed humans with bows and arrows and asked them to shoot down all the surplus heavenly bodies (cf. Fragment 2). Similarly to the Chinese myth of the archer called Hou’yi (后羿 Hòu’yì), as well as tales popular among the Bouyei, Dong, Zhuang, and several other ethnic minorities that neighbour Sui communities, eventually only one sun was left shining in the sky (Fan 1987: 46). Not only did the divine grandmother save mankind from the disastrous heat: she was also the one who actually brought humans into existence and asked them to rule over all life on earth, thereby relieving herself of the depressing view of unpicked fruits falling off their branches or beasts roaming carefree in the wilderness. Regarding the specific way in which the goddess shaped and breathed life into people, numerous tales provide different 192 versions. One of the most widespread, unlike the Chinese myth of Nüwa (女娲 Nǚwā) who created man from clay15, describes the first humans as being cut out from paper or tree leaves, then transformed into flesh beings and incubated in a sealed box. During its later history, mankind engaged its innate intelligence and wisdom to prove its superiority over wild animals, as well as learnt how to take advantage of some of the natural phenom- 2(30) 2019 ena (Burkiewicz 2015: 45–46). At a certain stage of successful expansion, however, a series of unpredictable and irresistible disasters almost resulted in the extinction of all human beings. Sui tales of traumatic events from the distant past do not differ in basic motifs from other literary traditions of the region. Analogously to the legendary floods that repeatedly devastated the Central Plain (Lewis 2006: 109–110), water calamities appear as the main reason for mankind’s decline, followed by its further revival. According to one of the songs collected by Li Fanggui, during a particularly devastating flood only a brother and sister

14 According to some versions of Chinese cosmogonic myths, Pangu (盘古 Pángǔ) was the first living being and the one who separated the Earth from Heaven. 15 According to the 78th volume of the Readings of the Taiping Era (太平御览 Tàipíng Yùlǎn) from the late tenth

LITTERARIA COPERNICANA century; cf. on-line version at: https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/太平御覽_(四庫全書本)/卷. needed for the expansion of life. At the dawn of the mankind’s history, days and nights were brightened by respectively twelve suns and twelve moons, causing even solid rocks to dissolve under the disruptive power of their lights. In the face of impending calamity, [ja4vu2] armed humans with bows and arrows and asked them to shoot down all the surplus heavenly bodies (cf. Fragment 2). Similarly to the Chinese myth of the archer called Hou’yi (后羿 Hòu’yì), as well as tales popular among the Bouyei, Dong, Zhuang, and several other ethnic minorities that neighbour Sui communities, eventually only one sun was left shining in the sky (Fan 1987:46). Not only did the divine grandmother save mankind from the disastrous heat: she was also the one who actually brought humans into existence and asked them to rule over all life on earth, thereby relieving herself of the depressing view of unpicked fruits falling off their branches or beasts roaming carefree in the wilderness. Regarding the specific way in which the goddess shaped and breathed life into people, numerous tales provide different versions. One of the most widespread, unlike the Chinese myth of Nüwa (女娲 Nǚwā) who created man from clay16, describes the first humans as being cut out from paper or tree leaves, then transformed into flesh beings and incubated in a sealed box. During its later history, mankind engaged its innate intelligence and wisdom to prove its superiority over wild animals, as well as learnt how to take advantage of some of the natural phenomena (Burkiewicz 2015: 45-46). At a certain stage of successful expansion, however, a series of unpredictable and irresistible disasters almost resulted in the extinction of all human beings. Sui tales of traumatic events from the distant past do not differ in basic motifs from other literary traditions of the region. Analogously to the legendary floods that repeatedly devastated the Central Plain (Lewis 2006:109-110), water calamities appear as the main reason for mankind’s decline, followed by its further revival. According to one of the songs collected by Li Fanggui, during a particularly devastating flood only a brother and sister managed to escape the claws of death by hiding inside a huge gourd, grown from a seed managed to4 escape2 the claws of death by hiding inside a huge gourd, grown from a seed ob- obtainedtained from from[ja vu [ja4]vu (cf.2] (cf. Fragment Fragment 4). 4). Severa Severall verses of of the the song song examine examine the circumstancesthe circumstances of their survival:of their survival:

Fragment 4: Verses 35-44 of the second song (Li 1966: 8-9). ʔu1 pu3 ʔbaːu5 te3 pjaːu6 li1 lin1 up also rise down boil over plenty Floods high grow, below burst too. ɣa2 faːi4 nu4 ʔdan3 pjo6 ʔai1 jaːŋ2 two brother sister drill gourd CLF king Two siblings, dug in king’s gourd. ʔdan3 tʰau5 pjo6 ʔmoŋ1 ɕo3 paːi1 ʔu1 drill to gourd float very go up Dug in gourd, toward peaks flew. ʔmoŋ1 ɕu1 ɕiŋ1 qʰuŋ3 te3 ⁿdiŋ5 ʔbən1 float blue go through down bottom sky Reached blue highs, under sky’s base. haːm1 hap7 sən2 nam3 ʔnaːŋ1 ɕən1 haːi3 17 three CLF day water still become sea 16 太平御览 AccordingThree to the days 78th paced volume, sea of thekeeps “Readings massed of though. the Taiping Era” ( Tàipíng Yùlǎn) from the late tenth century: https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/太平御覽_(四庫全書本)/卷 0078. ɕi5 hap7 ʁaːi3 nam3 ʔnaːŋ1 ɕən1 maŋ2 tjaŋ1 tjo3 mi4 qaːn5 18 four CLF day water still become deep water long time NEG dry Four days flow, sea keeps immense, hence will stay long. mi4 ʔdai3 ȵau6 laːk8 qun3 ŋaːu6 ʔbən1 n̥ o3 hoŋ5 ɕən1 tsum2 NEG obtain dwell orphan cry sky rat make become hole No place dwell, orphans yell god, blessed rat gnawed hole. hoŋ5 kʰoŋ3 kʰaŋ3 nam3 lui5 tjaːŋ3 ʔjam1 193 make deep pit water flow down ground deep Gnawed deep cave, water wave yields. nam3 paːi1 n̥ au1 ⁿdau1 pjaːi3 nu2 tsən2 water go where moss smear over mountain hill

Water wanes, hills chains grow moss. 2(30) 2019 tok7 tʰau5 te3 mi4 ʔnaŋ1 zən1 ha1 ja1 laːn6 ɕən1 maːu2 19 fall dawn to down NEG have people AFF grass sodden became dung All drained out, none flew alive, grass turned to dung.

When theWhen flood the finallyflood finallyreceded, receded, the two the siblingstwo siblings found found themselves themselves to to be be thethe onlyonly humanhu- survivors.man After survivors. being After persuaded being persuadedby a celestial by a celestial sage, thesage, brother the brother and andsister sister decided decided to to marry each other.marry The each fruit other. of The their fruit union, of their aunion, huge a hugepiece piece of flesh,of flesh, broke broke into smallsma piecesll pieces that that eventuallyeventually transformed transformed into into children. children. Various Various myths myths sharing similar similar plots plots are widespread are widespread among numerous ethnic groups of southern China such as Han, Dong, Zhuang, Buyi and among numerous ethnic groups of southern China such as Han, Dong, Zhuang, Buyi and Miao (Zhi 1990: 507). All of them connect the survival of mankind with a gourd – a plant Miao (Zhi 1990:507). All of them connect the survival of mankind with a gourd – a plant crucial to the early history of Chinese civilization, culture and philosophy. LITTERARIA COPERNICANA crucial to the early history of Chinese civilization, culture and philosophy. Relieved from the menace of extinction, humanity opened a new chapter of its expansion and civilization development. Sui oral literature thus became enriched with pieces of broad thematic scope, including the origins of agricultural knowledge, production techniques, traditional customs, taboos, as well as plenty of love stories or depictions of deeds accomplished by folk heroes. Although partly translated into Chinese, they still wait to be presented in Western languages.

Bibliography

Burkiewicz, Kamil 2015. The Script and Language of the Sui in Southern China: Description, Dictionary, Relations with Chinese Language and Culture. PhD dissertation, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. Castro, Andy and Pan Xingwen 2014. Shuǐyǔ Diàochá Yánjiū [studies and research on the Sui language]. Guiyang: Guizhou Minzu Chubanshe.

17 [sən2] is the fifth of the twelve Earthly Branches, an ordering system borrowed from Chinese astrology and used to designate years, months and days in the Sui traditional calendar. 18 [ʁaːi3] is the last of the twelve Earthly Branches. 19 The precise meaning of the word [maːu²] is ‘damp grass mixed with cattle manure’. Relieved from the menace of extinction, humanity opened a new chapter of its expan- sion and civilization development. Sui oral literature thus became enriched with pieces of broad thematic scope, including the origins of agricultural knowledge, production tech- niques, traditional customs, taboos, as well as plenty of love stories or depictions of deeds accomplished by folk heroes. Although partly translated into Chinese, they still wait to be presented in Western languages.

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Celebration of [tsje¹twa³], one of the most important festivals in the Sui calendar, Sandong Township, Sandu Sui Autonomous County, October 2011. Photo by Kamil Burkiewicz