1 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Study and Analysis on Composition Sakkarajs of Three Eigyins of Taungngu Period
Tin Oo*
Abstract
This paper deals with the study and analysis on the composition sakkarajs (Myanmar Era) of such eigyins (classical poems addressed to a royal child extolling the glory of ancestors) as MintayarmedawEigyin, Minyekyawzwar Son Eigyin and Thakhingyi Eigyin appeared in Taungngu Period. This paper reveals the differences in the traditional specifications with regard to the composition sakkarajs of these eigyins comparing and conferring with the chronicles.
Introduction
The eigyingabyar (classical poem addressed to a royal child extolling the glory of ancestors; the verse begins and ends with the word ‘‘ei’’) is a kind of long ‘‘teigabyar’’(song verse or poem) soothing the royal child. It is a poem composed for the royal sons, daughters and lineages in infancy and beyond infancy. It is also a poem composing with ‘‘ei’’ k ranta or karyan (vowel sound of the letter; rhyma) at the end. The subject matters are the patriotism stimulating performances of the royal great- grandfather, royal father and royal relatives worthy of the highest praise composing eigyin. Therefore, it may be said that eigyin poem is a kind of ‘‘zartiman’’(national spirit; pride of one’s race and nation; pride of one’s lineage) literature capable of stimulating the zartithwei- zartiman (national spirit; hereditary pride and courage; patriotism). It may be designed as a kind of literature with historical value as it is like the contemporary record of that period. Throughout the history of Myanmar literature, 67 eigyins are found. There came out 10 eigyins even in Taungngu Era.
In this paper, only the composition sakkarajs of such eigyins as MintayarmedawEigyin, Minyekyawzwar Son Eigyin and Thakhingyi Eigyin which appeared in Taungngu Period will be presented through study and analysis.
* Dr. Lecturer, Department of Myanmar Language, Myingyan Degree Colleg
2 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Study and Analysis on Composition Sakkaraj of Mintayarmedaw Eigyin
In Taungngu Period, there are two princesses who receive the name ‘‘mintayar- medaw’’(King’s royal mother). The eigyin- phw khan (worthy of being composed in eigyin). Mintayarmedaw is the one who was born from Pyi BayinThadodamayarzar(younger brother of Bayinnaung Mintayargyi) and Narapatimedaw (daughter of Pyi Bayin Htwei). The composer or poet who composes eigyin is Yadu Sarso Pyi Nawadei. The statements or expressions of the literary researchers with regard to the eigyin composition sakkaraj are still differing.
The book ‘‘History of Myanmar Literature’’ of Sayargyi U Pe Maung Tin mentions:
It may be presumed that eigyin would be composed
Approximately912- 13 as Mintayarmedaw was born in 912 ME.1
It reveals a guess that Mintayarmedaw Eigyin was composed round about 912- 13ME.
Moreover, the book ‘Anthology of Old Eigyins and Eigyin Poem Classical Tigar’’ mentions the marks or points that:
The sakkaaraj of birth of Mintayarmedaw is
912 and the year of composing eigyin is 915.2
Poet or Composer Pyi Nawadei presented that Mintayarmedaw was born in 912 ME and the eigyin was composed in 915 ME.
The perfect of Takhain Minthami Eigyin Published by Hantharwadi Press mentions 915 ME that ‘‘mintayarmedawsakkaraj(915)’’.3
In the same way, the preface of Yakhain Mintahmi Eigyin edited by Sayar U Kyaw Yin also mentions that it is ‘‘915ME’’4(Myanmar Era; Sakkaraj).
According to the evidence cited in the eigyin of Sarso Nawadei, it is impossible that the sakkaraj of composing Mintayarmesaw Eigyin is 912 ME as well as 913 ME. That is
1 PeMaung Tin, U, 1987, p- 119 2 Htun Yi(SheihaungThuteithi), 2012, p- 66. 3 Adu Min Nyo, 1965, p-10. 4 AduMinnyo, no date, preface 3 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 because even the birth sakkaraj of Mintayarmedaw is 915 ME. With regard to this one can know according to the style of composition cited in Mintayarmedaw Eigyin that:
Phwardawmu- hnint(year of birth),
Sakkaraj- mu(Myanmar Era)
Sinsithnamzqar(actually ritht or correct)
Koyartase(910), sunwe- ngarkhu(more than 5).1
Moreover, the sakkarajs stated by Hantharwadi Press and Sayar U Kyaw Yin cannot be possible as well. That is because Sarso Pyi Nawadei composing Mintayarmedaw Eigyin is not the kyeikyun(slave) or servant of Pyi Bayin Thadodamayarzar, the royal father of Mintayarmedaw at that time. He is Ahudan Sarso (serviceman poet or compwser) of Inwa King Narapatisithu (SalinSithuKyawHtin) enemy of Pyi Bayin Thadodamayarzar. After the conquest of Inwa by Bayintnaung Mintayargyi and Younger Brother Pyi Bayin Thadodamayarzar in 916 ME, Poet Pyi Nawadei was Sitthi Sarso(soldier poet) of Pyi Bayin Thadodamayarzar. Therefore, it is considered that the sakkaraj of composing Mintayarmedaw Eigyin by Pyi Nawadei cannot be 915 ME.
Besides, when studying the stanzas sited in Mintayarmesaw Eigyin, it is found that the events after 916 ME are inserted and composed. In stanza(49- 50) of Mintayarmedaw Eigyin, it is inserted and composed with regard to the marching. Attacking and conquest of Yodayar(a former Thai kingdom; Siam; Thailand) for the first time by Bayintnaung Mintayargyi, elder brother of Mintayarmedaw’s father and in stanza (52- 53) on the revolt at the Royal City when he is at Zinme (Chiangmai, city in Now Thailand, on a headstream of the Chao Phraya) and so suppression by Bayintnaung Mintayargyi after return from Zinme. Besides, with regard to the presenting of myathabeittaw ( emerald alms bowl or monk’s bowl) by the King of Thiho (Ceylon; Sri Lanka; Linkardipa) to Bayintnaung Mintayargyi, it is composed in the eigyin as follows;
Kyawhtindipa, Thihogaton (from Ceylon),Hmyunhta
byardeit(preordainment of events made by Buddha),
thonlumeit- I, thabeitswedaw(monk’s bowl and the
1 Nawadei (Pyi), ma- 1274, p- 74. 4 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
eyetooth of the Buddha), puzawzayar(for worship),
thakonlarywei(coming for presenting).1
U Kalar Great Chronicle2, Glass Palace Chronicle3 and Twinthin New Chronicle4 unanimously say that the sakkaraj of marching, attacking and conquest of Yodayar by Bayintnaung Mintayargyi is 925 ME, that the sakkaraj of marching and attacking of Zinme by Bayintnaung Mintayargyi because of its revolt is 926 ME, that the sakkaraj of suppressing the revolt at Hantharwadi Royal City after return from Zinme is 927 ME, and that the sakkaraj of presenting myathabeittaw by Thiho King to Bayintnaung Mintayargyi is 930 ME(1568 AD).
Considering the aforementioned facts, it is assigned that Poet Pyi Nawadei would compose Mintayarmedaw Eigyin round about 930 ME (Myanmar Era; Myanmar Sakkaraj). If it says so, the eigyin was composed at the age of 15, beyond infancy, of eigyinaphwekhan ( worthy of being composed). Because of that, this eigyin may be called as nardawthwineigyin (persuading poem).
Study and Analysis on Composition Sakkaraj of Minyekyawzwar Son Eigyin
Minyekyawzwar Son Eigyin is an eigyin(classical poem addressed to a royal child extolling the glory of ancestors) composed by Poet or Sarso Hlawgar Thonhtaunghmu (leader of 3000 hlawgar royal boats). It is an eigyin composed aiming for Ngarzudaryakar(royal grandchild of Hantharwadi Sinphyumyarshin Bayintnaung Mintayargyi) and Minyekyawzwar Son (royal son of daughter of Mintayar Shwei- hti).
The name ‘‘Minyekyawzwar Son” is only the name designated named by the literati of late period. The original name is Minyekyawzwar. In Myanmar Chronicle, there are a large number of Minyekyawzwar Title Recipient Royal Persons such as King’s younger brothers and King’s sons or princes. Therefore, so as to make eigyinaphwekhan Minyekyawzwar different from other Minyakyawzwar Title Recipient ‘‘Minnyiminthars’’(King’s younger brothers and
1 ibid, (74) 2 Kalar, U, 2006 ka, 272, 278, 282,305. 3 Glass Palace Chronicle, ma- 1303, 374, 380, 386, 415. 4 HtunNyo, U (TwinthintaikwunMaharSithu), 1998, 123, 127, 130, 144. 5 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
king’s sons or princes), he was called Minyekyawzwar ‘‘Son’’, specializing that he had been ‘‘going down stream’’(son) from Inwa Royal City to Hantharwadi Golden Palace. With regard to this, ‘‘Yazawingyok called Cetiya Kath ’’ reveals:
‘‘…has to go down stream to Hantharwadi in 955 ME
… isknown as MInyekyawzwar Son’’.1
Just as this eigyin makes interesting with regard to the name of Eigyin, it makes noticeable as regards the sakkaraj of composing eigyin as well. Regarding the composition of Minyekyawzwar Son Eigyin in 931 ME, the book ‘‘Sarsodawmyar Ahtokpatti’’(Biography of Poets or Composers) reveals:
‘‘ThaungtaikSetkyarwalar’’ (10,000 universes)
Chi (begin) Minyekyawzwar Son Eigyin was written in 931 ME.2
In the same way, YakhainminthamiEigyin Preface 3 , Minye Deibba Eigyin Preface 4 , and Myanmar Poem Monograph 5 , also reveal that it is an eigyin composed in 931 ME.
In fact, it is impossible that Minyekyawzwar Son Eigyin is an eigyin composed in 931 ME. It is because patriotism activating subject matters occurring after 931 ME are inserted and composed in this eigyin. With regard to the story of marching to and launching an attack on Yodayar (Siam with its capital Ayutthaya (1350- 1767); a former Thai kingdom; Thailand) by HantharwadiSinphyushinBayintnaungMinaytargyi, it is inserted and composed in eigyin stanza (84) as follows:
Sh ngo myinywe , setshin shikywa, htothaw katon,
Nara htuthtar, Yodayarhnaik( atYoddayar or Siam),
Yetmyarlashei (for a long time), tat- tar- ti- ywe ,
Oksi m nphyin, sit- thabin- phyint, my pyin ky k n,
1 diccara s , Ariy va sa, 2003, p- 62. 2 Ba Thaung (Bohmu), 2002, p- 88. 3 Aduminnyo, 1965, p- 10. 4 Than Kho, Shin, 1967, p- 6. 5 Si Si Win, Daw and Others, 1983, p- 36. 6 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
a ngp n thuy , karsw le thi (shield- warriors and archers),
yans lelyet, cheithi- my n-sin (foot- soldiers, horses and
elephants), atintint , setthwin ywephauk, myol n
kyaukhmya (the whole city in fear)1.
Moreover, as regards the matter about the march, attack and conquest of Linzin (Laos) troops, joining together with Yodayar (Siam, the rebellious; Thailand), by Ngarzudaryarkar, royal father of eigyinaphwekhan, it is composed for the occurrence of ‘‘zartiman’’ (national spirit; pride of one’s race and nation; pride of one’ lineage) for the aphwehkan young prince as follows;
Pyetkyeihtwarhtwar, Linzin- sarhlyin(Eater of Laos)
Pyeithwarlyinzwar(fleeing swiftly), kolutkhwarle,
Boparthuy (troops and warriors), ant- - bwe- min,
Thonthaung- twinwe, makywinmye pyin, atintinti,
Pyiphyingadei (cutting up many ten million),
Munmuntheilyet(many in death)2.
Besides, with regard to the story on Bayintnaug Mintayargyi’s return to Hantharwadi Gokden Palace he stays after the attack and conquest of Yodayar (a former Thai kingdom)and Linzin (Laos) and the propagation of the Religion casting the Buddhaimage with the gold, silver and mogyo (alloy of gold and copper), it is inserted and composed as follows:
Sh nbomingar, htuunwin yaungwar, tharthanargo(to the Religion),
setkyarbonsi, hmattawyiywei, Tharkyisangyin,thagyarminlyin
(the lord of Catumah r j and T vati s ), yankhinbweini,
1 HlawgarThondaunghmu, ma- 1274. p- 84. 2 ibid, (87) 7 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Thurarpyihma (from Realm of a fallen god),
tharkyitaphan, nagopyanth .1
Nagopyanyauk, setmitaukhmya, hte n chauknat- lu,
Antyarmuywei, zabu soya (ruler of great island which
lies south of Mount Meru), baminbahlyin, myarhla
yadanar (much treasure), thincharpaungyei, shwei
ngweimogyo (gold, silver and alloy of gold and copper),
hwintoyarsa, anantati (in infinity), thetkyathonlu,
Thatbyinny - (Gautama Buddha, The Enlightened One),
yoktumweishin, kekepinth , Natshinphontu,
thundawmuthaw (casting)2.
In connection with the sakkaraj of reaching Hantharwadi Royal City again after attack and conquest of Yodayar (Siam; Thailand) and Linzin (Laos) by Hanthawadi Sinphyumyarshin Bayintnaung Mintayargyi, Hmannan Maharyarzawindawgyi (Crystal Palace Chronicle; Glass Palace Chronicle) reveals as follows:
‘‘….arrives at Hantharwadi Golden Palace
....on Saturday, 10th Waxing of Warzo 932 ME’’3.
As regards the casting of Buddha image with the gold, silver and ‘‘mogyo’’(alloy of gold and copper)in 932ME,it also describes as follows:
Thasingyutlapyeikyawhnayet( 2ndWanning of Thadingyut),
……yinth neibin (even in that day)shwei-phayargyi
1 ibid, (89) 2 ibid, (90) 3 HmannanMaharYarzawindawgyi, ma- 1303, p- 453. 8 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
(goldBuddha image Myogyo- phayargyi (Budddha image made
of alloy of gold and copper),Ngwei- phayargyi (silver Buddha image),
pyinsalawhar-phayagyi(Buddha image made of gold, silver,
copper, iron and lead)leisudogo (four Buddha images) tane takharde
(at once in a day)thunloktawmuthi (cast)1.
Considering the aforesaid points or facts, it may be said that Minyekyawzwar Son Eigyin was composed round about 932 and 933ME (Myanmar Era; Myanmar Sakkaraj) by Poet Hlawgar Thondaunghmu. Therefore, it is found through the study that the composition sakkaraj of Minyekyawzwar Son Eigyin can be only round about 932- 933 ME rather than the sakkaraj 931 mentioned in Sarsodawmyar Biography, Yakhain Princess Eigyin Preface, Minyedeibba Eigyin Preface and Myanmar Poem Monograph.
Study and Analysis on Composition Sakkaraj of Thakhingyi Eigyin
A well- known eigyin out of the eigyins of Taungngu Period is ThakhingyiEigyin. The poet composing ThakhingyiEigyin is Pethugesar Shin MyatKhaung. Eigyin- aphwekhan Thakhingyi is a royal grandchild of Hantharwadi Sinphyumyarshin Bayintnaung Mintayargyi. She is a daughter born from Sagaingmin Uttamayit (son of Hantharwadi Sinphyumyarshin Bayintnaung Mintayargyi) and Khinphonmyat (daughter of King Bayintnaung). The birth sakkaraj is 936 ME. Regarding the composition sakkaraj of eigyin, the book ‘‘ Biography of Poets’’ describes as follows:
Eigyin-aphwekhanThakhingyi is born
in 936ME …..The sakkaraj of writing and
presentingThakhingyiEigyin by
1 HmannanMaharYarzawindawgyi, ma- 1303, p- 453. 9 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Pethungesar Shin MyatKhaung is also
within that year1.
According to this statement, it must be said that Thakhingyi Eigyi was composed in 936 ME(1574AD).However,it is not true that Thakhingyi Eigyi was composed in 936 ME.It is because the matter about Mah vijaya Ceti (Mah vijaya Pagoda),on which the ornamental “hti”(tiered and ornamented finial of a pagoda ) or umbrella was hoisted in 939 ME, is inserted and composed in this eigyin. As regards the founding of Mah vijaya Ceti at the place of victory over Thameinhtaw Yarma, Takhingyi Eigyin stanza (32) reveals as follows:
Thameinhtaw- i, taikth - y baw, chitchin- kyawgo,
Upawthahtar, arkarteinmo, pyanth myohnint,
Sh nbo- natsh n, aungmyin hneikkut, aungmyeiyathu,
kyawhtat-silyar, udankyaraung, chittharnyidaw,
myobawsweipaung, htisaungtayar, nauktawparlyat,
Maharwizaya, narmazeidi, anyishanwin,
Thalinsanpyar, swedawpwar- ar, phayar- htarpanar,
tilatkharwe.2
As to the founding sakkaraj of Maharwizaya Pagoda by Bayintnaung Mintayargyi, Glass Palace Chronicle mentions as follows:
‘‘….start to establish htarpanartaik
(repository of rekics or holy objects)
of Mah vijaya Ceti on 8th Waxing of
theWarzo 938 ME (1576 AD).
1 Ba Thaung(Bohmu), 2002, p. 98.
2 MyatKhaung, Shin (Pethungesar), ma- 1274, p- 32. 10 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
….hoist the ornamental hti (umbrella;
tiered and ornamented finial of a pagoda)
on 15th Waxing of Kason 939 ME.’’1
By looking at the aforementioned points, it is found through the study and analysis that it is not true that Thakhingyi Eigyin was composed in 936 ME by Poet Pethungesar Shin Myat Khaung, and that it was composed round about 938- 939 ME.
Comment on the Whole
If we look at the history of Myanmar literature, Taungngu Period is an era full of warfares. It is also a period of struggle for power in an unruly manner.In that period, it needed to propagandize so as to make other rival kings and the subordinates know and fear the greatness of power and glory of their lord as well as his sharpness in ‘‘ martial prowess’’ (letyonyi) and ‘‘ mental faculty’’(hnalonyi). This propaganda campaign was done by the eigyin poets or composers. Praising the power, glory and martial prowess of their lord or sovereign, the Eigyin- aphwekhans were soothed and put to sleep and entertained. There came out ten eigyins even within the Taungngu Period.
As regards the composition sakkaraj of the eigyins of Mintayarmedaw, Minyekyawzwar Son and Thakhingyi among these eigyins, it is found that it is different from the traditional records. It may be said that the incorrect statement relating to the composition sakkaraj of Mintayarmedaw Eigyin started from 12 old eigyins volume. U May Aung, editor of 12 old eigyins, would also find the text ‘‘koyartase (910), sunwengarkhu (more than 5)’’ including in atanza (74) of Mintayarmedaw Eigyin. It is considered that the birth sakkaraj of Mintayarmedaw would be written as 915 ME also in writing the preface in relation to this eigyin. However, it is possible that it was wrongly printed by the printers, regarding 915 as 912 ME. It is possible that basing on this 912 ME, Sayargyi U Pe Maung Tin and Htun Yi (sheihaungThuteithi) guessed the birth sakkaraj of MIntayarrmedaw as 912 ME. It is possible that stating the eigyin composition skkaraj as 915 ME is
1 Glass Palace Chronicle, 2008, p- 578, 585. 11 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
because of the concept that the eigyin would be composed celebrating the pakhet- tin (putting on the cradle) ceremony within the birth year.
In the same way, it is possible that the statements on the composition of MInyekyawzwar Son Eigyin in 931 ME and Thakhingyi Eigyin in 936 ME would be composed basing on the birth sakkaraj.
Therefore, it is found through the study that the composition sakkaraj of MIntayarmedaw Eigyin cam be only 930 ME without 912 and 915 as said by the other researchers, of Minyekyawzwar Son Eigyin and 932- 933 ME without 931 ME and of Thakhingyi Eigyin only 938- 939 ME without 936 ME.
Conclusion
This paper is a monograph presenting through analysis as to the composition sakkaraj of such classical poems as Mintayarmedaw Eigyin, Minyekyawzwar Son Eigyin and Thakhaingyi Eigyin appeared in Taungngu Period. Believing and considering that compilation of this paper will be able to contribute on annals of eigyin poem, a fruit of Myanma aesthetic writing or literature, this monograph is conclduded.
Acknowledgement
I would like to acknowledgement my sincere gratitude to Dr. Tun Hlaing, Principal, Myingyan Degree College, for allowing me to undertake this research.
Biblography
Kalar, U, (2006 ka): MaharYarzawingyi (Great Chronicle), Second Book (fourth printing), Yangon, Yarpyei Publishing House
Kalar, U, (2006 ka): MaharYarzawingyi (Great Chronicle), Third Book (fourth printing), Yangon, Yarpyei Publishing House.
Si Si Win, Daw, and Others, (1983): Myanmar GabyarThaming (History of Myanmar Poems), (From Bagan Era to the End of 19th Century), Myanmar Gabyar Sardanmyar (Monographs on Myanmar Poems), Yangon, Sarpeibeikman Press.
HtunNyo, U (Twinthintaikwun Mahar Sithu), (1998): MaharYazawinthit (New Great Chronicle), Second Volume. Yangon, Khainyinmun Offset. 12 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Htun Yi, (SheihaungThuteithi), 2012: Eigyinhaung Baunggyokhnint Eigyin Gabyar Gandawin Tigar (Anthology of Old Eigyins and Eigyin Poem Classical Tigar), Yangon, Yarpyei Literature.
Nawadei (Pyi), (ma- 1274): Mintayarmedaw Eigyin, Eigyinhaung Sehnasaungtwe (Old Eigyin 12- Piece Volume), (Editor- Maung May Aung), Mawlamyaing, Yammarpura Press.
Pe Maung Tin, U, (1987): Myanmar Sarpei Thamaing (History of Myanmar Literature), (fourth printing), Yangon, Yarpyei Publishing House.
Ba Thaung, Bohmu, (2002): Sarsodawmyar Ahtokpatti (Biography of Poets or Composers), (Fifth Printing), Yangon, Yarpyei Publishing House.
MyatKhaung, Shin (PeThungesar), (ma- 1274): Mintayarmedaw Eigyin, Eigyinhaung Sehnasaungtwe, (Editor- Maung May Aung), Mawlamying, Yammarpura Press.
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A Geographical Analysis of Agricultural Landuse in Myingyan Township
Dr. Mi Mi Soe1 Daw Thi Thi Khaing2
Abstract This paper presents the agricultural land use of Myingyan Township.The classification of land utilization in Myingyan Township according to Land Records Department can be found into four main general land utilization. However, the agricultural land utilization of Myingyan Township varies spatially due to the control and influence of the physical features of the township, especially soils. In this research, the collected data have been classified and processed firstly and then these are transformed to the form of maps and figures by applying appropriate methods. In order to determine the regional variation of the agricultural land concentration Dr S.S Bhatia's Location Quotient Method is used in this paper. In Myingyan Township ‘Le’, ‘Ya’, and ‘Kaing-Kyun’ lands are practiced in agricultural land. The largest agriculture is the dominant form of land use in Myingyan Township. ‘Ya’ cultivation is one of the most important cultivation system in Myingyan Township. In order to develop the area of agricultural lands concentration, the conservation of soil is essential to carry on in Myingyan Township. Introduction This research work is “Agricultural Land Use in Myingyan Township”. Land is the basic resource of human society. Land Use has economic, geographic and demographic dimensions. The intensive use of land depends upon population concentration, economic prosperity through better agricultural production, human establishments, industrial locations, communication and transport lines, while extensive use of the land is related to sparse population, dispersed settlements, the absence of communication lines and the crude forms of transport. Thus the study of land use is of immense value in tracing out the past use of land and its future trend. Only through the study is the past land use, one land use planning of a particular region.
1Dr.Mi Mi Soe Professor Head, Department of Geography,Myingyan Degree College. 2 Daw Thi Thi Khanig Lecturer, Department of Geography,Myingyan Degree College.
14 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Study Area The study area, Myingyan Township is one of the 36 townships in Mandalay Region. It is located between latitudes 21˚20ʹ north and 21˚46ʹ 15ʺ north and longitudes 95˚ 15ʹ 30ʺ east and 95˚37ʹ 30ʺ east. The township has an area of 374.3 square miles (239,544) acres. Therefore the main agricultural land utilization of Myingyan Township is primary activities. Aim and Objectives The major aim of this research is to analyze the economic development of Myingyan Township and other objectives are as follows; 1. to study the physical factors that control the agricultural land use in the study area. 2. to study the non-physical factors that control the agricultural land use in the study area. 3. to analyse the spatial variation of agricultural land use in the study area. Data Collection and Methodology Most of the data concerning the land utilization are taken from Land Records Department, Myingyan Township.Primary data are specially oriented to qualitative analyses by taking field trip to the selected area, questionnaire and structured interview. In this research, the collected data have been classified and processed firstly and then these are transformed to the form of maps and figures by applying appropriate methods. To analyze the intensity of land utilization, the statistical techniques have been used in this research. The temporal changes of land utilization have been analyzed with the help of Geographic Information System. Types of land use In the land use of Myingyan Township is found to be influenced by climatic condition. The general land use of Myingyan Township is divided into, 1. Agricultural Land Use 2. Forest Land Use 3. Cultivable Waste Land 4. Uncultivable Land Use Agricultural land use Agricultural land use is the dominant form of land use and the largest land use in Myingyan Township. During the period from 2004-05 to 2015-16, there was decreased in the acreage of agricultural land by the year in Myingyan Township. The agricultural land includes the net sown land and fallow land. 15 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
According to table (1) in 2004-05, the total area of Myingyan Township is 239,544 acres, only 67.15% or 160,857 acres is the net sown area. In 2005-06, 163,270 acres (68.16%) is the net sown area and 163,679 acres (68.33%) in 2006-07. In 2007-08, 163,973 acres with (68.45%) is the net sown area in Myingyan Township. In 2008-09, the net sown area is 164,509 acres (68.68%). In 2009-10, 164,492 acres or (68.67%) is the net sown area and 163,666 acres with (68.32%) in 2010-11. During the seven year from (2004-05) to (2010-11), the net sown land areas are more or less changing in the study area. As the study area is a part of the Ayeyarwady River valley and drained by many streams these is a large proportion of land area suitable for crop cultivation. In 2011-12, the total area of Myingyan Township is 239,544 acres of this area 162,255 (67.73%) is the net sown area and 162,036 acres (67.64%) in 2012-13. In 2013- 14, 161,902 acres (67.59%) is the net sown area and 161,892 acres (67.58%) in 2014-15. In 2015-16, 160,815 acres (67.13%) is the net sown area in Myingyan Township. During the five year period from (2011-12) to (2015-16), the net sown acreage was little changed. The high net sown acreage was in 2008-09 year and the least net sown acreage was in 2015-16 year. In 2015-2016, the net sown cultivated land was decreased due to the increased of uncultivated land in Myingyan Township. In 2004-05, the fallow land is 5,183 acres with 2.16% of the total land area in township. In 2005-06, the fallow land is 3,627 acres (1.51%) and 3,329 acres (1.39%) in 2006-07. In 2007-08, the fallow land area is 3,035 acres (1.27%) and 2,883 acres (1.2%) in 2008-09. During the five year period from (2004-05) to 2008-09) the fallow land area is gradually decreased in Myingyan Township. From 2009 to 2010, the fallow land area is 2,705 acres (1.13%). In 2010-11 and 2011-12, the fallow land is not changed; the fallow land is 2,715 acres (1.13%) of the total land area. In 2012-13, the fallow land area is increased 2,794 acres (1.17%). During the two year period from 2013-14 to 2014-15, the fallow land area is decreased 1,307, (0.55%) acres to 1,087 areas (0.45%) of the total and it was depend upon the net sown acreage and uncultivated land due to the changing lands. In 2015-16, the fallow land area is 2,752 acres (1.2%) and it was depend upon the net sown acreage due to the changing lands. Shown as Table (2) and Figure (1).
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Current Occupied Area Of the total land area of 239,544 acres in Myingyan Township, only 68.28% acreage of 163,567 acres is cultivated land. The current cultivated occupied area of the township is found to decrease gradually from 2004-05 to 2015-16. In 2015-16, the current occupied area was the lowest in 160,815 acres. The current cultivated area of Myingyan Township is divided into five groups. These are, (1) Over 5,000 acres (2) Between 4,000 and 5,000 acres, (3) Between 3,000 and 4,000 acres (4) Between 2,000 and 3,000 acres and (5) Under 2,000 acres. The current occupied area of high six village tracts are occupied over 5,000 acres of Myingyan Township. They are Thapaung, Lethit, Talokemyo, Kataw, Pinle and Kanchaw village tracts. Thapaung village Tract is 7,133 acres and the largest area of cultivated land area in Myingyan Township. Lethit village tract is 7,112 acres in township, and it is the second largest occupied area of Myingyan Township. There are four village tracts occupied between 4,000 and 5,000 acres. They are Balon, Yontoe, Gaunggwe, and Sakhar village tracts. The third groups are Thinpyun, Yatharyar, Yathar, Layaingtan, Tawpu, Kalarywa, Zeepinkan, Yetaing, and Kyataing village tracts. These village tracts are occupied between 3,000 and 4,000 acres. The fourth groups of between 2,000 and 3,000 acres occupied by third village tracts. They are Chaysay, Tawinbo, Pyokan, Gwepinyo, Gyokepin, Aingma, Kyunseik, Singuit, No.19 Ward, Nganan, Thityon and Htatywa (Laytan) village tracts. The fifth groups are 39 village tracts. They are occupied under 2,000 acres of Myingyan Township. Kantaw village tracts is the largest occupied area with 1,925 acres in five groups of village tracts. The lowest areas of No.17 ward is 7 acres of five groups of village tracts in Myinyan Township.
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Table (1) Types of Land Use by Township in Myingyan (2004-05 to 2015-16) Agricultural Cultivable Uncultivable YEAR % Forests % % % Total Land use Waste Land Land 2004-05 166040 69.36 21420 8.94 4171 1.7 47913 20 239544 2005-06 166897 69.68 21420 8.94 4171 1.74 47056 19.64 239544 2006-07 167008 69.72 21415 8.94 4065 1.69 47056 19.64 239544 2007-08 167008 69.72 21415 8.94 4065 1.69 47056 19.64 239544 2008-09 167392 69.88 21415 8.94 2746 1.15 47991 20.03 239544 2009-10 167197 69.79 21415 8.94 2746 1.15 48186 20.11 239544 2010-11 166381 69.46 19799 8.27 2746 1.14 50644 21.14 239544 2011-12 164970 68.87 18777 7.84 2720 0.73 54058 22.57 239544 2012-13 164830 68.81 18777 7.84 1739 0.73 54198 22.63 239544 2013-14 163209 68.13 18777 7.84 1739 0.73 55819 23.3 239544 2014-15 162979 68.04 18777 7.84 1739 0.73 56049 23.39 239544 2015-16 163567 68.28 18142 7.57 1373 0.57 56462 23.57 239544
Source: Land Records Department of Myingyan.
Table (2) Agricultural Land Use in Myingyan Township (2004-05 to 2015-16)
Year Net Sown Fallow Land Agricultural Land % 2004-05 160857 5183 166040 69.36 2005-06 163270 3627 166897 69.68 2006-07 163679 3329 167008 69.72 2007-08 163973 3035 167008 69.72 2008-09 164509 2883 167392 69.88 2009-10 164492 2705 167197 69.79 2010-11 163666 2715 166381 69.46 2011-12 162255 2715 164970 68.87 2012-13 162036 2794 164830 68.81 2013-14 161902 1307 163209 68.13 2014-15 161892 1087 162979 68.04 2015-16 160815 2752 163567 68.28
Source: Land Records Department of Myingyan Township
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Figure (1) Agricultural Land Use in Myingyan Township (2004-05 to 2015-16)
Source: Based on Table (2)
Forest land Among the land uses in the township, forest land use is found to third largest in Township. According to Table (1) in 2004-05 and 2005-06, the forest land area is 21,420 acres which was accounting for 8.94% of the total area of the Myingyan Township. During four year period from 2006-07 to 2009-10, the forest area is 21,415 acres with (8.93%) of the total land area of the Township. In 2010-11, the forest land area is 19,799 acres accounting for 8.27% of the total area of Myingyan Township. During four year period from 2011-12 to 2014-15 years, the forest area is not changed in township. In this year, the forest area is the same 18,777 acres with (7.83%) of the total land area in Myingyan Township. In 2015-16, the forest land area is 18,142 acres with (7.57%) of the total land area in Myingyan Township. From 2014-15 to 2015-16, the forest land area is decreased because of the uncultivated land area is increased in Myingyan Township. Cultivable Waste land During the period from 2004-05 to 2015-16, the cultivable waste land has gradually decreased in township. From, 2004-05 to 2008-09, the cultivable waste land area is decreased from 4,171 acres (1.69%) to 2,746 acres (1.15%).
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In the same year 2009-10 to 2010-11, the cultivable waste land area is over 2,700 acres with (1.14%) of the total land areas of Myingyan Township. In 2011-12 to 2014-15, the cultivable waste land area is continuation decreased 1,739 acres with (0.73%). In 2015-16, the area of cultivable waste land has decreased to 1,373 acres accounting for 0.57% of the township area. During the 12 year period from 2004-05 to 2015-16, the cultivable waste land gradually decreases because uncultivated lands increased in township. Uncultivable land The uncultivated land is found to the second largest area of township. Uncultivated land includes, grazing land (pastures), institutional land, transportational land, industrial land, residential land, under water area and other land. In 2004-05, the total area of Myingyan Township is 239,544 acres. Of this area 47,913 acres (20%) is the uncultivated land area. During the period from 2005-06 to 2007-08, the uncultivable land has the same area of 47,056 acres with (19.64%) in Township. In 2008-09, 47,991 the uncultivable land area has acres with (20.03%) in Myingyan Township. During six year period from 2010-11 to 2014-15, the uncultivated land has gradually increased, they are transportational, institutional, residential and industrial land use in Myingyan Township. In 2015-16, 56,462 acres (23.57%) is the uncultivable land area in Myingyan Township.
Analysis of Agricultural Landuse In Myingyan Township the agricultural land may be classified depending upon the physical bases such as relief feature; climate; soil and the social bases. There is a land at the township .The main common land is agriculture due to the vicinity of dam; reservoir; stream and lake. And also ‘Ya’ land is the major agricultural land at Pinle Chaung northeast of the township. Types of Agricultural land Use Depending upon the method of cultivation; the agricultural land is divided into three types. They are; (1) 'Le' land (Wet Agriculture) (2) 'Ya' land (Dry Agriculture) (3) 'Kaing-Kyun' land (Riparian Land) 20 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
In 2015-16, the area of agricultural lands is 163,567 acres and it forms about 68.28% of the total land area of the township. In study area, Ayeyarwady River valley and many streams are a large proportion of land area suitable for crop cultivation. According to its relief, climate and soil condition, agricultural lands of Myingyan Township are divided into 'Le' land, 'Ya' land and 'Kaing-Kyun' land. Garden land is a little found in township. The most distinct type of agricultural land in Myingyan Township is 'Ya' land due to its dry-climate and soil conditions. 'Le' lands are found in irrigated areas and adjacent areas of the Ayeyarwady River. In 2015-16, the total cultivated land area of Myingyan Township is 163,567 acres. This acreage 'Ya' land is 121,689 acres which accounts for 74.4% of the total sown acreage of Myingyan Township. 'Le' land area is 24,115 acres which accounts for 14.74% of the total sown acreage. 'Le' land is the second largest area in Myingyan Township. 'Kaing-Kyung' land is 17,761 acreage which accounts for 10.86% of the total sown area. These types of land are the smallest in acreage in the township.The Garden land is two acres which accounts for 0.001, these types of land are the smallest in acreage in the township. The fallow land is 2,752 acres with 1.68 percent of the total sown area in township. Spatial Variation of 'Le' Land Concentration Myingyan Township is within the dry zone of Myanmar. It is situated on the central region of low rainfall. But it is an irrigated area; cultivation has to depend on irrigation. The ‘Le’ land (paddy land) is found in the low lying area near Ayeyarwady River; Pinle Chaung and Pyaungpyar Chaung and Sunlun Chaung. In Myingyan Township; ‘Le’ land is the most important agricultural land use .The total area of ‘Le’ land is 23,856 acres with 14.58 percent of the total cultivated area. According to 2015-2016 on studying the ‘Le’ land high concentration of Myingyan Township Map (1), in Myingyan Township agriculture is the main economic activity and is practiced in all village tracts. In order to determine the regional variation of the agricultural land concentration Dr S.S Bhatia's Location Quotient Method is used in this research. The formula for calculating the Location Quotient is as follow,
x = Village Tract agricultural land use ÷ Township agricultural land use Village Tracts Area Total Township Area 21 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
The research calculated the Location Quotient value for 65 village tracts by using above mentioned formula. The Location Quotient values ranges from 0.70 to 0.0003. The mean value of Location Quotient is 0.17 and the standard deviation is 0.34. Basing on the mean deviation value, the concentration of agricultural land was divided into three groups. Talokemyo, Singuit, Gintge, Pyokan and Kaing village tracts are included in high concentration at agricultural land. The majority of the 'Le' lands are found to be concentrated at the flat plain of Ayeyarwaddy River in the western part and in this area, irrigation water in available. The village tracts 'Le' land moderate concentrations are found nearly Ayeyarwaddy River, Pyaungpyar Chaung and Sunlun Chaung in the western part and central part of the Myingyan Township. It comprises 19 village tracts. They are Tawpu, Gyokepin, Htetnaungkone, Nyaungto,Aingma, Sinchaung, Kyipinkan, Zeepinkan, Thinpyun, Kataw, Kaingtaung, Yetaing, Sakhar, Yantapo, Sakyu, Zeetaw, Tawinbo, Laytan, and Kyiywa. The Village Tracts which have the low concentration of 'Le' lands acreage are mostly found at the north eastern part and southern part of Myingyan Town Proper.
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Map . 1 SPATIAL VIRIATION OF 'LE' LAND CONCENTRATION IN MYINGYAN TWONSHIP (2015-2016)
Source: Land Records Department of Myingyan
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This part comprises 34 village tracts. They are Nyaungwun, Yontoe, Kanswe, Ywasi, Thapaung Hteinpan, Htanaungtaing, Mepaulk, Yatharyar, Yathar, Gwepinyo, Kyataing, Thityon, Balon, Kansint, Kokeke, Nathtar, Pyar, Nabuaing, Pinle, Nganan, Semeikhone, Lethit, Kalarywa, Lintgyi, Kuywa, Pyawbwe, Chaysay, Shataw, Kanchaw, Petaw, Gaunggwe, Kantaw, Pyaw and No.19 and No.20 wards. Kanni, Petpinaing, Kyunseik, Thaepyuwa, Daungthit, Layaingtan and Ayeywa have not found 'Le' land concentration area in Myingyan Township. These village tracts are found west on the Myingyan Town Proper and northern part of Myingyan Township. Spatial Variation of 'Ya' land Concentration In Myingyan Township falls within the region of low rainfall in central Myanmar, most of the cultivated areas are found to be 'Ya' lands. 'Ya' land areas are dominated by rolling or undulating topography. 'Ya' lands are found all over the plain area in the western part and along the streams such as Ayeyarwady river, Pinle Chaung, Pyaungpyar Chaung and Sulun Chaung at the central and northern part of Myingyan Township. In 2015-16, the net sown acreage of Myingyan Township is 119,317 acres which accounts for 72.95% of the total sown acreage in the township. According to 2015-16, on studying the 'Ya' land concentration in Myingyan Township based on Map (2), the majority of the 'Ya' lands are found to be concentrated at undulating plain area and along the streams.Its comprise six village tracts of Myingyan Township are Lethit, Kalarywa, Petpinaing, Hteinpan, Kyunseik and Petaw village tracts. In Myingyan Township, 'Ya' land moderate concentration village tracts are Kanswe, Balon, Kansint, Thityon, Tawinbo, Kuywa, Chaysay, Pyawbwe, Kanni, Yetaing, Zeataw, Thinpyun, Nathtar, Zeepinkan, Gwepinyo, Aingma, Kyipinkan, Pinle, Htanaungtaing, Tawpu, Yathar, Mepauk, Semeikhone, Ywasi, Kyiywa, Laytan, Kokeke, Naungwun, Kantaw, Nyaungto, Kataw and No.19 and No.20 wards of Myingyan Town Proper. The village tracts which have the low concentration of 'Ya' lands acreage are mostly found at central part of township, and along the Ayeyarwady River at the western part of the township. These 25 village tracts are Sakyu, Nabuaing, Kaing, Singuit, Sakhar, Yatharyar, Htanaungkone, Kyataing, Pyar, Gintge, Pyokan, Gaunggwe, Sinchaung, Gyokpin, Thapaung, Kanchaw, Talokemyo, Yontoe, Yantapo, Shataw, Pyaw, 24 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Map . 2 SPATIAL VIRIATION OF 'YA' LAND CONCENTRATION IN MYINGYAN TWONSHIP (2015-2016)
Source: Land Records Department of Myingyan
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Nganan, Kaingtaung, Lintgyi, Thaepyuwa, No.2, No.1 and No.17 wards of Myingyan Town Proper. In Myingyan Township three village tracts have no concentration of 'Ya' land acreage. Among the three village tracts are more utilized in 'Kaing-kyun' land agriculture. These village tracts are Layaingtan, Ayeywa, and Daungthit. They are located between west of Myingyan Town Proper and east of Ayeyarwady River bank. Thus, three village tracts are controlled by topography. Spatial Variation of "Kaing-Kyun" Land Concentration In Myingyan Township, 'Kaing-Kyun' land is found as smallest in areas. 'Kaing- Kyun' land cultivation is a third important system in Myingyan Township. 'Kaing-Kyun' lands are found along the eastern bank of Ayeyarwady River and along the streams, such as Pinle, Sunlun and Pyaugpyar Chaungs. 'Kaing-Kyun' land is 17,761 acres with accounts for 10.86% of the total cultivated area and 7.41% of the township area. In 2015-16 on studying the 'Kaing-Kyun' land high concentration of Myingyan Township Map (3), the majority of the 'Kaing-Kyun' land is found to be high. The concentration areas are found the flat plain of Ayeyarwady River in the western part of Myingyan Township. In this area, irrigation water is available. High concentration area is comprised three village tracts. They are Layaingtan, Ayeywa and Daungthit village tracts. They are located on the western part of Myingyan Town Proper and east of Ayeyarwady River bank. The three village tracts and Myingyan Town Proper area of Ward No.2 and No.12 are involved moderate concentration group. They are Gaunggwe, Thaepyuwa, and Thapaung village tracts. Gaunggwe and Thapaung village tracts are situated northern part of Myingyan Town Proper. Thaepyuwa village tract are found South-west of Myingyan Town Proper. 17 Village tracts and No.19 ward, which have the low concentration of 'Kaing- Kyun' land acreage. Among the 17 village tracts, ten village tracts are located eastern bank of Ayeyarwady River in Myingyan Township. They are Nganan, Htanaungtaing, Kaingtaung, Sinchaung, Kyiywa, Talokemyo, Gintge, Kaing, Semeikhone and Lintgyi village tracts. Gyokepin, Shataw, Ywasi, and Myingyan Town Proper of ward No.19 are situated on the southern part of Myingyan Township. Petpinaing, Pinle, Balon, and Petaw village tracts are found northern and eastern part of Myingyan Township. Other village 26 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
tracts are not concentration of ‘Kaing-Kyun’ land in Myingyan Township. They are comprised 42 village tracts and Myingyan Town Proper area. Temporal Changes of Agricultural Land Use In 2004-05, the agricultural land area was 166,040 areas which accounted for 69.32% of the total area of the township. ‘Le’ land was 24,054 acres which accounted for 14.49% of the agricultural land area of the township. The ’Ya’ land was 119,115 acres, which accounted for 71.74% of the agricultural land area of the township. The 'Kaing- Kyun' land was 17,686 acres, which accounted for 10.65 percent of the agricultural land area of the township. The fallow land was 5,183 acres, which accounted for 3.12 percent of the agricultural land area of the township. The Garden land was 2 acres, which accounted for 0.001% of the agricultural land area of the township. During five year from (2004-05) to (2008-09) the agricultural land use of Myingyan Township, was a little changed. In 2015-2016, the agricultural land area was 163,567 acres which accounted for 68.28 % of the total land area of the township. The 'Le' land area was 23,856 acres which accounted for 14.58 % of the total agricultural land area of township. The 'Ya' land area was 119,317 acres which accounted for 72.95 % of the total agricultural land area of the township. The 'Kaing-Kyun' land area was 17,640 acres which accounted for 10.78% of the total agricultural land area. The fallow land area was 2,752 acres which accounted for 1.69% of the total agricultural land area of the township. During 2 year period from (2014-15) to (2015-16) the agricultural land use of Myingyan Township was increased.
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Map . 3 SPATIAL VIRIATION OF 'KAING-KYUN' LAND CONCENTRATION IN MYINGYAN TWONSHIP (2015-2016)
Source: Land Records Department of Myingyan
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Table (3) Temporal Changes of Agricultural Land Use in Myingyan Township
(2004-05 to 2015-16) Kaing- Garden % YEAR Le % Ya % Kyun % Fallow % Total 2004-05 24054 14.49 119115 71.74 17686 10.65 5183 3.12 2 0.001 166040 2005-06 24331 14.58 120616 72.27 18321 10.98 3627 2.17 2 0.001 166897 2006-07 24337 14.57 121025 72.47 18315 10.97 3329 1.99 2 0.001 167008 2007-08 24454 14.64 120953 72.42 18564 11.12 3035 1.82 2 0.001 167008 2008-09 24273 14.5 122296 73.06 17938 10.72 2883 1.72 2 0.001 167392 2009-10 24154 14.45 122390 73.2 17946 10.73 2705 1.62 2 0.001 167197 2010-11 24154 14.52 121570 73.07 17940 10.78 2715 1.63 2 0.001 166381 2011-12 24127 14.63 120441 73.01 17685 10.72 2715 1.65 2 0.001 164970 2012-13 24019 14.57 120383 73.03 17632 10.7 2794 1.71 2 0.001 164830 2013-14 24019 14.72 120369 73.75 17512 10.73 1307 0.8 2 0.001 163209 2014-15 24071 14.77 120307 73.82 17512 10.74 1087 0.67 2 0.001 162979 2015-16 23856 14.58 119317 72.95 17640 10.78 2752 1.69 2 0.001 163567 Source: Land Records Department, Myingyan.
Figure (2) Temporal Changes of Agricultural Land Use in Myingyan Township (2004-05 to 2015-16)
Source: Based on Table (3) 29 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Finding and Results
In Myingyan Township ‘Le’, ‘Ya’, and ‘Kaing-Kyun’ lands are practiced in agricultural land.’Ya’ cultivation is one of the most important cultivation system in Myingyan Township. In studying the agriculture ‘Le’ land is the second largest area and its location on the lowlying area near Ayeyarwady River and streams. ‘Kaing-Kyun’ lands are grown in Myingyan Township which the amount of the third largest area. Garden land is found a little in Myingyan Township. In study area, the high concentration of ‘Le’ land area is found Dark Red Brown Savanna Soil and Red Brown Savanna Soil and Meadow Valley Gley Soil. ‘Le’ land area is increased due to the supported by No.1 and No.2 Semeikhone River water pumping area, Seiknyan River pumping area, Pyokan and Sunlun reservoirs. Moderate ‘Le’ land area is found the same as the high concentration area. In Myingyan Township, the majority of ‘Ya’ land is found Red Brown Savanna Soil, Red Brown Eroded Savanna Soil. The moderate ‘Ya’ lands are on the types of Red Brown Savanna Soil and Dark Red Savanna Soil. In Myingyan Township, the ‘Kaing-Kyun’ lands are on the types of Dark Red Brown Savanna Soil and Meadow Alluvium Soil near the Ayeyarwady River. The moderate ‘Kaing-Kyun’ lands are found Dark Red Brown Savanna Soil and Meadow Valley Gley Soil. ‘Le’ Land of Myingyan Township is 14.74 percent. ‘Ya’ land is 74.4 percent. ‘Kaing-Kyun’ Land of Myingyan Township is 10.86 percent. Agricultural land use is 163,567 acres. Future Prospects In the study area; if the farmer could improve their knowledge, skills, will help them to improve the technical. Being located in Dry Zone of Central Myanmar, irrigation plays a key role in agriculture. The Government has laid down projects to irrigate, irrigable acreage of 325 acres by 5 reservoirs and 541 acres by 5 river water pumping stations. Surface wells and tube wells are also dug to irrigate by the farmers for cash crops or market crops. By the time the plans have been completed the main crops of the area such as paddy, cotton, sesame, onion, chilli, wheat, tobacco and gram can be cultivated extensively with the result of light yield of crop. The socio-economic conditions of the areas will also develop. With water control, the farmer working is an irrigated field will not have enough fine to cultivate due to the short rainy season. With guaranteed supply of water and the use of 30 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
modern machines, together with chemical fertilizers and pesticides, the famers can enjoy multiple harvests in the study area. Assistance and encouragement by the government is providing to the form land for farming financial and equipment's and seeds. The development works of agricultural land which is going to be tackled by the government includes; reclamation of fallow and cultivable waste land protection of soil erosion. In deep, the future aspects of the village tracts in the present irrigated areas in Myingyan Township depend chiefly on irrigated farming and their products.
Acknowledgement I’m deeply indebted to Dr. Tun Hlaing, Principal, Myingyan Degree College for his permission for me to submit this paper and unavailable advices and suggestions in submitting this paper. Deep thanks are also due to all respondents who answered to my interview patiently. Finally, deep thanks are due to my parents for their encouragement and multiple supplies until the completion of my education. REFERENCES 1. Chauhan R.B.S (1973) “Land Utilization in Auindhan Foothill Village”The Deccan Geographer Vol. XI, No. 182, A Semi-annual of the Deccan Geographical Society and the Deccan Institute of Geography Secunderabad 500256. A.P, India 2. Mandal,R.B.(1981) Landn Utilization (Theory and Practical), New Delhi concept publishing Company
3. Myint Myint Khaing Ma Agricultural Land Use in Myingyan Township.(2016) Yadanabon University
31 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Administration Under Revolutionary Council Government
Than Than Khaing1
Abstract
After the seizure of State power by Revolutionary Council, changes occurred in the social life based on Socialism. In the transitional period, Revolutionary Council controlled State power by the centralized system and undertook administrative duty. The government was formed with the majority of army officers. Revolutionary Council practiced one-party system and the government laid down the plans to implement for the improvement of life of workers and peasants, the two socialist social strata even though there were strong points and weak points.
Key Words : CSAC - The Central Security and Administration Committee
SAC - Security and Administration Committee
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Introduction
Myanmar gained independence in January 1948. The divide and rule policy of British Colonialist left the country with disintegration of national unity that created the insurgency after the independence. In 1958, the ruling Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League (AFPFL) confronted with factional split.Political instability occurred when the AFPFL was divided into two groups as the Clean AFPFL and the Stable AFPFL. Due to political instability in the country, General Ne Win was requested to take over power on October 28, 1958. General Ne Win and military formed the “Caretaker Government” and restored peace in the country. The general election was held on 6 February 1960. The Clean AFPFL won the election with 203 representatives. The Caretaker
1 Lecturer, Dr., Department of History, Myingyan Degree College 32 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Government of General Ne Win transferred power to the elected U Nu and his Government. The Clean AFPFL, led by U Nu formed the Union Government (Pa Hta Sa) in April 1960. Under the Union Government, Myanmar was instable with various issues. The Union Government was seriously factionalized with different views. It was divided into three groups – Bo group from people fighting in anti-colonialist and anti- fascist battles, Thakhin group from people participating in politics as Thakhin and U group from former government officials, lawyers and elites. The Union Government attempted to adopt Buddhism as “the State religion” that led to internal instability and conflicts. The adoption of Buddhism as the State religion led to religious riots and political instability under the Union Government. Taking advantage of the situation, some ethnic groups demanded the quasi-autonomous state. Ethnic groups, who already gained autonomy, demanded the federal policy based on the Chapter Ten of the 1947 Constitution which stated the right for secession from the Union since ten years after independence.
In 1957, Maha Devi of the Nyaung Shwe Sao Sawbwa Nang Hein Kham, Maing Yai Sawbwa Sao Hso Hom, Kyaythi Mansan Sawbwa Sao Shwe Hmon led the discussion of the formation of Shan State Unity Group and demanded the separation of Shan State at the meeting in Lashio. The meeting for federal right was held at the Broadcasting hall in Yangon at six pm, 24 February 1962, while the Union Parliament was in session. At the meeting the Chairman of Shan State, Sao Hkun Hkio proposed the federal right. His proposal was supported by representatives including Duwa Zaw Lun (Kachin State), Captain Man Ton Nung (Chin Special Division), U Tun Myint (Taunggyi, Shan State), U Sein (Kayah State). To convince the Union Government leaders and advisers, the meeting was postponed to six pm, 1 March 1962.
Formation of Revolutionary Council
Myanmar military seized government power for the second time on 2 March 1962. On that day, it announced that Revolutionary Council of the Union of Myanmar was established, and then legislative, executive and judicial power were practiced. On the morning of 2 March 1962, the Revolutionary Council of the Union of Myanmar was formed with seventeen military leaders. The Chairman of the Revolutionary Council General Ne Win and members of Government undertook ministries. The Revolutionary Council discarded the capitalist parliamentary democracy system while State Councils and Ministries of Mon and Rakhine were abolished. The administration system of the Revolutionary Council included Government, secretariat and various levels of government organizations. After the restoration of stability of 33 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 the Union of Myanmar by the Revolutionary Council, a meeting was held in Yadanarpon Navy Post in Yangon on 3rd and 4th May .National security and administrative plan was laid down. According to the Plan, the general administration system of division, district, township and village tract which organized the daily executive power of commissioner, deputy commissioner, subdivisional officer, township officer, and headman, was abolished on 9th May 1962. Then the Ministry of Home Affairs formed various levels of the Central Security and Administration Committee (SAC).
Implementation of the Central Security and Administration
The Central Security and Administration implemented the following rural development activities with the funding from the budget allocated by the Revolutionary Council.
(a) Agricultural and land reclamation (b) Building of bridge and roads (c) Water dispatch for village (d) Health (e) Education The Revolutionary Council restricted authority of local general administration in the hands of commissioner, deputy commissioner, sub-divisional officer, township officer and adopted the collective responsibility system of the security and administration committees in division, district, township and village levels. The Central Security and Administration was mainly responsible for economic reforms of the Revolutionary Council including nationalization of stores, warehouse, wholesale business and private banks. The Minister of Home Affairs of the Revolutionary Council, Colonel Kyaw Soe was the Chairman and the General Staff (Colonel) Than Sein was appointed as the vice-Chairman when the Central Security and Administration Committees were formed. The Committee had fourteen members. The chairman of the state/division/ district /township committee was appointed from the military officer. Members were staffs from General Administration and police. Village tract and ward committees were formed with suitable persons.
As a separate duty the Central Security and Administration Committee carried out rural area development activities by using funding from the Revolutionary Council. The Revolutionary Council Government funded professionals and staffs to implement rural development together with collective finance, collective labour and collective opinion from the public. The 34 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Revolutionary Council announced to practice one party system on 18 May 1962. Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) was established on 4th July 1962. On 6th July 1962, the Revolutionary Council of the Union of Myanmar formed two top committees with Revolutionary Council members. The two Committees were the Party Discipline Committee and the Central Organizing Committee. On 1st April 1962 the Chairman of the Revolutionary Council dissolved the Supreme Court and High Court. Then the new Chief Court was formed and continued to use the power of former Supreme Court and High Court.
The Revolutionary Council Government issued announcements to implement administrative reforms continuously after its transfer of power. It seemed to consider the qualified persons in various levels of administration for stability and peace of the country. The Auditor General was also appointed on 2nd March 1962. The Auditor General was needed to inspect handling of public property, to outline principles and to audit .The Auditor General was U San Lwin. The Revolutionary Council Government extended its governmental structure on 17th September 1964. When it was first established on 2nd March 1962 the commander-in-chief, military headquarters, general staff, general quarter master, director and headquarters of police were included. The following Chart showed the administration structure of the Revolutionary Council Government in 1962.
Administration Structure of the Revolutionary Council Government
The facts of the above Chart showed that Revolutionary Council represented as an administrative organization on behalf of the people of Union of Myanmar.
The Chairman of the Revolutionary Council General Ne Win abolished the remains of the colonial period, the secretariat and outlined the new administrative system for the interests of the people. Under the new administrative system, the deputy ministers who could take 35 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 responsibility for politics and management of the Revolutionary Council replaced the secretaries from the old system. The new Government was formed after ten years of the coup of
nd Revolutionary Council. On 22 July1972, state/division General Administration Department was reformed to withdraw state/division commissioner offices in accordance with the plan of new administrative system. As for the frontier area administration, the Revolutionary Council Government redefined the administrative area of Mayyu district on 1st February 1964.
Security and Administration Committees, based on national security and administrative plan, included only government servants, military administration and police. To serve smoothly they were decided to reform. The new organization including Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP), people’s representatives from People’s Peasant Council and People’s Labour Council and institution with government appointees were established. On 1st July 1972 various levels of security and administration committee were restructured. On 1st January 1963, the Revolutionary Council restructured organization of the office of commander-in-chief. General
th San Yu became commander-in-chief when General Ne Win was retired on 20 April 1972. After the coup of the Revolutionary Council, judicial system was modified. The objective of the Council was to implement people’s judicial system. To realize the objective, the Revolutionary Council outlined (1) the establishment of the Supreme Court (2) the basic changes for the goal of people’s judicial system (3) implementation of people’s judicial system and reforms of punishment system. Discussions of cases, training of staffs and extension of the institutions were carried out as follows:
(a) Special Criminal Courts (b) Regional people’s courts and regional courts (c) Other organizations for the cases between peoples (d) Coordination of Judicial matters (e) Training and extension of institutions of staffs. The Revolutionary Council increased its army forces to suppress insurgency on land for state peace and prosperity while navy was also extended. Myanmar Navy safeguards coastal areas and islands in Myanmar territorial water. Irrawaddy Naval Command, Tanintharyi Naval Command and Rakhine Naval Command were established. Like army and navy, Air force was also extended. The Revolutionary Council Government attempted to improve various sectors including social, economic and administrative sectors. To safeguard national peace and stability and to defend against insurgency, army, navy and air force were extended. The Government also tried to draw the new constitution after the State was stable. Fifteen regional organizations 36 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
were formed to collect their opinions. The Organizing Commission of National Referendum held meetings three times on 14th October 1971, 6th March 1972 and 13th December 1973. On 15th December 1973 National Referendum was held nationwide. The Chairman of the State Council was U Ne Win and Secretary was General San Yu. U Ne Win became the first President of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Myanmar. The Socialist Republic of the Union of Myanmar was composed of fourteen states and divisions.
Conclusion
The Military took responsibility as the Caretaker Government in 1958 and U Nu’s Government regained power after the 1960 Election. Then the negative impacts from his campaign promises including federal policy of states and Buddhism as state religion, led to the religious conflict in the country. Thus the Military seized power for the second time on 2nd March 1962. The Revolutionary Council Government started to carry out executive power of the State. Military officers led various ministries and served for the peace and prosperity of the country. The Revolutionary Council formed state/division leading bodies and initiated to gain national unity in Myanmar. With the aims to get peace and prosperity of state it discarded the old administrative system and implemented the centralized administrative system. The Revolutionary Council reformed various aspects of state responsibilities. It is found out that frontier areas were reorganized as a priority for the Government. To implement security and administration plans smoothly the Revolutionary Government established BSPP, people’s representatives from the Peasant Council and from the Labour Council and new institution with government appointees. People’s judicial system was seriously implemented. Land Committees were formed to settle land disputes. People’s courts appointed judges from members of public and were carried out judicial affairs. Furthermore the Revolutionary Council improved the punishment system and reducing sentences system. After releasing from prisons old convicts were supported to become good men. Military commands were also formed to protect national security. The Government strengthened Army, Navy and Air Force by increasing forces and improving skills and equipments. It served to realize national security, peace and law and order restoration in the country and attempted to hold National Referendum for twelve years after it came to power. On 15th December 1973, National Referendum was held and the Constitution was ratified on 3rdJanuary 1974.Various levels of people’s councils were selected to serve for the interests of people. U Ne Win was selected as the first President and the Chairman of the State Council. The country was known as the Socialist Republic of the Union of Myanmar which was 37 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 divided into fourteen states and divisions. The Revolutionary Council Government served the State duties for Myanmar so as to become a peaceful and prosperous country.
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my grateful thanks to Dr Htun Hlaing, Principal of Myingyan Degree College for his exhorting and encouragement to submit this paper.
I am deeply indebted to Professor Dr Cho Cho Lwin, Head of the Department of History, Myingyan Degree College for the guidance and valuable advice.
References
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Pyi-htanung-su Myan-mar Naing-ngan Taw-hlan-ye Kyey-nyar-chet-myar (The Announcements of the Revolutionary Council of the Union of Myanmar), Yangon, Union of Myanmar Buddha Sasana Press, 2 March 1974 Pyi-htanung-su Myan-mar Naing-ngan Taw-hlan-ye Kyey-nyar-chet-myar (The Announcements of the Revolutionary Council of the Union of Myanmar (1962), Yangon, Central Press, 2 March 1964 Pyi-htaung-su Myan-mar Naing-ngan Taw-hlam-ye Concil Kye-nyar-chet-myar (Announcement of the Revolutionary Council of the Union of Myanmar, 1964), Yangon, Central press, 1964 Pyi-htaung-su Myan-mar-naing-ngan Taw-hlan-ye Concil, U-pa-de-mya (Revolutionary Council of the union of Myanmar, Laws), 1964 Socialist Democracy ÔK-chôke-ye-yan-da-ya Ti-sauk-ye (The Establishment of Social Democratic Administration Machinery), Yangon, Myanmar Buddhist Sasana Press, 2 March 1974 Tatmataw Tha-ming (History of Tatmadaw), Vol.V, 1962-1974, 7 April 1997 Taw-hlan-ye Concil ei Loke-saung-chet Tha-maing A-kyin-choke (The Brief History of the Performance of Revolutionary Council), Yangon, Buddhist sasana Press, 1974 1965 khu-nit Party-hni-hnaw Pha-le`-pwe` (Party Seminar 1965), Yangon, Sarpay Baikhman Press, 1966 1971- pa-hta-ma-a-kyein Party-nyi-lar-khan Party-ba-ho Committee Okka-hta-gyi ei Meint-hkum-mya hnint Party-si-yon-ye Ba-ho-commettee ei Naing-ngan-ye hnint A –si-yin-khan-sar (Speech of the Chairman of Part Central Committee at the First Part Congress in 1971 and Political Report of the Party Central Committee), Yangon, Sapay Baikman Press, 1971 Than Maung, "Myan-mar Naing-ngan Ôk-chôke-ye" (Administration in Myanmar 1962- 73), Mandalay, MA , Mandalay University, 1981 Forward Journal, Vol. XX 20, No.11, 1 May 1972 Botataun Newspaper, 3 March 1974 Hanthawaddi Newspaper, 17 February 1960 Pyithu Owai Newspaper, 2 April 1960
39 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
TAUNGTHA DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD
Tin Swe 1
Abstract
Taungtha has been famous in the periods particularly in the time of British annexation when the armed struggle against the Britich rule led by Bo Ya Nyunt has broken out. Nevertheless Taungtha has existed since the middle of Konboung period. Before that period Taungtha was known as Kyauk-Yit Taungtha. The main purpose of this work is to trace Taungtha during the Colonial period (1886-1938).
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awmifomNrdKUe,fonf NAdwdoQwdkYodrf;ydkufxm;pOfumvwGif xif&Sm;vm cJhonf/ txl;ojzifhAdkvf&mnGefY OD;aqmifaom NAdwdoQtkyfcsKyfa&;udk qefYusifonfh vufeufudkifvIyf&Sm;rIYrsm; jzpfyGm;csdefwGif awmifomNrdKU e,fonf ydkrdkxif&Sm;vmcJhonf/ odkYaomfvnf; awmifomNrdKUe,fonf ukef;abmifacwf v,ftcsdefuxJu wnf&SdcJhaomNrdKUjzpfonf/ xdkacwf rwdkifcifu awmifomNrdKUudk ausmuf&pfawmifomtjzpf od&SdMuonf/ þokawoepmwrf;\ t"du&nf&G,fcsufrSm udkvdkeDacwf(1886-1938) awmifome,ftaMumif;udk avhvmqef;ppf wifjy&efjzpfygonf/
Introduction
This paper deals with the changes of administration and socio-economy in Taungtha under the colonisl rule. The armed struggles against the British rule led by Bo Ya Nyunt were also described in detail. After the annexation the former officials, Myowuns, Thugyis and Myingaungs lost their offices and they were replaced by civil officers and other officers of colonial administration, The changes of the administrative system in transitional period are also discussed. Besides, the socio-economic conditions under the colonial rule are investigated
1 Assistant Lecturer, Daw, Department of History, Myingyan Degree College
40 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
TAUNGTHA DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD
The Kingdom of Myanmar fell under the British colonial rule after the capture of King
Thibaw and Queen Suphaya Latt on 29th November 1885. On 15th December 1885, Sir Charles Bernard, Chief Commissioner of Myanmar, arrived Mandalay to hand over the administration from General Prendergast. When Upper Myanmar was divided into four administrative zones, Myingyan District became one of the Districts of Southern administrative zones and J.D La Touche was appointed as the District Commissioners. Myingyan, Bagan, Minbu and Taungdwingyi areas were put under his jurisdiction.
However, as discussed before, when Myingyan was stood as a separate District on 27th July 1887, Taungtha and Nwahtogyi township included in the Myingyan District.
Although the British established the foundation of colonial administration, they soon faced with the serious anti-colonialist movement by the Myanmar guerrillas. The revolutionary movements of Upper Myanmar were mostly led by ex-officials of crown servicemen groups, Sanghas, princes and some ex-nobilities. The renown leaders were Bo Kyaw Khaung, ex-Myowun of Talok, Yamethin Le-wun, U Paung, Ein Kon Thugyi, Bo Hla U of Shwebo, Bo Cho of Bagan, Bo Ya Nyunt, Myin-gaung of Myingyan. As soon as King Thibaw was deposed, Bo Ya Nyunt organized the followers around Poppa, Kyaukpadaung and Nwahtogyi townships. At first, Bo Ya Nyunt had to fight against Bo Shwe Son Nyo who had formerly been the rival of Bo Ya Nyunt. Then Bo Ya Nyunt began his armed-struggle against the British. The followers of Bo Ya Nyunt were Bo Htaung Po, Bo Yan Pyei, and Bo Tha Sat. Some of the native of Taungtha area revolted against the British. Some of them revolted separately and some joined each other’s hands. They were Taungtha MyoThugyi U Phon Taing, Bo Maik, Bo Cheik, Bo Tha Au from Taungtha, Bo Tha Kyan, Myaukkhwintha Bo Tha Ya, Bo Ke from Dahattaw; Bo Yan Pyei from Za Gyan; Bo Hmoke from Kyaw Zi and Bo Nwe from Moe Hnaung Khin. They had given great trouble from 1885 to 1890.
Bo Ya Nyunt and his followers had fought against the British in the skirmishes at the confluence of We Laung and Sindewa creeks, Sattein which lies on the border of Kyaukpadaung and Taungtha and Kaludaw which lies on the east of Nagabo. Kaludaw battle yielded the victory for Bo Ya Nyunt and his followers because a British Commander, supposed to be a rank of Colonel, died in action. 41 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Bo Sok, who was a native of Zayatkyi village, Taungtha; was also a distinctive leader against the British. He organized followers on the east of Pe-Khin Kyaw village. Combined forces of Bo Sok and a Shan leader attacked the British garrison which encamped at the present site of Taungtha Police Station. The British destroyed the Phayani Pagoda to build their camp in the precinct. Other battles of Bo Sok broke out at the foot of Taungtha hill and Phayakon which lies on the west of Zigon.
Myanmar guerrillas, however, were gradually defeated by the British due to the restraints of manpower and fire-arms. On the other hand, the British organized the local population by appointing the office of Thugyuis and by giving rewards whereas they used the cruel methods to suppress the rebellion. Some villages which were supposed to have connection with the guerrillas were burnt down. Bo Ya Nyunt finally surrendered on 30 May 1890. In this way, Myingyan and Taungtha area fell under the rule of the British.
After the restoration of law and order, the British attempted to establish foundation for the colonial rule in Taungtha area. They decided to continue the former hereditary office of Thugyis. For example, they let to rule U Shwe Oe who was a grandson of ex-Thugyi U Pwa of Kandaw village. Similarly U Bo, son of U Shwe Oe, was appointed as Thugyi of Kandaw village on his father’s death. The offsprings of former Myinzis were also appointed as Thugyuis. U Shwe Min, son of Zagyan Myinzis (cavalary officers), was appointed as Thugyi in Zagyan village. At first the salary system was not widely practised in the area and Thugyis were let to take the commission from the kinds of land revenues. Thugyis of Mi-Bauk village, which lies by the Ayawadi River, were given alluvial islands between Mi Bauk and Tha Paung villages. However, it seems that the jurisdiction of Thugyi was limited to a certain extent because some cases which could not be settled by Thugyis were proceeded to the office of the Township Civil Service. For example, the case of U Kya versus U Chit San was not concluded by Kandaw Thugyi and was submitted to the said office. The case was tried by an officer of the Provincial Civil Service who was an additional judge of the District court.
The British government convinced that the transportation was an important means for the development of the restoration of law and order and of the regional economy. Thus, after the establishment of District court, jail, two bazaars and Assistant Commissioner’s Office, the priority was given to the construction of roads. The branch railway line from Thazi through Meiktila to Myingyan, commenced in 1897 as a famine 42 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
relief work, has a length of about 32 miles within the District. The motor roads, constructed and maintained by the Public Works Department, have a length of 203 miles. The most important of those were Myingyan-Mahlaing road (31 miles), Myingyan- Nahtogyi road (19 miles), Myingyan-Bagan road and Kyaukpadaung-Settein-Taungtha road (45 miles). About 400 miles of serviceable fair-weather roads were maintained by the District fund. Taungtha-Kyaukpadaung road was constructed in 1926. This date was indicated by a concrete pipe of a bridge near Thedaw village, on which the date (24.1.1926) was inscribed. Owing to the establishment of transportation with outside areas, it became the head-quarter of Township Commissioner. However, all of these roads were running across only Taungtha Myo. Thus the remote villages, located in the western part of the Township, were still relic of fair-weather road which were mainly serviceable for the bullock-carts. The major bullock-cart roads are Zagyan-Taungtha road, Zagyan- Welaung road, Zagyan-Ngathayauk road and Zagyan-Konphato road. These roads are still serviceable today. Owing to the attempts to restore the pacification, administration and construction of infrastructures, the anti-colonialist movement of Taungtha was calm down.
When the nationalist movement of Myanmar began with the establishment of Young Men Buddhist Association (Y.M.B.A) between the years 1906 and 1920, Taungtha was not left behind. However, like in the other parts of Myanmar, the nationalist movement of Taungtha mainly depended on the fields of religion and culture rather than on the political sentiment. The leaders were Sanghas Sayadaw U Aloka who made his effort for the development of monastic education. Sayadaw opened a primary school in 1914 at Talaing village, which was upgraded into middle school in 1920 and into a high school in 1936 respectively. During the period of the movement of Y.M.B.A and G.C.B.A the nationalist movements of laymen cannot be seen.
I can say that the nationalist movement of Myanmar reached at its height of development in 1930s when the separationist and anti-separationist movement broke out. The British government issued the 1935 Burma Act in the years of Diarchy rule. By this Act an issue was emerged to consider that Myanmar had to continue to say as one of the provinces of India or to separate from India to stand as the direct colony of the British Empire. The problem of separation from India had far reaching consequences which later 43 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 spread throughout the whole of Myanmar. Myingyan and Taungtha Township also took part in the separation and anti-separation movement.
On 18th September 1963, U Ba Thawin of east Myingyan constituency was appointed as a candidate of the parliamentary members. On 29th August 1936 U Yei Tha, Higher Grade Pleader and U Chan Khaing were proposed to lead the movement of Taungtha area. The letter was sent to Mandalay G.C.B.A by the Taungtha activitists to inform that they did not appreciate the G.C.B.A of 21 members and that they wanted to form a new party which favored the Nga-pwint-saing party. A meeting was also held on 23 September 1963 at Shaw Phyu village on the east of Myingyan Township. It was attended by 1000 laymen and fifty sanghas from forty villages. Another meeting was also held at Dan Taing village on 21st September 1936. This meeting was attended by Sanghas and over 1500 people from 30 villages. The meeting decided to elect U Ba Thwin, land owner, as the candidate for the Constituent Assembly. The decision of Dan Taing meeting to elect U Ba Twin as candidate was supported by a meeting jointly held by Maha Sangha Thamagi Union led by Ye U Taikthit Sayadaw and All Myanmar Consolidated Union led by Mekkhaya Prince Htaik Tin Wa Gyi.
While the movement of separation and anti-separation reached its height of development, the movement of Dobama Asiayone was strengthened by the support of every stratum of people. Dobama Asiayone held its second annual conference at Myingyan. Thakhin Min Lwin and Thakhin Maung Maung Tin made their utmost effort to hold the conference successfully. Thus Taungtha has a tradition of nationalist movement who produced political activists, Thakhins, and Wunthanu leaders. For example, Sayadaw U Kethara of Taungtha became famous for his preaching against the British.
The economic life of Taungtha area, like under the rule of Myanmar Kings, was agricultural economy. But as already known, Taungtha located in the dry zone and most of the area comprised of poor fertile land. Thus, only Ya dry upland cultivation and Kaing inundated plantation located near Ayawadi River. The major crops were cotton, sesame, millet, beans and tobacco. The secondary crops were lu and pulses. According to a list collected in 1903-04, it is known that there were 203 villages which measures 516 square miles and there were only 172 square miles fell under cultivation. The British government 44 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
collected Rs.1, 19,000 as the Thathameida and land revenue from Taungtha area. Taungtha had a considerable amount of trade with the outside area. It imported timber, bamboo, rice, fish-paste, oil and ironware and the products of Thaungtha were cotton, tobacco, jaggery, cutch, sesame and chilli. During 1920s the economy of Taungtha area seemed to be improving and accordingly, the prices of Kyun-alluvial Island rose to 200 kyats per acre and those of inundated land rose to 75 kyats per acre.
Although the possibility of the economic development can be seen, the former practice of land mortgaging and money landing still lingered in Taungtha area. For this business, the Parabaiks were displaced by government’s bonds. It is interesting to note that although the land measurement was precisely described on the mortgage contracts of other area, the Thet-ka-yits of Taungtha area still mention the name of the plot of the land under mortgage or sale. Like in the monarchical period, the economic activities of Taungtha area were dominated by the handful of money-lenders. Some of them were U Shan from Sin Thei village, U Thu Daw from Khan Pin Kwe, U Thant from Kon Pahto village and U Wa Gyi from Tamaik village. They dominated the areas of Kaleinchon, Tameiktha, Shaukpin, Konphato, Chaungpauk, Htanaungkon, Kyaukka, Mipauk, Sin Thei, Myingyan, Ngatinsin, Khanpin kwe, Thabutsu and Minkyan. Many mortgaging contracts did not mention the date of settlement but it was generally agreed to settle within three years. Sometimes, the measurement of the land was mentioned by the amount of pyo-win (nursery plant). Generally, the measurement of land can be seen 100 pyo-win, 300 pyo-win or sometimes, 350 pyo-win. The mortgaging value of 100 pyo-win land was between 35 kyats and 60 kyats and 300 pyo-win land cost 150 kyats. Among the Thetkayits of colonial period, the toddy-palm mortgaging contracts can be seen. But like in the former days, the number of toddy-palms was not mentioned in Thetkayits.
The following list shows the number of mortgaging and money-lending Thetkayits which have been collected from Taungtha area so far.
Ya-mortgaging 25
Le-mortgaging 22
Toddy-palm mortgaging 16
House-mortgaging 1 45 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Ornament (gold)-mortgaging 2
Money-lending bonds 12
The slave bondage contracts cannot be found in the Taungtha area under colonial rule. Most of the Ya-mortgaging deeds came from Tameiktha village. There were several reasons for this collection. Firstly, it was probably brought about by unfavorable condition for agriculture, and secondly, the people from other area might not want to show such deeds to a stranger because these deeds were particularly related to family matters.
The deeds collected from some areas mention the measurement of the Ya land in pyi (one pyi = 0.2557 bushel) of the seeds of sesame or millet. But the deeds of Taungtha did not mention the measurement in such way. Among the mortgaged Ya lands, the land of Ko Po Gyi has cached the best price for he could mortgaged his land at the cost of 700 kyats in 1921. Maung Lu Kha from Htanaungkon got the worst price at the cost of only 20 kyats. But we cannot consider the prices as the actual value because its price sometime fluctuated and because land-owners generally mortgaged their land with the value what they required.
For the toddy-palm mortgaging, Khanpingwe village yielded most of the mortgaging deeds. The reason is that the major occupation of the area depended on the toddy-palm growing and jaggery boiling. The money-lending business was monopolized by U Wa Gyi of Tamaiktha village. The money-lending deeds mentioned that interest rate was between ten percent and fifteen percent. The duration of settlement was generally fixed within three months.
During the colonial period, the self-subsistence agriculture of Taungtha was changed into commercial agriculture. But the evidence which showed the sign of the development of local people can not be seen. It is probably because of the geographical condition of Taungtha which was not favourable for commercial agriculture and because of the customary agricultural methods of local people. The traditional business of land mortgaging and money-lending still lingered during the colonial period. Under the colonial rule, the social condition of Taungtha was abruptly changed. Together with the downfall of monarchical rule, dramatis personae of customary rule such as Myowuns, Myosas, officials of crown servicemen groups disappeared from the scene. Since the time 46 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
of annexation, the British government did not entangle Sanghas continued to exist and it comprised of Gaing-ok, Gaing-chok and Thathanabaing (primate). There appeared two celebrated monks from Taungtha Township. They won the title of Agha Maha Pandita. These Sayadaws were Second Min-khaung Sayadaw and Sayadaw U Aggantha. Like under the former rule, the cases of Sanghas were let to try by the Sanghas themselves. For example, a dispute on the Sangha property broke out on 5th April 1891 among the Sanghas of Htinlin Monastery in Taungtha Township. The case was settled by Pahtaukgyaung Gaing-ok Sayadaw, Htilin Taik-ok Sayadaw, Htilin Taik-kyat Sayadaw and Kiyiwun Sayei Kyaung Sayadaw U Wimala.
Another dispute among the Sanghas of Taungtha began since the last days of Konbaung period. It was created by Yanaung Maung Maung Toke who was notorious for his hobby of taking many wives. At that time, Maung Maung Toke longed to take Ma Me, the artist of puppet show, who was a native of Simikan village. When Maung Maung Toke was about to take her, she was staying in Kyauksauk village. Thus Maung Maung Toke ordered Simikan Thugyi to bring Ma Me to the royal capital. In this situation, the monks of Simikan Monastery hid Ma Me in the precinct of the Monastery. When Simikan Thugyi reported the situation to Maung Maung Toke, he sent Mahadanwun, officer in charge of religious affairs, to bring Ma Me at any possible means. Maung Maung Toke also imposed punitive fine to Sanghas of Simikan Monastery. Then a schism broke out between Simikan Kyin Chaung Monastery and other Sanghas who considered that the Simikan monks violated the Vinaya. It lasted for about 40 years and spread into the Myingyan and Taungtha area. The case was settled in 1936 by well-wisheres, town elders and the people of Taungtha. Finally, the two sects conciliated each other.
Because of the changes of economic conditions, some people of Taungtha Township could make fortune through the new commercial transaction. One of the Pagodas renovated by the natives of Taungtha is Shwegugyi Pagoda which lies near Kyauksauk village, one mile away from Taungtha-Kyaukpadaung road. Myasigon Pagoda is also a renowned pagoda in Taungtha. The annual pagoda festival was held since 1901. The festival was sponsored by Township Civil Officer U Thein Maung, Thugyi U San Myint, U Phon Kyaw, U Chit Su, U Maung Lay (Advocates) and Ko Yin Lay. The most famous religious festival is the rice offering ceremony which was held on 47 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 every Myanmar New Year Day. The rice offering is made to the monks of twenty-seven Monasteries in and around Taungtha.
As for the social welfare of the local population, the British gave priority to Myingyan and opened schools and hospitals there. In 1904-05, 5 special (probably High School), 14 secondary, 111 primary, and 1,145 elementary (private) schools were maintained, with an attendance of 17, 724 pupils (including 1,037 girls). The total has been rising steadily, having been 7,539 in 1891 and 15,111 in 1901. The expenditure on education in 1903-04 was Rs. 15,300 of which Provincial funds provided Rs. 12,100, while 3,100 was contributed by fees. But most of the parents of Taungtha could not afford to pay the expense to send their children to the schools of Myingyan. The Buddhists established three hospitals with a total of 63 beds, and two dispensaries. In 1903, the number of cases treated was 23,272 including 702 in-patients, and 626 operations were conducted (Imperial Gazetteer, pp. 300-301). However, all of these hospitals located in and around Myingyan and the native of Taungtha relied on the indigenous medicine.
During the colonial period, the celebrated persons emerged from Taungtha Township. Among them, Sandawchein Sein Ba Maung, master of Myanmar orchestra, was noteworthy. He was born in Taungtha on 27th August 1923 by Saya Pe, master of Myanmar orchestra, and Daw Pike. His talent on Myanmar music was bequeathed by his father. To sum up, Taungtha during the colonial period was famous for its armed struggle against the British with Myingyan and Welaung area. The British took about ten years to suppress the revolts of the natives of Taungtha led by Bo Ya Nyunt. On the other hand, they initiated the works for the development of transportation. Thus, Taungtha became the area of considerable development. Nevertheless, Taungtha took part in the nationalist movements of Y.M.B.A, G.C.B.A and Dobama Asiayone. Thakhin leaders, Wunthanu and other political activists emerged from Taungtha area. Some of them, like U Ba Thwin, became the member of the Constituent Assembly.
The economic life of Taungtha area did not change abruptly during the colonial period because the people still engaged in the customary methods of cultivation and the economy of Taungtha area still depended on the agricultural economy. But certain amount of commercial transaction was carried out between Taungtha and other districts. Like under the native rule, the money-lenders and mortgagees continued to exist in colonial period. Because of their wealth, they became influential persons in the society. 48 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
But the former crown service-men and Myowun, Thugyuis, and MyoThugyuis were gradually on the wane even though the British government continued to appoint some of the officials of crown servicemen group.
Conclusion
This paper emphasizes on Taungtha during the colonial period and its armed struggle against the British in Myingyan and Welaung areas. The British took about ten years to suppress the revolts of the natives of Taungtha led by Bo Ya Nyunt. Moreover the people of Taungtha took part in the nationalist movements of Y.M. B.A, G.C.B.A and Dobama Asiayone. Thakin leaders, Wunthanu and other political activities emerged from Taungtha area. Some of them, like U Ba Thuin became the member of the constituent Assembly.
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my grateful thanks to Principal Dr. Htun Hlaing, Myingyan Degree College. I am greatly thankful to Dr Cho Cho Lwin, Professor and Head of History Department for her encouragement to do this research submit to Myingyan Degree College Journal publishing committee. I am also extremely indebted to my supervisor, Dr Ba Maung.
49 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
References
Amar,Daw,Ludu (1936). Records of Revolutionary Movements during colonial period.
Aung Myo, (2002). Resentence Movements in Mandalay Division (1886-1891), MRes Thesis, Mandalay University, History Department.
Aye Thant, U. (1969). Historic Martyrs during Colonial Period, Yangon Gandawin Press.
Crosthwaite, Sin Charles (1968). The pacification of Burma, London, Frank Cass and Co.ltd.
Owen, F. C. (1813). Burma Gazetteer; Pakkoku District, vol A. Ragoon, Government Printing.
Scott, J. G. (1901) Gazetteer of Upper Burma and Shan states, Part II, Ragoon, Government Printing.
Thaung Thaung, Daw. (1974). '' Cavalry Servicement around Myingyan Area in the Nieteenth Century'', (in Myanmar) Tekkatho Pyinnya Padetha Journal, Yangon, Ministry of Education.
50 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
The Concept of Happiness in Bentham and Mill’s Utilitarianism
Nan Thein Thein Sint*
Abstract
TheUtilitarianism is an outstanding ethical view. It views that the right act is the act which, of all those open to the agent, will actually or probable produce the greatest amount of pleasure or happiness in the world. In other words, the principle of utility states that an action of man is right when it produces as much or more amount of happiness. Happiness is intrinsically valuable, and pain and suffering are intrinsically disvaluable. That anything else has value only in its causing happiness or prevention suffering. To distinguish it from intrinsic value, this latter kind of value is means to an end that end must be intrinsic value. Utilitarianism accepts that value is universal. So, utilitarians believe in the intrinsic value of happiness.
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* Dr, Lecturer, Department of Philosophy, Myingyan Degree College
51 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Introduction
The most important problem in philosophy is the problem of Ethics. The problem of Ethics starts with what is good and what is evil. This problem always challenges in Ethics. Different ethical philosophers have given different views on this problem. Since the early Greeks to the contemporary times, the problem of good and evil had been still solving and still trying to find the perfect answer. There are different solutions with regard to the problem of good and evil.
By studying and evaluating the different views of ethics, it can be gained a wide view of the various philosophers and can help to solve this problem of ethics to some extent. The main ethical problems will be subjective and objective, relative and absolute, means and ends, egoistic and altruistic. There may be two extreme views in solving each of the problems. On the one side, there may be divine theory, and on the other side, there will be relative theory.
The Utilitarianism is an ethical view because, traditionally understood as the view that the right act is the act which, of all those open to the agent, will actually or probably produce the greatest amount of pleasure or happiness in the world. In other words, the principle of utility states that an action of man is right when it produces as much or more amount of happiness. Happiness is intrinsically valuable, and pain and suffering are intrinsically disvaluable.That anything else has value only in its causing happiness or prevention suffering. To distinguish it from intrinsic value, this latter kind of value is means to an end and that end must be intrinsic value.
Utilitarianism is concerned with happiness, and utilitarians accept that idea value is universal. So, utilitarians believe that the intrinsic value of happiness is unaffected by the identity of the being in which it is felt. According to utilitarians, thus, each counts for one, and none for more than one and my own interests cannot count for more, simply because they are my own, than the interests of others. Hence, utilitarians support equality by the equal consideration of interests, and they reject any arbitrary distinctions as to who is worthy of concern and who isn’t.
This view has been opposed to intuitionism in the traditional sense in a long and well-known controversy. It received its classical form in Bentham, James Mill and J.S Mill. Earlier it took a theological form in Gay and Paley, later an evolutionistic form in 52 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Spencer, and an intuitionistic form in Sidgwick. In this paper, the ethical concept of Bentham and J.S Mill’s utilitarianism will be presented.
1. The Concept of Happiness in Bentham’s Utilitarianism There is a great evidence to support the contention men act selfishly, and yet there is also evidence that some men consider others before themselves. The extension of hedonism beyond the pleasure of the individual to the pleasure of all kinds of human is called utilitarianism. Utilitarianism had favored the pleasure as ends. Most hedonistic theories that put pleasure at the source of their system of values have been built on an egoistic foundation. They have tried to found hedonism not on the basis of individual interest alone but on that of group interest. In the writings of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, their philosophical position of hedonism is known as Utilitarianism. Firstly, we have to introduce Bentham’s utilitarianism. Jeremy Bentham is a British philosopher of ethics and law. He was influenced by the legal system of Britain. Bentham developed the principle that good is the greatest happiness for the greatest number. 1.1.The Two Distinct Elements
There are two distinct elements in Bentham’s theory. The first is the psychology of motivation and the second is the principle of social ethics. According to the psychology of motivation, all actions of man are directed towards pleasure or pain. These two sensations determine man’s behavior. The starting point of his ethical philosophy was the fact of man’s slavery. Bentham said;
“All men are slaves, they are slaves, they drives for pleasure and from pain. Nature has placed man under the governance of these two sovereign masters; pleasure and pain; alone determine both what we ought to do. Some men may pretend to abjure the empire of pleasure and pain, but in reality they remain subject to it all the while. One cannot escape their authority.”
The second is the principle of social ethics according to which each man action ought to promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number of persons. It is the obligation to promote the happiness of the greatest number. Bentham called it the principle of utility. Upon his natural foundation Bentham erected the principle of utility 53 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 and set off to demonstrate how moral science can be improved. Moral science can be perfected by recognizing that it is based on the principle of utility. Utility is that property in any object whereby it term to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness on the one hand, mischief, pain, evil, or happiness.
1.2 Good as the Greatest Happiness In the principle of utility Bentham insisted that pleasure and pain must always be measured in term or individuals. He believed that only individuals or particular things exist, and that corporate entities are only unreal abstractions. The corporate entity has no real existence above and beyond the individuals who compose it. For example, the “state” for which men are often asked to lay down their lives, is just a shorthand expression for referring to the particular individuals who exercise power. According to Bentham, all corporate entities are purely fictions: they give the illusion of being something, but are not the reality; they have no objective existence. Bentham proposed that men judge things in terms of the way they actually function instead of what their essence is supposed to be. This eliminates abstractions and corporate entities. The community or state must be viewed as a fictitious body, consisting in the individuals who are its members. When we speak of the interest of the community, all that we mean in the sun of interest of the several numbers who compose it. It follows then that one cannot talk about the interest of the community without talking about the interest of individuals. Although Bentham stressed pleasure as man’s greatest treasure and theorized that reality is only to be equated with individual existences. In so far as, Bentham understood good and evil in terms of the individuals’ natural drive to secure pleasure and to abjure pain. Bentham believed that the pleasure of individual was good, he reasoned that the more individuals there were to receive pleasure, the more good there would be Good is to be understood in terms of the pleasure of the individual, and because each individual counts as one, there will be more good in the world as more pleasure is passed about. Thus Bentham cannot be regarded as an orthodox egoist in the usual sense, for he is very much concerned about the general or common good. If each individual’s pleasure is to count as one unit, the highest good will consist in the greatest amount of pleasure to the largest number of good as being the greatest amount of pleasure to the largest number of individuals. Thus Bentham formulated a definition of good as being the greatest 54 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
happiness of the greatest number. He thought that with this definition of good. Utilitarianism provided a much sounder foundation for democracy than any abstract theory of natural rights. By happiness, Bentham meant physical pleasure. Where he tended to emphasize the individuals private pleasure. He held that one could never say one type of pleasure was higher than another, then only way to show pleasures differed was on physical grounds.
2. The Concept of Happiness in Mill’s Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism was revised and expanded by Bentham’s student John Stuart Mill. In Mill’s hands, “Benthamism” became a major element in the liberal conception of state policy objectives.
John Stuart Mill believed in the general good of all men and women, and he was full of genuine feeling for his fellow an in whose happiness, however, thought he agreed with Bentham that good could be understood on utilitarian grounds (in fact it was Mill, not Bentham, who used the word “utilitarian”), nonetheless he disagreed with Bentham’s idea that happiness could be understood in terms of physical pleasure. Therefore he set about to develop his brand of hedonism, which he called “Utilitarianism”.
2.1. View on Egoistic Psychology
John Stuart Mill was the British and son of James Mill, a historian of British India. Mill was influenced by the strict utilitarianism of his father. But after many years he added his views to the ideas influence by his father. Even though he was following after the ideas of his father, he did not reject, in his own view, his father’s principles as filled in the gaps and eliminate rigidities and crudities. His continued, throughout his life, his father’s concern to propagate principle conceived as essential to promoting human happiness.
In his ethics Mill holds with the intuitionists that our moral sentiments are qualitatively distinct from the lower pleasure, while denying the intuitionists conclusion that they are innate. Mill urges, with his father and Bentham that the basic moral norms is the principle of utility, that an action is right provided it maximize human welfare. Persons always act to maximize their own pleasure, but the general human welfare can be among the pleasure they seek. Mill’s position does not have the problems that the 55 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 apparently egoistic psychology of his father created. He believed that in ethics, the only issue is whether a person ought to maximize human welfare, whether he ought to be the sort of person who is so motivated. His view on egoistic psychology is better than James Mill and Bentham.
2.2 Intellectual or Spiritual Happiness
Mill believed that man should strive for the general happiness of mankind and not just for his own particular happiness. He broadened the base of hedonism considerably and located the source of moral obligation in one’s fellow feeling for all human beings. All human beings harbor within them a feeling that they are an integral part of society. This is a natural feeling in all men, but it only blossoms forth in proportion of the development of one’s sensitivity and thoughtfulness. Mill concluded the feeling of unity with one’s fellow creatures is a natural desire of one who has a properly cultivated moral nature.
Mill argued that intellectual or spiritual pleasures are higher pleasures that are; better in kind than physical pleasure. He said that all pleasures are equal in quality and differ only in quantity. If one man enjoys poetry on art and another enjoys bowling, these pleasures are not equal, even if one man enjoys his pleasure “just as much” as the other enjoys his. Poetry and art are higher types of pleasure, and society should give preference to such things in establishing its priorities.
In John Stuart Mill, utilitarianism reached its full development. He recognized its strong roots in hedonism.
“The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, utility, or the greatest happiness principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as tent to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produced pleasure, and the absence of pain; by happiness, pain and the privation of pleasure”
Whereas Bentham thought that unit of pleasure and pain can be calculated arithmetically and that ethics can be made into an exact science, Mill recognized that pleasures differ in quality as well as in quantity, that there are higher and lower pleasure is better than a greater amount of a lower pleasure, the determination to be made by a person of culture who can experience both. 56 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
“It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied”
An existence as free from pain and as rich in enjoyments as possible, both in quantity and quality to be secured to all people, is the end of human action and the standard of morality. His proof is often quoted in logic books as an example of a fallacy, since “desirable” does not mean “able to be desired” but “worthy of being desired”
Conclusion
While “happiness,” “pleasure,” “joy,” “satisfaction,” or “ ecstasy” etc are not synonyms, utilitarianism accepts that they are all represent positively and intrinsically valuable feelings, and that the value they represent is of a similar kind. So they are convertible or equivalent. “pain,” “suffering” “unhappiness,” or “agony” etc. are all regarded similarly. The disvalue they represent is convertible, not only with that of the other negative feelings, but with the positive feelings too.
Utilitarians sometimes focus on “happiness” or “pleasure” to distinguish the intrinsically valuable from the intrinsically disvaluable. Thus, of the two utilitarian philosophies, Bentham’s and Mill’s, where as Bentham’s utilitarianism was flawed by its crassness in not recognizing that there are higher value in life than physical pleasure and in not offering adequate protection of the right of minorities, Mill’s was flowed by the logical inconsistency of being a pleasure philosophy that acknowledged some unnamed principle “higher” than pleasure as its criterion of value. Nevertheless, both Bentham and Mill undeniably had a strong point in maintaining that utilitarianism cannot be disputed; it is so basic that it underlies whatever ethical position on might take. People naturally do seek pleasure and try to keep away from pain. That is just the way we are. We cannot deny that we like pleasure, for it is by definition what we get from something we like.
So, both Bentham and Mill had shown the important of ends which is pleasure. In other words, the utilitarianism of Bentham and Mill emphasized the utility or workability as an ends. Between the two utilitatianism, Mill’s theory is more acceptable because he had taken into account the quantitative utilitarianism. 57 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
How can we determine the pleasure of the group, and especially of all humanity? According to them, the common pleasure will be decided by each person according to what it pleases each one to think the common pleasure should be. Thus we are back to egoistic hedonism. Also, how far we look into the future must be? The greatest happiness of the greatest number must include, not only the present generation, but all future generations. Any action taken now may have an indefinitely long train of consequences, and there is nothing in utilitarianism to limit us to immediately foreseeable consequences.
When a choice is maid, we often asked the question, was it the right reason? Along with the history of ethics, ethicians have suggested the ideas of the morality of their actions. This has resulted in a multitude of belief systems regarding the nature of actions. In utilitarianism, the ends justify the means and actions are judged on the results, not on the intensions of motives. On the other hand, the antithesis of the utilitarianism is the idea of Immanuel Kant, the ends results were not important in determining whether an action was just or not. Motive was everything to him, and he had very strict views on how to judge the morality of an action.
Now-a-days, the basic principle of utilitarianism, the idea of the greatest good for the greatest amount, is one of the basic building blocks of the democratic system. If person lives on the principle of utilitarianism, they disregard the motives involved in an action. Utilitarianism tries to separate the action from the actor, look at the bigger picture over the individual. Kant and his followers disagree with this approach, and claim that in this system, minorities and individuals are often overlooked and brushed aside. Kant argues that any action cannot be moral unless the motives are moral.
For each of these philosophies, the question of living the “good life” is an intricate part of the belief system. For the utilitarians, living a life that benefited as many people as possible, in essence, life that caused the greatest widespread good results would be considered a life of virtue. For Kant, the only moral action is one that is done entirely because of obligation. He also makes the distinction between motives, saying that an action can be “in accord with duty” and still be immoral. For example, a person owes money to a friend. If he pays back the money simply because he owed it, then Kant would say his action is moral. But if the borrower paid back the money because he felt it would give him the opportunity of borrowing more later on, or that their friendship would be negatively affected, then Kant would say his action was immoral. This is a sharp contrast 58 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
to a utilitarian view of the same situation. A utilitarian would argue that either way, the money was paid back. The lender received what he wanted, and the borrower, whatever his motives, kept his friend and did what was promised.
Looking at utilitarian and Kantian philosophies, the two appear in opposition. But indeed, as with all principle systems of beliefs, the end that both seek is a virtuous life. A utilitarian aspect could be more appropriate for one situation; while a Kantian perspective might be better for another. If we keep a working knowledge of both philosophies, we can look at life with a broader view, and not get too firmly entrenched in one set of beliefs. That way, it is possible to face each day with an open mind, and truly live a life of virtue.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Dr. Htun Hlaing, Principal and Daw New Lwin, Lecturer, Head of Philosophy Department, Myingyan Degree College for their permission to submit this paper. I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to U Khin Maung Thant (Part-time Professor, Department of Philosphy, University of Mandalay), who have given valuable suggestions.
References
1. Katen, T.E. 1973 Doing Philosophy, International Inc., London.
2. Stump, S.E. 1994 Philosophy : History and Problems MaC Graw Hill Inc., New York. .
3. Titus, H.H. 1966 Ethics for Today, Eurasia Publishing, New Delhi.
4. Wikipedia, the free 12.8.2011 encyclopedia.
59 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Studies on Nutritional Values, Elemental Analysis and Vitamin C Contents of Toddy Fruit (Borassus flabellifer Linn.)
San San Aye1
Abstract
In the present work, fruits of Toddy (Borassus flabellifer Linn.) were chosen to investigate preliminary phytochemical constituents, determination of nutrient values (protein, carbohydrate, ash, moisture, fat and fiber), elemental analysis and vitamin C contents. Preliminary phytochemical tests indicated the presence of alkaloids, carbohydrates, α-amino acids, glycosides and tannins.
Determination of elemental analysis of fruit sample by AAS method, it was observed that Na, K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn and Mn were present as essential trace elements. Vitamin C contents were found to be observed 3.34 g/mL in Toddy fruit by iodometric titration.
Keywords: vitamin C, toddy, nutrient values
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Introduction
The family name of Toddy fruit is Arecaceae and its botanical name is Borassus flabellifer Linn. Its common English name is Toddy. It is also commonly known as the Palmyra palm in India, Ceylon and Indonesia. Fruits are large with a fibrous-fleshy wall; the seeds, at least one to three in each fruit each with a hard stony coat.
The fruits are sliced and the jelly-like endosperm is eaten, either raw or it may be sliced and served in syrup. Mature fruits develop a fibrous, yellow mesocarp which can be eaten raw or baked, often being mixed with sugar. Each fruit bears three nuts, in which the mature endosperm is hard and bony and has no direct human use.
1 Associate professor, Dr, Department of Chemistry, Myingyan Degree College 60 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
The most valuable commercial product of the Palmyra palm is its sap, which can be drunk fresh or allowed to ferment into ‘palm wine’. The sweet sap is also the source of carbohydrate for further fermentation into alcohol and vinegar.
The collected sap is taken directly to Toddy shops, where it is sold and drunk immediately. However, naturally occurring yeasts in the sap bring about rapid fermentation, and by the time it reaches the consumer it has an alcohol content of about 5 – 6 %; this is referred to as palm ʻʻToddy”.
Fermentation can be prevented by the addition of lime (calcium hydroxide) to the collection vessel. Analysis of palm sap varies little from country to country; it contains approximately 15 % sucrose with a pH of 6.4 – 6.9 (Griffiths, 1991).
Material and methods
Sample collection
Toddy fruits (Borassus flabellifer Linn.) were collected from Ta Mike Thar village, Myingyan Township, within the year 2017 (Figure 1). After washing, the Toddy fruits were air-dried at room temperature for four days. After drying, they were ground into powder in an electric motor drive grinder. The powdered sample was stored in air- tight container to prevent moisture changes and other contamination.
Figure (1) Photograph of Borassus flabellifer Linn. (Toddy Fruit)
61 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Preliminary phytochemical investigation of Borassus flabellifer Linn. (Toddy Fruit)
Phytochemical investigation of the collected Toddy fruits were determined to find the presence of alkaloids, -amino-acid, carbohydrates, flavonoids, glycosides, phenolic compound, saponins, steroids, tannins and terpenoids.
Nutritional values
Determination of moisture content
The moisture content of Toddy fruit (Borassus flabellifer Linn.) sample was determined by electric oven method. The percent content of moisture in the sample could be calculated by the following equation.
weight of extracted fat (g) % of fat content = 100 weight of powdered sample (g)
Moisture content in dried powder sample was determined by the above procedure for three or more times and the average moisture content was shown in Table 2.
Determination of ash content
The ash content of Toddy fruit (Borassus flabellifer Linn.) sample was determined by the method given in “The Chemical Analysis of Foods” (Pearson, 1976). The percent content of ash in the sample could be calculated by the following equation.
weight of ash (g) % of ash = 100 weight of powdered sample (g)
Ash content in dried powder sample was determined by this method for three or more times and the average ash content was shown in Table 2.
Determination of crude fiber content
Crude fiber content in the sample was determined by the method given in “A manual of laboratory techniques”. The fiber was incinerated completely and determined the weight of ash. Fiber content was calculated as follow.
weight of fiber (g) % of fiber = 100 weight of sample (g)
The fiber content was determined three times and the average fiber content was shown in Table 2.
62 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Determination of protein content
Protein content in the sample was determined by Macro-Kjeldahl method (Steyermart, 1962).
(V -V ) 0.014 M 100 % of nitirgen content = 21 W
(V -V ) 0.014 M 100 % of nitirgen content =21 6.25 W
Where,
3 V1 = volume of standard acid in cm required for blank titration
3 V2 = volume of standard acid in cm required for titration of sample
M = Molarity of standard sulphuric acid solution in mol dm w = weight of sample in gram
The protein content was determined three times and average protein content was shown in Table 2.
Determination of fat content
Fat content was determined by the Soxhlet extraction method (Pearson, 1976) using petroleum ether.
weight of extracted fat (g) % of fat content = 100 weight of powdered sample (g) The experiment was repeated three times. The average fat content of fruit powder sample was shown in Table 2.
Determination of carbohydrate content
The carbohydrates present in foods include, starch (glycogen in animal tissue), dextrin, and mono and di-saccharides. The total carbohydrate content of a food can be obtained at the difference between 100 and the sum of percentages of moisture, protein, fat, ash and fiber. The “total” carbohydrate content of a food obtained by calculation as described above is sufficiently accurate practical nutrition work. The resultant carbohydrate content percent was shown in Table 2. 63 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Determination of reducing sugar
Reducing sugar was determined by using modification of the Lane and Eynon titration method. Toddy fruit sample contains reducing sugar (glucose and fructose).
Determination of trace elements by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS)
The trace elements in dried powder sample (Borassus flabellifer Linn.) were determined by AAS method at the Universities’ Research Center, Yangon Region.
The sample solution of dried powder was analyzed for elements such as Na, K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn and Mn.
Determination of ascorbic acid (vitamin c) by titrimetric method
Sample
H2O extract of Toddy fresh fruit sample
Apparatus
Burette, stand, 100 mL volumetric flask, 20 mL pipette, 10 mL and 100 mL measuring cylinders, 250 mL conical flask.
Chemical
Potassium iodide, iodine, starch
Sample preparation
A 100 g of removing peel sample was cut into small pieces and blended in a food processor together with about 10 mL of distilled water. After blending, the pulp was strained the clothe, it was washed with a few 10 mL portions of distilled water and the extracted solution was made up to 100 mL in volumetric flask (Helmenstine, 2012).
Solution preparation
Iodine (0.1275 g) was weighed by electrical balance and put into a 100 mL volumetric flask. It was dissolved with a few 10 mL portions of distilled water and the solution was made up to 100 mL in volumetric flask. 64 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Procedure
The sample solution (10 mL) was pipetted accurately into a 250 mL conical flask and 5 drops of starch indicator was added. The sample was titrated with 0.005 M iodine solution. The end point of the titration was identified as the first permanent trace of a colour change (Helmenstine, 2012).
Results and discussion
Phytochemical tests of toddy fruit (Borassus flabellifer Linn.)
The results obtained from preliminary phytochemical test, alkaloids, carbohydrates, -amino acids, glycosides and tannins were found to be present but flavonoids, saponins, steroids, terpenoids and phenolic compounds were absent in fruit sample (Table 1).
Determination of nutritional values of Toddy fruit (Borassus flabellifer Linn.)
Nutritional values such as fats, proteins, carbohydrates and fiber were determined. As a result, it was found that carbohydrates were present as major nutrient in sample. The determination of ash, fat, fiber, moisture and protein contents were made according to methods described in the British Pharmacopeia (1980) and Myanmar Traditional Medicine Formulary (1989). Trace amount of reducing sugar was observed by using Lane and Eynon titration method. The results were shown in Table 2.
Elemental analysis of Toddy fruit (Borassus flabellifer Linn.) by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS)
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry is particularly applicable where the sample was in solution or readily soluble. Moreover, it was utilized to determine quantitative analysis of trace elements in the sample (Evans, 1969). It can be determined the trace elements as low as ppm or ppb level. From these results, it was found that Na content was higher than other elements (K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn, and Mn) in fruit sample. The results obtained by AAS were reported in Table 3.
Determination of vitamin C content in Toddy fruit (Borassus flabellifer Linn.) 65 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is an antioxidant that is essential for human nutrition. Vitamin C deficiency can lead to a disease called scurvy, which is characterized by abnormalities in the bones and teeth. Many fruits and vegetables contain vitamin C, but cooking destroys the vitamin, so raw citrus fruits and their juices are the main source of ascorbic acid for most people.
One way to determine the amount of vitamin C in food is to use a redox titration. The redox reaction is better than an acid base titration since there are additional acids in a juice, but few of them interfere with the oxidation of ascorbic acid by iodine. Iodine is relatively insoluble, but this can be improved by complexity the iodine with iodine to form triiodide.
I2 + I I3
Triiodide oxidizes vitamin C to form dehydroascorbic acid.
+ C6 H8O6 + I3 + H2O C6 H6 O6 + 3I + 2H
As long as vitamin C is present in the solution, the triiodide is converted to the iodide ion very quickly. However, when all the vitamin C is oxidized, iodine and triiodide will be present, which react with starch to form a blue-black complex. The blue-black colour is the endpoint of the titration.
Vitamin C content present in Toddy fruit was determined by using iodine titration method and shown in Table 4. From these results, the vitamin C content in Toddy fruit was found to be observed (3.34 g / mL).
Table 1. Phytochemical Investigation of Toddy Fruit (Borassus flabellifer Linn.) 66 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
No. Test Extract Reagent Observation Result
1 Alkaloids 1 % HCl ragendro s reagent Orange ppt +
ayer s reagent White ppt +
2 Carbohydrates H2O 10 % α-naphthol & H2SO4 Red ring +
3 α-amino acid H2O Ninhydrin reagent Brown +
4 Flavonoids 95 % Mg ribbon & conc: HCl No pink color - EtOH
5 Glycosides 95 % 10 % lead acetate White ppt + EtOH
6 Saponins H2O 10 % FeCl3 No frothing -
7 Steroids PE Acetic anhydride conc: No coloration -
H2SO4
8 Tannins H2O FeCl3, Gelatin, dil H2SO4 Yellowish Brown + ppt
9 Terpenoids CHCl3 Acetic anhydride No coloration -
10 Phenolic H2O FeCl3 solution No yellow color - compounds
(+) Present (-) Absent (ppt = precipitate)
Table 2. Nutritional Values of Toddy Fruit (Borassus flabellifer Linn.)
No Analyse Content (%)
1 Moisture 11.32
2 Ash 1.19
3 Protein 3.39
4 Crude Fiber 11.82
5 Crude Fat 0.73
6 Carbohydrate 71.55
Table 3. Elemental Contents in Toddy Fruit (Borassus flabellifer Linn.)
67 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
No Element mg / L
1 Na 15.43
2 K 14.68
3 Mg 5.784
4 Ca 3.693
5 Fe 1.911
6 Zn 0.304
7 Mn 0.228
Table 4. The Amount of Vitamin C Content in Toddy Fruit (Borassus flabellifer Linn.)
Sample Experimental value (g/mL) Literature value (g/mL)
Fresh Toddy Fruit 3.34 3.25
* (Helmenstine, 2012)
Conclusion
From the present research work on “Studies on Nutritional Values, Elemental Analysis and Vitamin C Contents of Toddy Fruit”, the following conclusions may be deduced.
The preliminary phytochemical test indicated the presence of alkaloids, carbohydrates, -amino acids, glycosides and tannins but flavonoids, saponins, phenolic compounds, steroids and terpenoids were absent in Toddy fruit.
Nutritional values such as moisture, ash, fat, fiber, protein and carbohydrate contents have also been determined. Among them, carbohydrate contents were highest (71.55%) in Toddy fruit.
Elemental analysis of fruit sample by AAS method, revealed that Na, K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn and Mn were present as essential trace elements. According to the result of vitamin C contents by iodine titration method, fresh fruit was found to have higher vitamin C content (3.34 g/mL). 68 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
From the above study, it may be deduced that fresh Toddy fruit is rich in nutritional values, vitamin C content, mineral elements and small contents of reducing sugar.
Acknowledgements I wish to express my grateful thanks to Dr Htun Hlaing, principal of Myingyan Degree College. I would like to extend my gratitude and deep appreciation to Dr Wynn Wynn Yi, Professor and Head of Chemistry Department, Myingyan Degree College for her encouragement and invaluable suggestion.
References
Evans, D., (1969), “An Introduction to Analytical Atomic Spectroscopy”, John Wiley and Sons, New York
Griffiths, D.A., (1991), “Useful Palms of the Borassoideae Family”, Department of Botany University of Hong Kong
(http://www.file.fruit.htm) (accessed date – 21.12.2016)
Helmenstine, A.M., (2012), “Vitamin C determination by Iodine Titration”, University of Canterbury
(http://www.chemistry.about.com/od/demonstrations.experiments.htm)
(accessed date – 14.6.2017)
Pearson, D., (1976), “The Chemical Analysis of Foods”, J. and A. Churchill Livingstone, New York
Steyermark, A.I., (1962), “Quantitative Organic Macro Analysis”, 2nd edition, Academic Press, London, 188
Study on Anti-diabetic Activity of Persea americana Mill. Fruit (Htaw-bat-thee) 69 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Kyaw Sein Win1
Abstract
Indigenous medicines which have been derived either directly or indirectly from plants have been used for the treatment of diabetes in several countries including Myanmar. In the present work; persea americana Mill. (Htaw-bat-thee) fruit was chosen as the sample and its in-vitro abilities for lowering the glucose was investigated. In addition, the minimum time duration required for the most effective ability for lowering the glucose was also investigated. From the experimental result P. americana Mill. (Htaw-bat-thee) has anti- diabetic by in-vitro method and can be used as anti-diabetic food.
Keywords: glucose, anti-diabetic, indigenous medicine
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Introduction
Diabetes, the silent killer is an extremely dangerous health disorder from which many people suffer these days. This disease can affect various organs of the body as well as lead to other serious ailments. One of the causes of diabetes is lack of adequate insulin production in the body and is called Type I. Another is caused by the insulin resistance and is termed Type II. Both types are associated with short and long-term complications that affect the individual's quality of life and often engender fear and powerlessness and compromise physical and psychological functioning. Some common symptoms of diabetes are sudden weight loss, thirst and hunger, lack of vision, excessive and cuts, bruises or wounds taking long time to heat. This deadly disease should not be neglected at any cost and should be treated as soon as it is detected as it can lead to various disease of kidney and other organs or can even lead to permanent blindness. (J. Biol. Chem., 1923)
1 Lecturer, Dr, Department of Chemistry, Myingyan Degree College 70 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Most of Myanmar indigenous herbal medicines act by lowering the level of glucose in the blood and Myanmar indigenous physicians use experience based on treatment and not research based on treatment. Therefore, most indigenous medicines can't give instruction exactly for the dosage and the efficiency for the instructed dosage. These may cause the inefficiency and overdose of medicine for patient. The main purpose of this work is to fulfill the blank and to improve the efficiency of indigenous medicine as possible as available. (American Diabetes Association, 2014)
Material and methods
Sample collection
Persea Americana Mill fruit was collected from Myingyan market. (Figure. 1)
Figure (1) Photograph of Persea Americana Mill. (Htaw-bat-thee)
Determination of glucose by Fehling’s Solution
Fehling’s solution can be used to determine whether a carbonyl containing compound is an aldehyde or a ketone. The bistartrato cuprate (II) complex in Fehling’s solution is an oxidizing agent and the active agent in the test.
The compound to be tested is added to the Fehling’s solution and the mixture is heated. Aldehydes are oxidized, giving a positive result but ketones do not react, unless they are alpha-hydroxy ketones.
This bistartrato cuprate (II) complex oxidizes the aldehyde to a carboxylate anion and in this process, copper (II) ions of the complex are reduced to copper (I) ions. Red copper (I) oxide then precipitates out of the reaction mixture, which indicates a positive test, i.e redox reaction takes place. 71 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
The Fehling’s solution being a solution of copper (II) ions is blue in colour and at the end point changes to red coloured precipitate of copper (I) oxide. As the supernatant liquid is blue and the precipitate is red in colour, there may be some difficulties in determination of end point accurately. Hence, methylene blue indicator is employed for accurate determination of end point.
In a oxidizing environment (Fehling’s solution), methylene blue shows blue colour and if exposed to a reducing agent, it will turn colourless.
Fehling’s solution A CuSO4 solution
Fehling’s solution B Alkaline solution of sodium potassium tartrate (or Rochelle salt) i.e
Fehling’s solution Mixture of equal volume of Fehling’s solution A and Fehling’s solution B.
Sample collection
Persea americana Mill fruit was collected as the sample.
Preparation of sample solutions
For P. Americana, the shell and seed were firstly removed. 20 g of the rest was weighed, ground with a blender, extracted with suitable volume of distilled water for 2 hrs, filtered, centrifuged the filtrate and volume of water extract was determined.
Preparation of standard glucose solution
Exactly 18 mL of 5 g/20 mL glucose injection was measured and placed in a 100 mL volumetric flask. Then, it was diluted with distilled water up to the mark of the flask.
Standardization of Fehling's Solution
Freshly prepared 50 mL of Fehling's solution A and 50 mL of Fehling's solution B were mixed in a reagent bottle and then 100 mL of distilled water was added into it and shaken thoroughly to obtain 200 mL of Fehling's solution.
20 mL of Fehling's solution is taken out and placed in a conical flask. Three drops of methylene blue indicator was added into it and the solution was heated upto about 90 ℃. Then, the heated Fehling's solution was titrated with standard glucose solution cautiously by adding drop by drop until the deep blue color of Fehling's solution has completely disappeared. This process was repeated into three times. 72 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
From the resulting titre, concentration of standard glucose solution and reaction stoichiometry, the concentration of Fehling's solution was calculated.
In order to confirm the methylene blue end point, when the blue colour of Fehling's solution has completely disappeared (the end point was reached), the solution was filtered to remove the red Cu2O, precipitate and the filtrate was heated and standard glucose solution was added into the heated filtrate solution and observation was made.
Determination of in-vitro ability of sample solution for lowering the glucose
20 mL of Fehling’s solution was placed in a conical flask and heated up to about 90 ℃.
15 mL of sample solution (water extract or decoction) was mixed with 15 mL of standard glucose solution and shaken thoroughly to be homogeneous. The solution was stood for 2 hours.
Then, 20 mL of Fehling’s solution was taken out and placed in a conical flask. Three drops of methylene blue indicator was added into it and was heated up to about 90 ℃. The heated Fehling’s solution was titrated cautiously with homogeneous solution mixture of glucose and sample solution until deep blue color of Fehling’s solution has completely disappeared. The process was repeated for three times.
From the concentration of Fehling’s solution, titre volume of glucose and sample mixture solution and reaction stoichiometry, the concentration of glucose in the mixture solution was calculated.
Finally, decreased amount of glucose in 2 hours duration by unit weight of sample was calculated.
Determination of the most effective time duration for lowering the glucose
The sample solution was freshly prepared. When the sample solution is obtained, equal volumes of sample solution and standard glucose solution were mixed quickly and time was noted. Starting from 15 minutes after mixing, 20 mL of standardized Fehling’s solution was titrated with mixture solution of standard glucose and sample solution. The procedure was repeated at the same interval of time as 30 min, 45 min, 60 min, … till there is no change or nearly no change in concentration of glucose in mixture solution.
Result and discussion
Determination of in-vitro ability of sample solution for lowering the glucose 73 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
When 20 mL of Fehling’s solution which is heated up to about 90 ℃ was treated with each of the sample solutions and stood for 30 min, no red precipitates of Cu2O was observed.
Hence, all the sample solutions cannot react with Fehling’s solution. When equal volumes of sample solution and standard glucose solution were mixed, the volume of glucose solution became twice the original volume. Hence, the concentration of glucose in solution mixture is half of the original concentration.
∴ The concentration of glucose in the titrant solution (solution mixture) is 0.1250 mmol mL-1.
(Water extra of P.americana) 2 hours duration after mixing, from the titration.
20 mL of 0.0375 M Fehling’s solution ≡ 5.6 mL of titrant solution
(or) 0.7500 mmol Fehling’s solution ≡ 5.6 mL of titrant solution
0.3750 mmol ∴ The final concentration of glucose in titration solution = 5.6 mL
= 0.0670 mmolmL-1
The initial amount of glucose in 5.6 mL of titrant solution = 0.1250 × 5.6 mmol
The final amount of glucose in 5.6 mL of titrant solution = 0.0670 × 5.6 mmol
The decreased amount of glucose = (0.1250 – 0.0670) 5.6 mmol
Since mL of sample solution is contained in 5.6 mL of titrant solution, during 2 hr, mL of sample solution causes to decrease (0.125 – 0.0670) 5.6 mmol of glucose.
∴ Amount of glucose decrease by 1 mL of sample solution
= ( 0.1250 – 0.0670) 2 mmol mL-1
From 20 g of sample, 44.2 mL of sample solution was obtained.
∴ Amount of glucose decreased by 44.2 mL of sample solution 74 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
= 2 ( 0.1250 – 0.0670) 2 mmol mL-1
∴ Amount of glucose decreased by 1 g (unit weight) of sample
- 1 = 0.2564 mmol g Table (1) Experimental Data and Results for Amount of Glucose Decreased by Unit Weight of Samples
No Sample solution W V Vtitre Mf Decrease of (g) (mL) (mL) (M) glucose (mmol g-1)
1 P. americana (WE) 20 44.2 5.6 0.0670 0.2564
According to these results, watery extract of fruit of P. Americana is the most effective and 1 g of fresh sample causes to decrease 0.2564 mmol or 4.615 mg of glucose by using its water extract.
Determination of most effective time duration for lowering the glucose
At the starting time, although the volume was doubled it is assumed that there is no reaction between glucose and sample, the initial concentration of glucose in titrant solution should be 0.1250 mmol mL-1.
For the titration of 20 mL of 0.0375 M Fehling’s solution with solution mixture of glucose and sample at a time duration of t min after mixing,
if 20 mL of 0.0375 M Fehling’s solution ≡ Vtitre mL of titrant solution
0.7500 mmol of Fehling’s solution ≡ Vtitre mL of titrant solution
∴ Vtitre mL of titrant solution = 0.3750 mmol of glucose
∴ Concentration of glucose in titrant solution at time interval t min
0.3750 mmol -1 == Mt mmol mL Vtitre mL
∴ Decreased concentration of glucose in time interval t min, 75 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
-1 Mdec = (0.1250 - M t )mmol mL
In this way, the Mt and Mdec values of various time intervals were calculated from the experimentally determined Vtitre of (Table 2).
Table (2) The Results of Titre (Vtitre) Concentration of Glucose at Time Interval t (Mt) and Decreased Concentration of Glucose at Time Interval t (Mdec)
Time Water extract of P.americana
No interval Vtitre Mt Mdec (min) (mL) (mmol mL-1) (mmol mL-1)
1 15 3.1 0.1209 0.0041
2 30 3.3 0.1136 0.0114
3 45 3.5 0.1071 0.0179
4 60 3.9 0.0962 0.0288
5 75 4.5 0.0833 0.0417
6 90 5.0 0.0750 0.0500
7 105 5.3 0.0708 0.0542
8 120 5.6 0.0669 0.0581
9 135 5.6 0.0669 0.0581
Conclusion The experimental results showed that the selected sample could be observed to have the in In-Vitro ability of lowering glucose. The watery extract of P.amemricana Mill. (Htaw-bat-thee) was found to be the effective with the ability of lowering glucose 0.2564 mmolg-1. The minimum time duration for the effective ability of lowering the glucose was observed to be at least 2 hours. The watery extract of P. americana Mill. (Htaw-bat-thee) should be used to lower the great amount of glucose within 2 hours. Therefore the selected sample could be observed to be suitable to use as the anti-diabetic medicine or anti-diabetic food.
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my grateful thanks to Dr Htun Hlaing, principal of Myingyan Degree College. I would like to extend my gratitude and deep appreciation to Dr Wynn 76 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Wynn Yi, Professor and Head of Chemistry Department, Myingyan Degree College for her encouragement and invaluable suggestion.
References
Collip, J.B., (1923) "A new hormone present in plant tissue". J. Biol. Chem, 56, 513- 514. Diabetes Carbohydrate Fat from Guide, 4th ed., 2014, American Diabetes Associations.
I-V Characteristics and Structural Properties of ZnO/ ITO Thin Films (single and double coating) for Solar Cell Application 77 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Khaing Khaing Min1
Abstract
The growth of Fine ZnO powder is performed by mechanochemical milling process to be homogeneous powder. ZnO solution was deposited onto ITO glass substrate (single and double coating) by spin coating technique. . I-V characteristics (illuminated I-V) were investigated by monochromatic halogen lamp (100 watt). From the current and voltage characteristics under illumination condition, conversion efficiency (ηcon) and fill factor (Ff) were observed for the cells. The results obtained from this research are quite interesting, acceptable, and applicable in use for solar cell application.
Key words: Fine ZnO powder, spin coating, ZnO/ ITO substrate, I-V characteristics
pmwrf;tusOf; oefYpifonfh ZnO powder udk mechanochemical milling enf;jzifh homogeneous powder jzpfatmifjyKvkyfygonf/ spin coating technique udkoHk;í ITO glass substrate ay:odkY ZnO solution jzifh single and double coating jyKvkyfygonf/ ZnO/ITO ay:odkY 100 watt monochromatic halogen lamp usa&mufapNyD; vQyfpD;aMumif;ESifhAdkYtm; wdkif;wmygonf/
&&SdvmaomvQyfpD;aMumif;ESifhAdkYtm;udkoHk;í conversion efficiency (ηcon) ESifh fill factor (Ff) udk&SmazGygonf/ &½Sdaomwefzdk;rsm;onf solar cell application twGuftoHk;jyK&efoifhavsmfaom vufcHEdkifaomwefzdk;rsm;jzpfaMumif;awGY&Sd&ygonf/
Introducton
A solar cell (also called a photovoltaic cell) is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell (in that its electrical characteristics e.g. current, voltage, or resistance vary when light is incident upon it) which, when exposed to light, can generate and support an electric current without being attached to any external voltage source.
The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek meaning "light", and from "Volt", the unit of electro-motive force, the volt, which in turn comes from the last name of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, inventor of the battery (electrochemical cell). The term "photo-voltaic" has been in use in English since 1849 [1].
1 Associate Professor, Dr., Department of Physics, Myingyan Degree College. 78 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the practical application of photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often used specifically to refer to the generation of electricity from sunlight. Cells can be described as photovoltaic even when the light source is not necessarily sunlight (lamplight, artificial light, etc.). In such cases the cell is sometimes used as a photo detector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity.
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:
1. The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons. 2. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types. 3. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
In contrast, a solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation. "Photoelectrolytic cell" (photoelectrochemical cell), on the other hand, refers either a type of photovoltaic cell (like that developed by A.E. Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells) or a device that splits water directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination.
The first practical photovoltaic cell was developed in 1954 at Bell Laboratories by Daryl Chapin, Calvin Souther Fuller and Gerald Pearson. They used a diffused silicon p–n junction that reached 6% efficiency, compared to the selenium cells that found it difficult to reach 0.5%. Les Hoffman CEO of Hoffman Electronics Corporation had his Semiconductor Division pioneered the fabrication and mass production of solar cells. From 1954 to 1960 Hoffman improved the efficiency of Solar Cells from 2% to 14%. At first, cells were developed for toys and other minor uses, as the cost of the electricity they produced was very high; in relative terms, a cell that produced 1 watt of electrical power in bright sunlight [2,3].
Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a module. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the front (sun up) side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers from abrasion and impact due to wind- driven debris, rain, hail, etc. Solar cells are also usually connected in series in modules, 79 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 creating an additive voltage. Connecting cells in parallel will yield a higher current; however, very significant problems exist with parallel connections.
Solar panels on the International Space Station absorb light from both sides. These Bifacial cells are more efficient and operate at lower temperature than single sided equivalents. The efficiency of a solar cell may be broken down into reflectance efficiency, thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency and conductive efficiency. The overall efficiency is the product of each of these individual efficiencies. A solar cell usually has a voltage dependent efficiency curve, temperature coefficients, and shadow angles.
Due to the difficulty in measuring these parameters directly, other parameters are measured instead: thermodynamic efficiency, quantum efficiency, integrated quantum efficiency, Voc ratio, and fill factor. Reflectance losses are a portion of the quantum efficiency under "external quantum efficiency". Recombination losses make up a portion of the quantum efficiency, Voc ratio, and fill factor. Resistive losses are predominantly categorized under fill factor, but also make up minor portions of the quantum efficiency,
Voc ratio.
The fill factor is defined as the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power to the product of the open circuit voltage and short circuit current. This is a key parameter in evaluating the performance of solar cells. Typical commercial solar cells have a fill factor > 0.70. Grade B cells have a fill factor usually between 0.4 and 0.7. Cells with a high fill factor have a low equivalent series resistance and a high equivalent shunt resistance, so less of the current produced by the cell is dissipated in internal losses [4-6].
Experimental Procedure
Preparation of ZnO Powder
The choice of material used in this work was undoped ZnO (Analar-grade). ZnO powder was added some amount of ethanol (binding agent) and stirred for 30 min by using magnetic stirrer (500 rpm). After 24 h, it was reformed into homogeneous powder phase. By using ball-milling machine, spherical shaped and fine powder was found within 30 minutes. To obtain ultrafine powder, air-jet milling was carried out with the pressure of 40 bars. The ZnO powder was performed by 3-step mesh-sieves to get uniform grain size. The crystallographic investigation of ZnO powder was studied by 80 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
using X-ray diffraction. The microstructural properties of ZnO powder was characterized by Scanning Electron Microscope.
Preparation of ZnO Solution
The flow diagram of preparation of ZnO solution was shown in Figure 1. ZnO powder was used as starting material. The well-dissolved precursor solution was firstly prepared by mixing ZnO powder and ethanol solvent. The mixed solution was stirred with magnetic stirrer for 4h and refluxed at 110°C for 1h in a three-neck flask assembly to remove water of crystallization, reactive with ZnO solution and cooled down at room temperature. Finally, ZnO precursor solution was obtained.
Preparation of ITO/glass Substrate
ITO/glass slides were used as conductive glass substrates and the ITO/glass slides were cleaned as follows.
(1) The glass slides were soaked in dilute HCl:HNO3 for 5 min. (2) They were taken and immersed in ethanol for 3 min and in DIW for 3 min. (3) The second action was repeated for three times.
Deposition of ZnO Film
ZnO sol solution was deposited on ITO/glass substrate by Single Wafer Spin Processer. The spin speed or rotational speed was set 2000 rpm and spinning time was 30 s. Some ZnO coated ITO/glasses were repeated for second coating with the same spinning setup. After spin coating, they were annealing at 200°C and 400°C for 1 h respectively. Finally, ZnO/ITO/glass cells with single and double coatings were formed at different process temperature. The flow diagram of preparation of ZnO/ITO/glass films was indicated in figure 2.
81 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Undoped ZnO Ethanol
ZnO mixture solution
Stirred for 4h
ZnO solution
Refluxed at 110oC for 1h and cooled down at room temperature ZnO precursor solution
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of preparation for ZnO solution
ZnO solution
ITO/glass
by spin coating
Solution-coating
annealed at 200°C & 400°C ZnO/ITO/glass
Figure 2. Block diagram of preparation of ZnO/ITO/glass films
Result and Discussion 82 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Structural Properties of ZnO Powder
Crystal structure and phase identification were examined by using RIGAKU model PINT 2000 X-ray diffractometer using CuKα radiation with wavelength of 1.54056 Ǻ. Measurements were performed 40 keV and 20 mA within 2θ value 10˚ to 70˚. This can be measured by counting rate. The recording scan seed was 5/min and step size was 0.01. Each diffracted ray was recorded as peak. The peak heights are roughly proportional to the ray’s intensity. The diffraction patterns of powder specimens were identified by using JCPDS (Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards) data book.
The XRD profile of ZnO powder was shown in Figure 3. The upper site of this profile was given for observed ZnO while the lower site was represented as standard ZnO. According the profile, nine reflections were clearly formed with respective diffraction angles. They were (100), (002), (101), (102), (110), (103), (200), (112) and (201), respectively. The most intense peak was caused by the (101) reflection and indicating the polycrystalline nature. All observed reflections were well-matched with these of standard peaks. Thus the specimen was ZnO without changing the crystal structure of ZnO standard.
The lattice parameters could be examined by using the equation
2 1 4 h2 hk k2 l d2 3 a2 c where, d = interplanar spacing
(hkl) =Miller indices
a, c = lattice parameters
From the calculation, the lattice parameters (a-axis & c-axis) and lattice strain were 3.2369Ǻ and 5.1952 Ǻ and 1.6049.
The crystallite size was calculated by the equation 83 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
0.9 (Å) Crystallite Size = FWHM(rad)cos B
The crystallite size of ZnO powder was obtained from the calculation and the value was 47.8426 nm. Where FWHM is full width at half maximum, λ is wavelength of X- ray and θB is Bragg’s angle.
Figure 3. XRD profile of ZnO powder
Figure 4 showed the SEM image of ZnO powder. As the detail analysis of SEM image, it was flat and non-cracked. It might be due to the low viscosity level of precursor solution. This image consisted of circular features known as rosette structure in microstructure. In addition, all grains were clearly formed. Furthermore, uniform grain distribution was also found and the grain size was measured to be 0.25 μm. 84 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Figure 4. SEM image of ZnO powder
Characterization of ZnO/ITO/Glass Film
The structural properties of ZnO/ITO/glass with single and double coatings at different annealing temperatures were investigated by XRD technique. The sample was scanned over the range 10˚ to 70˚ at a scan rate of 0.02/0.06. On the pattern, lower side of the pattern showed the standard or reference peaks and upper side of the profile indicated the observed peaks.
Figure 5 (a-b) showed the X-ray diffraction patterns of ZnO/ITO/glass with single and double coatings at 200˚C. The XRD patterns of ZnO/ITO/glass with single and double coatings at 400˚C were indicated in Figure 6 (a-b). The standard JCPDS file for all XRD pattern was found to be #89-1397> ZnO- Zinc Oxide.
All observed peaks were well matched with the standard peaks and it revealed that the ZnO were successfully formed on ITO/glass substrates. The most intense peak occurred in (101) plane in all XRD profiles. As the detailed analysis, most of the peaks were occured with left-shifted to the standard reflections. The unnecessary peaks were appeared and it was due to impurities during annealing period. The crystallite size (nano particle size) of ZnO films could be calculated by Debye-Scherrer formula. Some important parameters for XRD patterns of ZnO/ITO/glass films were described in Table 1.
85 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Table 1. Some important parameters for XRD patterns of ZnO/ITO/glass films
Lattice parameter (Å) ZnO/ITO/glass Crystallite Hexagonality
size (nm) a c “c/a” Coating Temp (˚C) single 200 42.87 3.58 5.49 1.53 double 200 39.05 3.56 5.46 1.53 single 400 40.96 3.58 5.49 1.53 double 400 48.60 3.21 5.18 1.61
[ITO-ZnO-T200C-Single-DKKMin.raw] (101)
100 (100)
75 (002)
50
(110)
Intensity(Counts)
(103)
(102) (112)
25 (201)
0
89-1397> ZnO - Zinc Oxide
(100)
(110)
(101)
(103)
(002) (112)
(102)
(201)
(200) (004) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Two-Theta (deg)
Figure 5(a) XRD profile of ZnO/ITO/glass film at 200°C (single coating)
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[ITO-ZnO-T200C-Double-DKKMin.raw]
125 (101)
100
(100) (002)
75 (110)
Intensity(Counts) 50
(112)
(103) (102)
25 (201)
0
89-1397> ZnO - Zinc Oxide
(100)
(110)
(101)
(103)
(002) (112)
(102)
(201)
(200) (004) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Two-Theta (deg)
Figure 5(b) XRD profile of ZnO/ITO/glass film at 200°C (double coating)
[ITO-ZnO-T400C-Single-DKKMin.raw] (101)
200
(100) (002)
150 (110)
100
Intensity(Counts)
(103)
(112) (102)
50
(201) (004)
0
89-1397> ZnO - Zinc Oxide
(100)
(110)
(101)
(103)
(002) (112)
(102)
(201)
(200) (004) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Two-Theta (deg)
Figure 6(a) XRD profile of ZnO/ITO/glass film at 400°C (single coating)
[ITO-ZnO-T400C-Double-DKKMin.raw]
400 (101)
350
300 (100)
250 (002) 200
Intensity(Counts) 150
(110)
(103) (102) 100
50 (112)
(201) (200)
0
89-1397> ZnO - Zinc Oxide
(100)
(110)
(101)
(103)
(002) (112)
(102)
(201) (200)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Two-Theta (deg)
Figure 6(b) XRD profile of ZnO/ITO/glass film at 400°C (double coating)
87 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
I-V characteristics of ZnO/ITO/Glass Film
I-V characteristics were also measured under illumination at 4000 Lux. Figure 8 & 9 showed the illuminated I-V characteristics of ZnO/ITO/glass films at 200°C & 400°C, respectively . The important solar cell parameters such as efficiency (ηcon ), fill factor ( Ff ), open circuit voltage ( Voc ) and short circuit current ( Isc ) were studied and listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Im, Vm, Isc, Voc, con, Ff of ZnO/ITO/glass films under illumination at 4000 Lux
Process I (A) V (mV) I (mA) V (mV) (%) F Temperature (°C) m m sc oc f
Single 6.07E-05 84.74 1.01E-04 149.62 0.51 0.34 coating 200°C Double 6.22E-05 97.12 9.96E-05 157.50 0.59 0.38 coating
Single 6.28E-05 72.50 1.01E-04 123.01 0.45 0.37 coating 400°C Double 7.36E-05 90.75 1.20E-04 153.86 0.66 0.36 coating
Halogen lamp
(100 watt)
Zno/ito coated glass film Ammeter
(Fluke 196 scopemeter)
Voltmeter
Multmeter DT 9208
Figure 7. Set-up for measuring voltage and photocurrent 88 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
120 200oC 100
80
A)
60
Photocurrent ( Photocurrent 40
20 single double
0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 Cell Voltage (mV)
Figure 8. I-V curves of ZnO/ITO/glass at 200°C
140
o 120 400 C
100
A)
80
60
Photocurrent ( Photocurrent 40
20 single double
0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 Cell Voltage (mV)
Figure 9. I-V curves of ZnO/ITO/glass at 400°C
Conclusion
In this research, ZnO/ITO on glass substrates were prepared by using spin coating technique. The SEM result of ZnO powder showed uniform grain distribution and the grain size was measured to be 0.25 μm. In the XRD result, All observed reflections were 89 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 well-matched with these of standard peaks. Thus the specimen was ZnO without changing the crystal structure of ZnO standard. The crystallite size of ZnO powder was obtained from the calculation and the value was 47.8426 nm. The effects of ZnO coating ( single and double) at 200°C and 400°C were studied. All the films were polycrystalline with a hexagonal crystal structure. The crystallite size of ZnO/ITO film with single coating was larger than that of ZnO/ITO film with double coating at 200°C although the crystallite size of ZnO/ITO film with single coating was smaller than that of ZnO/ITO film with double coating at 400°C. The maximum efficiency was found to be 0.66% and it was occurred in ZnO/ITO film with double coating at 400°C. These findings demonstrated that ZnO thin film with ITO conductive layer have a promising application in the fabrication of thin film solar cell.
Acknowledgement
I would like to acknowledge Dr Htun Hlaing, Principal, Myingyan Degree College and Dr Kyi Kyi Thein, Head of Department of Physics, Myingyan Degree College for their kind permission to present this paper.
References
1 Alfred S 1849 “Elements of electro-biology” (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans)
2 Tsokos K. A. 2008 "Physics for the IB Diploma", (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press)
3 Perlin, J 2004 "The Silicon Solar Cell Turns 50" National Renewable Energy Laboratory Retrieved 5 October 2010
4 Mark Z et al 2009 Materials Science Poland 24 (2) 537
5 Collins, R et al 2003 Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 78 (1–4) 143
6 Pearce J M et al 2007 J Appl Phys 101 (11) 114301
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Determination of Density of Nuclear Emulsion Plate by using Range- Energy Relation Calibration Source
Khin Than Tint*
Abstract The density of nuclear emulsion plate is determined by using the alpha decays of thorium series, which is one of the range- energy relation calibration sources. We picked thorium series in the emulsion plate, Mod#64; Pl# 9, of KEK- E373 experiment. Five alpha decays from 228Th were observed in the decay chain of thorium series. Among the five α particles tracks, the α-particle from 212Po has higher energy than others and α-particle from 228Th, is observed a little distant from others, are used. We measured the position coordinates of the tracks of the α-particle by using microscope system. The range distribution is plotted as the squared length in the focusing direction, ∆z2, versus the squared length in the direction perpendicular to it, ∆x2 + ∆y2. By fitting those data points with a straight line, we obtained the range of α particles as well as the shrinkage factor of nuclear emulsion. The range of α particles from 228Th is 23.358±0.263 µm. Using the average kinetic energy of α particles from 228Th of 5.400 MeV, the density of the emulsion is obtained by using range-energy program which is based on Barka’s equation, to be 3.745±0.042 g/cm3. On the other hand, for α particles from 212Po, kinetic energy 8.7MeV, is obtained as 48.464±0.355 µm, giving the emulsion density of 3.623±0.026 g/cm3. The density of the nuclear emulsion is determined from the mean of them, 3.684±0.049 g/cm3. Key words: Thorium series, nuclear emulsion
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range-energy program toHk;jyKí ta&GYpGrf;tif 5.400MeV twGuf&,lcJhaom 3 EsLuvd,mtDrm;vf½Sif; {/f odyfonf;jcif; rSm 3.745±0.042 g/cm jzpfygonf/ 212 wzufrSmvnf; ta&GYpGrf;tif8.7MeV ½Sdonfh Po twGuf&,lcJhaom range rSm 48.464±0.355 µm jzpfjyD; ¤if;wdkYudkoHk;í&,lcJhaomEsLuvd,mtDrm;vf½Sif; {/f 3 odyfonf;jcif;rSm 3.623±0.026 g/cm jzpfygonf/ xdkwefzdk;ESpfck{/fysrf;rQ wefzdk;rS 3 EsLuvd,mtDrm;vf½Sif; {/f odyfonf;jcif;udk &,lcJh&m 3.684±0.049 g/cm &½Sdygonf/ aomhcsufpum;vHk;rsm;/ odk&D,rf,dk,Gif;rSKNzpfpOf? EsLuvD,mtDrm;vf½Sif;
Introduction
When a charged particle passing through nuclear emulsion, it loses its kinetic energy by Coulomb forces with the negative electrons and positive nuclei that constitute the atoms of that nuclear emulsion. As a result of these interactions, the charge particle loses energy continuously and finally stops after traversing a finite distance, called the range. Therefore, the range depends on the type and energy of the incident particle and the density of the nuclear emulsion. The kinetic energy of charged particles can be deduced by measuring range in nuclear emulsion. Moreover, in nuclear emulsion data analysis, event reconstruction is based on the conservation laws of energy and momentum. And, the masses of hypernuclei are calculated from the energies of their decay daughters. Although the density of the nuclear emulsion plate can be determined by the weight and thickness measured before the beam exposure and after the development of the plate, the accuracy is not sufficient. For these reasons, range-energy relation in nuclear emulsion is quite important to get shrinkage factor and the density of the nuclear emulsion plates. Here, shrinkage factor is defined as the ratio of the thickness of the emulsion plate at the time of beam exposure and that at the time of measurement.
In this paper, how we obtained the density of nuclear emulsion plate by using one of the calibration sources will be presented.
Range-Energy Calibration Sources in Nuclear Emulsion
There are three types of calibration sources in Nuclear Emulsion of E-373 experiment. Monochromatic alpha decay tracks emitted from natural radioisotopes such as Thorium series, Uranium series and π+ →µ+→e+events, existing naturally in nuclear emulsions are used as the calibration sources for range-energy relation. The range of the µ- meson (~ 600µm) from the decay of the pion is a source for calibration. The image of π+ →µ+→e+event in nuclear emulsion of E373 experiment is shown in Fig. 1. The detail descriptions and discussion of other calibration sources, decay chain and photographs of, Thorium and Uranium series are described in a Literature. The photographs of Thorium 92 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
and Uranium series in nuclear emulsion are described in Fig. 2. and Fig. 3., respectively. The five alpha decay tracks from 228 Th are observed in the decay chain of thorium series and four alpha decay tracks from 226Ra can be found in the decay chain of Uranium Series.
π+
+
e+
+ + Fig. 1. The image of π+ →µ →e event in nuclear emulsion of E373 experiment
232Th 10 1.4110 y
228Ra 228Ac 228Th 5.76y 6.13 h =1.913 y 28.2% 5340.31 keV 71.1% 5423.20 keV 224Ra =3.66d 5.06% 5448.7keV 94.94 5685.42 keV
220Rn 55.6 s 0.11% 5747 keV 99.89% 6288.13keV 216Po 0.15s 0.0019% 5985keV 99.9981% 6778.3keV 212Pb 212Bi 64.06% 212Po 10µm h 60.60 m 0.30s 0.64% 5768 keV 100% 25.13% 6050.78 keV 8784.37 keV 9.75% 6089.88 keV 208Tl 208Pb =3.053 m stable Fig. 2. A photograph of Thorium series in Nuclear Emulsion and decay chain
93 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
10µm
Fig. 3. A photograph of Uranium series in Nuclear Emulsion
Determination of Density of Nuclear Emulsion Plate
The density of the emulsion plate of Mod# 64, Plate#9 is determined by using the calibration source, Thorium decay series, in nuclear emulsion. Firstly, we detected the events in nuclear emulsion with upgrade method, “Overall Scanning” with “Vetex Picker”. Among the various images of the events, we chose the Thorium decay series, 5 track events, as shown in Fig. 2. Secondly, we measured the range from the position coordinates at starting and stopping points of each track in the events in the temperature and huminidy control room. Alpha particles from thorium decay series are mono-energetic of the order of MeV and can therefore be identified by their 3 dimensional ranges in nuclear emulsion. The photographs of the microscope systems for vertex picker and range measurements are shown in Fig. 4. Two alpha particle tracks from the decay of 212Po and 228Th are used in calibration. The reason for why we use those tracks are (i) the α from 212Po has the kinetic energy larger than 8 MeV and has longer range than others and (ii) the emission point of α particles from 228Th is separated from others, because 224Ra can move in its relatively long lifetime of 3.66 days.
94 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Fig. 4 Microscope systems for vertex picker and range measurement of charge particle tracks
The range distribution of α particles as the scatter plots of ∆z2 versus Δx2+Δy2 from the decay of 212Po and 228Th are shown in Fig.5 and Fig. 6, respectively. By fitting those data points with a straight line, straight line equations (y = mx +c), for each track are obtained. In the case of three-dimensional components, measurement of the original ranges in a shrunk emulsion along the Z direction can be obtained by the equation,
R x2 y2 (z2 S 2 ) ; where, S is the shrinkage factor. (1)
The above equation (1) can be re-written as Δz2 is described as a linear function of (Δx2 + 2 2 1 2 2 R Δy2). z (x y ) (2) S 2 S 2
The range R and Shrinkage factor S for each track are obtained by comparing slope and intercept values of fitted results with the above equation (2).
In Fig. 5, the range distribution of 70 straight α tracks emitted from 212 Po are used. The obtained range of α particles from 212 Po, by using Eq. (2) and straight line fitting results, is 48.464±0.355 µm and shrinkage factor of emulsion plate is 2.233±0.016. On the other hand, range distributions of 40 straight α tracks emitted from 228Th are used in Fig. 6. The range of α particles from 228Th is 23.358±0.263 µm and shrinkage factor is 2.333±0.026.
95 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
Fig. 5 The range distribution of α particles as the scatter plots of ∆z2 versus Δx2+Δy2 from the decay of 212Po.
Fig. 6. The range distribution of α particles as the scatter plots of ∆z2 versus Δx2+Δy2 from the decay of 228Th.
96 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
The average kinetic energy of α particles from 212Po of 8.7MeV, the density of the nuclear emulsion is calculated with the range-energy program written by Prof. K. Nakazawa based on Barkas’s equation for the range 48.464±0.355 µm, to be 3.623±0.026 g/cm3. Similarly, the average kinetic energy of α particles from 228Th of 5.4 MeV and the range 23.358±0.263 µm, the density of the nuclear emulsion plate is 3.745±0.042 g/cm3. The density of the emulsion gel of the plate #9 of Mod#64 is determined from the mean of the above two values, 3.684±0.049 g/cm3.
Result and Discussion
The density of nuclear emulsion plate of Mod#64; Pl #9, of E373 experiment is determined by using the range and energy of α particles decay from 212Po and 228Th of Thorium decay series. Firstly, the average range of α particles emitted from 212Po and 228Th and shrinkage factors of nuclear emulsion are obtained from their linear curve fitting of measured coordinate distributions. The obtained range values of α particles decay from 212Po and 228Th are 48.464±0.355 µm and 23.358±0.263 µm, respectively. Secondly, the density values for corresponding α particles decay from 212Po and 228Th are obtained by using the energy values in decay chain and obtained range values. The density values of nuclear emulsion deduced from α particles decay from 212Po and 228Th are 3.623±0.026 g/cm3 and 3.745±0.042 g/cm3, respectively. Finally, the density of the emulsion plate of Mod#64, Pl#9 is obtained from the average of above two density values, 3.684±0.049 g/cm3.
Conclusion
Determination of density of nuclear emulsion plate is one of the important factors in the analysis of events in nuclear emulsion. To determine the density of nuclear emulsion, we can use not only Thorium decay series events, but also other calibration sources such as Uranium decay series andπ+ →µ+ →e+ event.
Acknowledgement I would like to express my special thanks to Dr Htun Hlaing, Principal of Myingyan Degree College for his permission and encouragement to perform the research works. I would also like to express my deepest appreciation to Dr Kyi Kyi Thein, Professor, Head of Department of Physics, Myingyan Degree College and Dr. K. Nakazawa, Professor, Department of Physics, Gifu University, Japan, for their continuous encouragement.
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References Barkas. W. H., et.al. 1958, “The Range-Energy Relation in Nuclear Emulsion, Part I, Range easurements”, Vol. VIII, No.2, NUOVOO CI ENTO.
Barkas. W. H., et.al. 1958, “The Range-Energy Relation in Nuclear Emulsion, Part II, Theoretical Range”, Vol. VIII, No.2, NUOVOO CIMENTO.
Heckman. H. H., et. al., 1960, “Range and Energy- Loss Process of Heavy Ions in Emulsion”, Phys. Rev, Vol. 117, No2.
aniel. R. R., et. al., 1955, “The Range-Energy Relation in Nuclear Emulsions”, Proc. India. Acd. of Sci., Vol. XLI, No.2.
Tint. K. T., 2015, “Study on Thorium and Uranium ecay Series in Nuclear Emulsion”, G C Res. Journal, Vol.6, No.1.
Huai. G. S., 2017, “Range-Energy Calibration for Refreshed Photo Plates Used in the E07 Experiment at J-PARC”, .Sc, Thesis, Gifu University, JPN.
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Separation Axiomand Compact Spaces Kathy Hnin1
Abstract
In this paper, we introduce the notions of T1–space, Hausdorff space, regular space and
normal space. Then we study some example and theory of T1–space, Hausdorff space, regular space and normal space. Finally, we establish examples and theory of the compact space. pmwrf;tusOf;
yxrOdD;pGmþpmwrf;wGift"dyÜg,fowfrSwfcsufrsm; jzpfaomT1–space, Hausdorff space, regular spaceESifh normal space rsm;udkazmfjyxm;jyD; ,if;t"dyÜg,fowfrSwfcsufrsm; ESifhoufqdkifaomOyrmrsm;? Theorem rsm;udkazmfjy xm;onfaemufqHk;taejzihfcompact space \Oyrmrsm;ESifh Theorem rsm;udk azmfjyxm;ygonf/
1. Introduction Many properties of a topological space X depend upon the distribution of the open sets in the space. Roughly speaking, a space is more likely to be separable, if there are “few” open sets; on the other hand, an arbitrary function on X to some topological spaces is more likely to be continuous, or a sequence to have a unique limit if the space has “many” open sets.
2.Separation Axioms 2.1 Definition
A topological space X is a T1 -spaceif and only if it satisfies the following axiom:
T Given any pair of distinct points a, b X , each belongs to an open set which does 1 not contain the other.In other words, there exist open sets G and H such that, a G, b G and b H, a H, The open sets G and H are not necessarily disjoint.
Our next theorem gives a very simple characterization of -space.
1 Associate Professor, Dr. Department of Mathematics, Myingyan Degree College 99 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
2.2 Theorem
A topological space X is a T1 -space if and only if every singleton subset of X is closed.
c Suppose X is a -space and p X . We show that {p}c is open.Let xp . Then x p ,
c and so by [T1 ]. an open set G x such that xGx but pG x .Hence xGx {p} , and
cc hence{p}∪ Gx :x {p} .Accordingly , a union of open sets, is open and {p} is closed. Conversely, suppose {p} is closed for every .Let a,b X with ab .Now a b b {a}c ; hence{a}c is an open set containing b but not containing a.Similarly
{b}c is an open set containing a but not containing b. Accordingly, X is a -space.
2.3 Example Show that the property of being a -space is hereditary.
Let (,X τ) be a -space and let (,Y τ)Y be a subspace of .We show that every singleton subset {p} of Y is a τY -closed set or, equivalently, that Y\{p} is -open.Since is a -space, X\{p} is τ -open.
But, p(YXYX ∩ \{p})=Y \ p .Hence by definition of subspace, Y \p is a - open set.Thus is also a -space.
2.4 Definition
A topological space Xis a Hausdorff space or T2 -space ifand only if it satisfies the following axiom:
[T2 ] Each pair of distinct points belong respectively to disjoint open sets. In other words, there exist open sets G and H such that a G,b H and GH∩ .
2.5 Theorem We will show that every metric space X is Hausdorff space.
Let be distinct points, hence by [M4 ] , d(a,b)=ε0 . Consider the open 1 1 spheres, G=S(a, ε) and H S(b, ε) , centered at a and b respectively.We claim thatG 3 3 1 1 and H are disjoint.For if p G∩ H then d(a,p) ε and d(p,b) ε , hence by the 3 3 100 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
1 1 2 Triangle Inequality, d(a,b) d(a,p)+d(p,b)< ε ε ε . But this contradicts the fact 3 3 3 that d(a,b)=ε . Hence G and H are disjoint i.e.,a and b belong respectively to the disjoint open spheres G and H. Accordingly, X is Hausdorff.
2.6 Definition A topological space X is regularif and only if it satisfies the following axiom: [R] If F is a closed subset of Xand p X does not belong to F, then there exist disjoint open sets G and H such that FG and pH .
A regular space need not be a T1 -space, as seen by the next example. 2.7 Example Consider the topology τ=X ,φ ,{a},{b,c} on the set X ={a,b,c}. Observe that the closed subsets of X are also X, , {a} and {b,c} and that (,X τ) does satisfy [R].On the other hand, is not a -space since there are finite sets, e.g. {b}, which are not close.
A regular space X which also satisfies the separation axiom T1 , i.e., a regular - space is called a T3 -space 2.8 Example
LetXbe a -space.We will show that X is also a Hausdorff space, i.e., a T2 -space. For let a,b X be distinct points.Since X is a -space, {a} is a closed set; and since a and b are distinct, b {a}.Accordingly, by [R], there exist disjoint open sets G and H such that{a} G and bH .Hence a and b belong respectively to disjoint open sets G and H.
2.9 Definition A topological space X is normalif and only ifX satisfies the following axiom:
[N] If F1 and F2 are disjoint closed subsets of X, then there exist disjoint open sets G and H such that FG1 and FH2 .
101 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
A normal space can also be characterized as follows: 2.10 Theorem Let Xbe a topological space. We will show that the following conditions are equivalent: (i) X is normal. (ii)If H is an open superset of a closed set F, then there exists an open set G such that FGGH.
c (i) (ii) Let FH , with F be closed and H be open.Then H is closed, and FH∩ c φ. But X is normal hence, Open sets G, G* such that FG , HGc* and
c c GG∩ * φφ . But GGGG∩ **φφ and HGGHc * * .
c c Furthermore, G* is closed; hence , FGGGH * .
c c (ii) (i) Let F1 and F2 be disjoint closed sets.Then FF12 , and F2 is open. By (ii), an
c c c c open set G such that FGGF2 . But GFFG22 and GGGG φ.
c c c Furthermore, G is open. Thus FG1 and FG2 with G,G disjoint open sets; hence X is normal.
A normal space X which also satisfies the separation axiom[T1 ], i.e., a normal T1 - space, is called a T4 -space. 2.11 Example Let X be a –space.We will show thatX is also a regular -space, i.e., T3 –space. For suppose F is a closed subset of X and p X does not belong to F. By , {p} is closed; and since F and {p} are disjoint, by [N], there exist disjoint open sets G and H such that and p {p} H .
2.12 Theorem Let Xbe a Hausdorffspace. We can show that every convergent sequence in X has a unique limit.
Suppose a12 ,a ,... converges to a and b, and suppose ab .Since Xis Hausdorff, open sets G and H s.t aG , bH and G∩ H=φφ.
By given, an converges to a, nN0 s.t n > n0n a G ,i.e., G contains all except a finite number of the terms of the sequence.But G and H are disjoint. Hence, H can only 102 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
contain those terms of the sequence which do not belong to G. Therefore, an cannot converge to b.This is contradict the hypothesis. Therefore, a = b . Therefore, Xhas a unique limit.
Next comes the classical result of Urysohn. 2.13 Theorem (Urysohn’s Lemma)
Let F1 and F2 be disjoint closed subsets of a normal space X. We will show that there exists a continuous function f : X [0,1]such that f [F1 ] {0}and f [F2 ] {1}.
c c By hypothesis, FF12∩ φ , hence FF12 . In particular, since is a closed set, F2 is an open superset of the closed set .By theorem , there exists an open set G 1 such that 2
c 1 FGGF1 12 2 . Observe that is an open superset of the closed set , and is 2
1 an open superset of the closed set G 2 .Hence, by theorem , there exist open sets G 1 and 4
G 3 such that 4
c 113 FGGGGGGF1 1 4 1 2 3 4 2 . 424
We continue in this manner and obtain for each tD , where D is the set of dyadic fractions in [0,1], an open set G t with the property that if t12 ,t D and tt12 then
GGt .Define the function f on X as follows: 1 t2
inf{t :x Gt } if x F2 f(x) 1 if x F2
Observe that , for every xX , 0 f(x ) 1, i.e. f maps X into [0,1].
Observe also that FG1t for all , hence, f F1 {0} . Moreover, by definition, f F2 {1} .Consequently, the only thing left for us to prove is that f is continuous. Now f is continuous if the inverses of the sets [0,a) and (b,1] are open subsets of X. We claim that f1 [0,a)∪ G : t a (1) t
1 c f (b,1] ∪ Gt : t >b (2)Then each is the union of open sets and is therefore open.We first prove (1). Let xf1 [0,a). Then f(x ) [0,a) , i.e., 0 f(x )< a . Since D is 103 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017
dense in [0,1], there exists tDx such that f(x ) Accordingly, xG where, ta .Hence, x∪ G : t a . We have just shown that tx x t -1 every element in f [0,a) also belongs to ∪Gt : t a , i.e., 1 f [0,a) ∪ Gt : t a.On the other hand, suppose y∪Gt : t a. Then tDy such that ta and y G . Therefore , f(yy )=inf t: G t a . Hence,y also y t y t y 1 1 belongs to f [0,a) . In other words, ∪Gt : t a f [0,a) .The above two results imply (1). We now prove (2). Let xf1 (b,1].Then f(x ) (b,1] , i.e., b f(x ) 1 . Since D is dense in [0,1], there exist t12 ,t D such that b t12 t f(x ) . In other words, f(xx )=inf t: G t Hence, xG . Observe that tt implies GGt . t2 t2 12 1 t2 c Hence x does not belong to G t1 either.Accordingly, xGt1 where tb1 ; hence c 1 c x∪Gt : t > b .Consequently, f (b,1] ∪ Gt : t > b . On the other hand, let c c y ∪ Gt : t > b . Then there exists tD such that tb and y Gt ; hence y does not y y y belong to G t y . But t < t y implies GGGtty t y , hence, y Gt for every t less than t y . 1 Consequently, f(yy )=inf t: Gt ty > b . Hence, yf (b,1] . In other words, c 1 ∪Gt : t > b f (b,1]. The above two results imply (2).Hence, f is continuous and Urysohn’s lemma is proven. 2.14 Definition Let A {fi :i I}be a class of functions from a set X into a set Y. The class Aof functions is said to separate pointsif and only if for any pair of distinct points a,b X there exists a function f inA such that f(a) f(b) . 2.15 Proposition If the class C(X ,R) of all real-valued continuous functions on a topological space X separates points.We can show thatX is a Hausdorffspace. 104 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Let C(X ,R) denote the class of all real-valued continuous functions on a topological space X. We show that if separates points, then X is a Hausdorff space. Let a,b X be distinct points. By hypothesis, there exists a continuous function f:X R such that f(a) f(b) . But R is a Hausdorff space: hence there exists disjoint open subsets G and H of R containing f(a) and f(b) respectively. Accordingly, the inverses f-1 [G] and f-1 [H] are disjoint, open and contain a and b respectively.In other words, X is a Hausdorff space. 2.16 Definition A topological space X is completely regularif and only if it satisfies the following axiom. [CR]if F is a closed subset of X and p X does not belong to F, then there exists a continuous function f : X [0,1]such that f(p) = 0 and f F {1}. 2.17 Proposition A completely regular space is also regular. Let F be a closed subset of X and suppose does not belong to F. By hypothesis, X is completely regular: hence there exists a continuous function f:X [0,1] such that f(p)=0 and . But R and its subspace 0,1 are Hausdorffspace , hence there are disjoint open sets G and H containing 0 and 1 respectively. Accordingly, their inverse and are disjoint, open and contain p and F respectively.In other words, X is also regular. 2.18 Theorem The class of all real-valued continuous functions on a completely regular T1 - space X separates points. Let a and b be distinct points in X. Since X is a - space, {b}is a closed set. Also, since a and b are distinct, a {b}.By hypothesis, X is completely regular: hence there exists a real-valued continuous function f on X such that f(a)=0 and f {b} {1} .Accordingly, . 105 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 3.Compactness 3.1 Definition Let A Gi be a class of subsets of X such that A ∪iiG for some AX . Recall that A is then called a coverof A , and an open cover if each Gi is open. Furthermore, if a finite subclass of A is also a cover of , i.e., if G ,...,G such that A G∪∪ ... G then is said to be reducible to a finite ii1mA ii1mA cover, or contains a finite subcover. 3.2 Theorem ( Heine-Borel ) Let A= a,b be a closed and bounded interval and let Gi be a class of open sets such that .Then one can select a finite number of the open sets, sayG ,...,G , so that . ii1m 3.3 Definition A subset of a topological space X is compact if every open cover of is reducible to finite cover. In other words, if is compact and ,where are open sets, then one select a finite number of the open sets, say ,so that . 3.4 Example Let be any finite subset of a topological space X, say A a1m ,...,a . We can show that is necessarily compact.For if G =G iis an open cover of , then each point in belongs to one of the member of , say , a G ,...,a G G 1 i1m m i Accordingly , A G∪ G ∪ ... ∪ G . Since a set is compact if and only if every open i1 i 2 i m cover of contains a finite subcover, we only have to exhibit one open cover of with no finite subcover to prove that is not compact. 3.5 Example The open interval A= 0,1 on the real line R with the usual topology is not compact. 106 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Consider, for example, the class of open intervals 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 G = ( ,1),( , ),( , ),( , ),... 3 4 2 5 3 6 4 11 Observe that A=G∪ n ,where G,n ; hence Gis an open cover of A . n=1 n 2 n G4 G3 G2 G1 ( ) 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 5 4 3 2 But G * contains no finite subcover. For let ,G (a1 ,b 1 ),(a 2 ,b 2 ),...,(a m ,b m )be any finite subclass of G.If ε=min a1m ,...,a then ε > 0 and a1 ,b 1∪∪ ... (a m ,b m ) (ε,1) But (0,ε] and (ε,1) are disjoint , hence G* is not a cover of , and so is not compact. 3.6 Theorem We show that a continuous image of a compact set is also compact, i.e., if the function f:XY is continuous and is a compact subset of X, then its image f A is a compact subset of Y. For suppose G Gi is an open cover of , i.e. fGA ∪ii . Then -1 -1 -1 -1 AAf f[ ] f∪∪i G i i f G i .Hence H f [Gi ] is a cover of . Now f is 1 continuous and each Gi is an open set, so each f [Gi ] is also open.In other words, His an open cover of .But is compact, so H is reducible to a finite cover, say A f11 [G ]∪∪ ... f [G ]. ii1m Accordingly, fA f f11 [G ]∪ ... ∪ f [G ] G ∪ ... ∪ G .Thus is compact. i1 i m i 1 i m 107 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 3.7 Theorem Let A be a subset of a topological space (,X τ) . We will show that the following are equivalent: (i) is compact with respect to τ . (ii) is compact with respect to the relative topology τA on . Let Gi be a τ A - open cover of . By definition of the relative topology, Hi τ such that GHHiA∩ i i .Hence A ∪∪iGH i i i and therefore Hi is a – open cover of . By (i), is – compact, so contains a finite subcover , say A H∪∪ ... H , HH . But then ii1miik A A∩ ( H ∪ ... ∪ H) (A ∩ H) ∪ ... ∪ (A ∩ H) = G∪∪ ... G i1 i m i 1 i m ii1m Thus contains a finite sub-cover G ,...,G and A,τ is compact. Let be a ii1m A – open cover of . Set GHii A∩ , then AAAA∪iH(H)(H)G i ∩ ∪ i i ∪ i ∩ i ∪ i i But Gi τA , so is a –open cover of . By hypothesis, is –compact: thus contains a finite subcover . Accordingly, AAAG∪ ...G ∪ ( ∩ H)...( ∪ ∪ ∩ H) A∩(H ∪ ... ∪ H ) H ∪ ... ∪ H . i1 i m i 1 i m i1 i m i 1 i m Thus is reducible to a finite cover H ,...,H and therefore is compact with ii1m respect to . 3.8 Theorem Let F be a closed subset of a compact space X. We can show that F is also compact. c * Let G ={Gi }be an open cover of F. i.e. FG ∪ii .Then X =(∪∪ii G ) F , that is G c c * {Gi }∪ {F } is a cover of X. But F is open since F is closed, So G is an open cover of X. By hypothesis, X is compact:henceG* is reducible to a finite cover of X, say X =G∪ ... ∪ G ∪ Fc ,G But F and are disjoint: hence i1 i m i k G. F G∪∪ ... G ,G i1 i m i k G 108 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 We have just shown that any open cover G ={Gi }of F contains a finite subcover, i.e. F is compact. 3.9 Definition A classAi of sets is said to have the finite intersection property if every finite subclass AA,..., has a non-empty intersection. i.e. AA∩∩... φφ . ii1m ii1m 3.10 Theorem Let X be a topological space, we will prove that the following statement are equivalent: (i) X is compact.(ii) For every class {F}i of closed subsets of X, ∩iiF φ implies contains a finite subclass F ,...,F with F∩∩ ... F φ. ii1m ii1m c c c Suppose . Then by De Morgan’s Law, X φ (∩∪i F) i = i F i c So {Fi }is an open cover of X, since each Fi is closed.But by hypothesis, X is compact: hence, Fc ,...,F c {F c } such that X =Fcc ∪ ... ∪ F .Thus by De Morgan’s Law, i1m i i ii1m c φX c F c ∪ ... ∪ F c F cc ∩ ... ∩ F cc F∩∩ ... F and so (i) (ii).Let G be an open i1 i m i 1 i m ii1m i ccc cover of X, i.e. X =G∪ii .By De Morgan’s Law, φ =X =∪∩i G i i G i c since each Gi is open, Gi is a class of closed sets and by above, has an empty intersection. Hence by hypothesis, Gc ,...,G c {G c }such that Gcc∩∩ ... G φ. i1m i i ii1m c Thus by De Morgan’s Law, X φc G c∩ ... ∩ G c G cc ∪ ... ∪ G cc G∪∪ ... G . i1 i m i 1 i m ii1m Accordingly,Xis compact and wehave shown that (ii) (i). 3.11 Example Let A be a compact subset of a HausdorffspaceX and suppose, p XA \ . We can show that open sets G,H such that p G,A H,G∩ H φ. Let a A. Since pA , p a . By hypothesis, X is Hausdorff ; hence Open sets Gaa ,H such that p Ga ,a H a ,G a∩ H a φ . Hence, AA∪Ha :a , i.e., H :a A is an open cover of . But is compact, so H ,...,H {H } such that a a1m a a 109 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 A H∪ ... ∪ H . Now let H = H∪ ... ∪ H and G = G∩∩ ... G . H and G are open aa1m aa1m aa1m since they are respectively the union and finite intersection of open sets.Furthermore, A H and pG since p belongs to each G individually.Lastly we claim that ai GH∩ φ.Note first that GH∩ φ implies that GH∩ φ. aaii ai Thus, by the distributive law, G∩ H = G ∩ H ∪ ... ∪ H = G∩ H ∪ ... ∪ G ∩ H aa1m aa1m =φ∪∪ ... φφ .Thus the proof is complete. 4 . Conclusion A regular space X which also satisfies the separation axiom T1 , i.e., a regular T1 - space is called a T3 -space.A normal space X which also satisfies the separation axiom[T1 ] , i.e., a normal –space, is called a T4 –space. Finally, we have shown thata closed subset of a compact space X is also compact. Acknowledgements We would like to express our gratitude to DrHtunHlaing, Principal of Myingyan degree College for his kind permission to carry out this research. We wish to extend our sincere thanks to DrThidaOo, Head and Professor, Department of Mathematics,Myingyan Degree college for herencouragement. References [1] Seymour Lipschutz (sos),“Theory and Problem of General Topology”,McGraw– Hill Companies, New York,1965. [2] John L.kelley,“General Topology”, D.vanNostrand Company Inc,New York, 1955. 110 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Existence of Solution to Quantum Hydrodynamic Model Aung San Lin1 Abstract In this paper, firstly we consider the one-dimensional stationary quantum hydrodynamic model with the relaxation term and the viscosity term. Then, we impose the physical assumptions. Finally, we study the existence of solutions for positive viscosity. pmwrf;tusOf; þpmwrf;wGifyxrOD;pGmone dimensional stationary quantum hydrodynamic modeludkrelaxation term, viscosity termrsm;ESifhtwl pOf;pm;ygonf/ xdkYaemuf &kyfydkif;qdkif&mt,ltqrsm;udk aygif;xnfhxm;ygonf/ aemufqHk;ü positive viscositytwGuftajzwnf&SdrIudkavhvmwifjyxm;ygonf/ 1. Introduction We consider the quantum hydrodynamic model for semiconductors in one space dimension ntx J 0 (1) 2 n JJ2 xx Jtx Tp(n)nVn nn , (2) xx n x n x 2 Vxx n Cin (0,1) (0,T) . (3) Here, n = n(x,t) denotes the electron density, J = J(x,t) the electron current density, V=V(x,t) the electrostatic potential, p(n) the pressure function, T is a temperature 2 constant and the parameters are the scaled Plank constant (such that 2 ), the 2 scaled Debye length, (x) the relaxation time, 0 the viscosity and C = C(x) the doping profile. 1Lecturer, Dr,Department of Mathematics, Myingyan Degree College 111 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 The relation of the pressure p(n) and the enthalpy h(n) is given by p (n) nh (n). We assume that the variables are independent of time t, we get the stationary quantum hydrodynamic equations Jx 0 , 2 n JJ2 xx Tp(n)nV x n nn, (4) xx n x n x 2 Vxx n C(x) in = (0,1) , (5) with the boundary conditions n(0) n0 , n(1) n1 , V(0) V0 , Vx0 (0) E .(6) We have to drive the system of second order equations. Then we write the equation (4) as 2 n JJ2 xx n Th(n) Vx n 0 . 2 xx 2nx n n x Since n 0, we get x 2 n J2 xx ds Th(n) Vx J n 0 , 2n2 n xx x n 0 x x x J2 n ds Th(n) V 2 xx J n 0 . 2 x 2nn 0 n x By intergratin with respect to x, we get x J2 n ds Th(n) V 2 xx J n K , 2n2 n n x 0 112 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 where K is a constant. r1 n 2 Taking n and setting w = n , then we obtain r1 wwJ2 x ds 22xx Th(w ) V K x J , 4 r 2 w 2w w0 w J2 w x ds 22w Twh(w ) Vw Kw x w Jw , (7) 22V w C(x) , xx 3 r 2 xx 2w w0 w (8) with the boundary conditions w(0) w0 , w(1) w1 , V(0) V0 , Vx0 (0) E , (9) where wn00 , wn11 . In this case, we define 22 KV + max ( E0 ,0) + M , (10) where M = max ( w0 ,w 1 ,M 0 ) , (11) 2 and M0 is such that h(M0 ) 0 . The constant K is taken in such a way that V(x) K 0 holds. Then, we impose the following assumptions: (H ) h C1 (0, ) and p (defined by p (s) sh (s) , s > 0) are non-decreasing and 1 h satisfies limh(s) > 0 , lim h(s) < 0 , lim s h(s) . s s0 s0 (H ) C L2 ( ),C 0 in ; L() , (x) 0 in . 2 0 (H ) J,w ,w , , ,T 0 ; 0 ; V ,E R . 3 0 1 0 0 113 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 2. Existence of solutions We assume that > 0. In this case, we need to prove the following lemma and proposition. Then the existence of solutions of the problem (7) - (9) will be proved. The constant m( ) is defined by 2 m( ) min w0, ,w,m,m 1 1 2 , where h 4m1 0 , 1 r4 1 r1 m2 , 4 2 JJ2 max(0,K k) 2 0 kV max ( E ,0) 2 C . 0 0 L()1 The constant M is defined in (11) . We define the function M f(x)= (2 x) , x[0,1] , 0 < < min (1, ). 2 We consider the truncated problem J2 w(t (w )) w x ds 22w Tw h(w ) Vw kw f M x Jw , (12) xx 4 r 1 2 2t(w) t(w)fM 0 t(w) 22 Vxx w C(x) in , (13) where t (w) = max ( , w) and tfM (w ) = max (f(.), min (M,w(.)) . Then we will show that the existence of solutions to (12), (13), (9) for any J 0 and any 0. Firstly , we consider the approximate problem J2 w (t (w )) w x ds 22w Tw h(w ) Vw kw f M x Jw (14) xx 4 r 1 2 2t(w) t(w)fM 0 t(w) 22 Vxx w M C(x) in , (15) where w = max (0,w) , w M = max (M,w) . 114 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 3. L estimate 3.1 Lemma Let (w,V) be a weak solution of the problem (14),(15), (9). Then we have the following estimates 0 w(x) M , k V(x) K for all x . Proof. We have x [0,1] and 22 Vxx w M C(x) . x Then V(x) 22 w (z) C(z) dz A , xM 0 but Vx0 (0) A E , x we have V(x) 22 w (z) C(z) dz E . x M 0 0 x y Again V(x) Ex 22 w(z) C(z)dzdy B 0M 00 and V(0) B V0 . x y Then we have V(x) V Ex 22 w (z) C(z) dzdy . 0 0 M 00 Therefore we have V max (E ,0) 2 C V x V max ( E ,0) + 2M 2 , 0 0L()1 0 0 k V(x) K . Next, using w = min (0,w) as a test function in (14), we have J2 w w 22ww dx dx Twwh(w)dx Vwwdx kwwdx xx 4 2t (w) (t (w )) w w x ds f M x dx J w w dx , r 1 2 tfM (w )0 t (w) J2 w w 22wwdx dx Twwh(w)dx (K V)wwdx xx 4 2t (w) (t (w )) w w x ds f M x dx J w w dx t (w )r 1 t (w) 2 fM 0 115 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 J22 (w ) (t (w )) (w )2 2(w)dx 2 dx T(w)h(w)dx 2 2 (KV)(w)dx 2 f M x dx x 4 r 1 2t (w) tfM (w ) x ds J (w )2 dx . 2 0 t (w) Since h is taking monotonicity, we have T(w )22 h(w ) dx 0 , and it can be shown that (K V)(w )2 dx 0 , x ds J (w )2 dx 0 , 2 0 t (w) (t (w )) (w )2 f M x dx 0 . r1 tfM (w ) Therefore, we obtain 22(w ) dx 0 , x 2 w 0 , x 2 1122 ww0 . 22xx22 Using Poincare’s inequality, we have 1122 ww0 , 22x 2C1 2 11 22 min w wx 0 , 22 2C1 2 2 Cw 0 , 2 1,2 w(x) 0 in , 11 where C2 min , . 2C1 2 Again, using (w M) max (0,w M) as a test function in (12), we have J2 (t (w )) x ds 22(wM)wdx (wM)w Th(w)(KV) f M x J dx xx 4 r 1 2 2t(w) t(w)fM 0 t(w) 116 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 2 x 2 J(t (w )) ds 22((wM))dx (wM)w Th(M)(KV) f M x J dx. x 4 r 1 2 2t(w) t(w)fM 0 t(w) J2 x ds Since (w M) 0 , w 0 , 0 , (K V) 0 , J 0 , T 0, x 4 2 2t (w) 0 t (w) 22 h(M ) h(M0 ) 0, we obtain (t (w )) w(w M) 22((w M) ) dx f M x dx 0 . x r1 tfM (w ) Therefore, we have ((w M) )2 dx 0 , x 2 (w M) 0 , x 2 1122 (w M) (w M) 0 . 22xx22 Using Poincare’s inequality, we get 1122 (w M) (w M) 0 , 22x 2C3 2 11 22 min , (wM) (wM) x 0 , 22 2C3 2 2 C (w M) 0 , 4 1,2 2 (w M) 0 , 1,2 w(x) Min . Hence we have 0 w(x) M in . 4. H 1 estimates 4.1 Lemma There exist constants C,C56> 0 only depending on given data and on , and M (but not on w and V) such that wC , VC. H()1 5 H()1 6 Proof. From the proof of lemma 3.1, we have 117 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 x V(x) E 22 w(z) C(z)dz , x 0 M 0 x then V E 22 w (z) dz , x 0 M 0 V E 22 M dz = EM22 , x0 0 222 2 4 4 Vx E 0 2 M E 0 M , V22 dx Edx2 2 MEdx 2 4 Mdx 4 , x 0 0 V22 E 2 2 M 2 E 4 M 4 , x2 0 0 112 2 VVC , 22x2 x2 7 2 2 2 4 4 where C7 E 0 2 M E 0 M . Using Poincare’s inequality, we have 112 2 VVC, 2 x72 2C8 2 11 2 2 min , V Vx7 C , 2 2 2C8 2 CV2 C , 9 1,2 7 C VC where C 7 . H()1 6 6 , C9 Again, using ww D as a test function in (12), with wD (x) (1 x)w 0 xw 1 and integrating over , we have J2 (t (w )) x ds 22w w w dx w w w Th(w ) (K V) f M x J dx x D xx D 4 r 1 2 2t(w) t(w)fM 0 t(w) J2 (t (w )) x ds 22w w w dx w w w Th(w ) (K V) f M x J dx Dx x D 4 r 1 2 2t(w) t(w)fM 0 t(w) 2 (t (w )) 22wdx wwdx f M x wwwdx x x Dx t (w )r1 D fM 2 x J2 ds w wD w Th(w ) (K V) J dx . 2t (w)42 t (w) 0 From lemma 3.1 and the non-negativity of the last two integrals, we obtain 118 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 2 22w dx w w dx . x x Dx Using Cauchy-Schwarz inequality and Young’s inequality, we get 211 2 2 w dx w dx w dx , x x Dx 22 12 1 2 1 2 w dx w w dx w w , x 0 1 0 1 2 2 2 w 2 C , where C w w 2 , x 2 10 10 0 1 1122 ww . 22xx22 Using Poincare’s inequality , we have 1122 ww , 22x 2C11 2 11 2 2 min , w w x , 2 2 2C11 2 Cw2 , 12 2 C wC ,where C 10 . H()1 5 5 C11 5. H 2 etimates 5.1 Lemma There exist constants C,C13 14 > 0 not depending on w such that wC , VC . H()2 13 H()2 14 Proof. By lemma 4.1 , the equations (14), (15) and the embedding H()L()1 , we have , . 5.2 Proposition Let the assumption ( H1 ) – ( H2 ) hold and let 0 and > 0 . Then for any J >0 , 2 there exists a solution (w,V) (H2 ( )) to (12), (13), (9) satisfying 0 w(x) M in Ω. 119 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Proof. Let u H1 ( ) and let VH()2 be the unique solution of 22 Vxx u M C(x) , in , V(0) V0 , Vx0 (0) E . Let w H2 ( )be the unique solution of the approximate problem J2 u x ds (t (u )) u 22w Tuh(u)(KV)uJu f M x , xx 4 2 r 1 2t(u)0 t(u) t(u)fM w(0) w0 , w(1) w1 , where [0,1] . Define the fixed-point operator S : H(11 ) [0,1] H( ) , (u, ) w . It holds S (u,0) = 0 for all . Estimates similarly as in the proof of lemma 5.1 , we can show that there exists a constant C > 0 independent of w and such that wC H()2 for all w H1 ( ) satisfying S(w, ) w . Standard arguments show that Sis continuous and compact ,noting that the embedding H()H()21 is compact. Thus we can apply the Leray-Schauer’s fixed point theorem to get a solution (w,V) of (12),(13),(9).Now, we prove the following theorem for the existence of solution of the problem (7) – (9). 5.3 Theorem Let ( H1 ) – ( H3 ) hold and > 0. Then for any J > 0, there exists a classical solution (w,V) (C22 ( )) of (7) (9) satisfying 0 < m( ) w(x) M , for all xΩ. Proof.For the proof, we only have to show that w is strictly positive in Ω. 120 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 1 Using (w f) H0 ( ) as test function in (12), we have J2 (t (w )) x ds 22((wf))wdx ((wf))w Th(w)(KV) f M x J dx, xx 4 r 1 2 2t(w) t(w)fM 0 t(w) 2 2 2JJ 2 fx ((w f )x ) dx ( (w f ) ) w4 Th(f ) k K 2 r 1 dx, 2f 0 JJ2 2((w f ) ) 2 dx ( (w f ) ) w Th(f 2 ) k K dx. x 4 2 r 1 2 0 (2 ) Using the monotonicity of h, we obtain JJ2 2((w f))dx 2 ((w f))w Th(4 2 ) max(0,k K) dx.(16) x 4 2 r 1 r 22 0 It can be shown that for (0,1) , we have 1 r4 1 and h(42 ) 0 . r1 2 2 JJ max(0,K k) 2 0 Therefore, we have r 42 r 1 2 JJ max(0,K k) 2 0 JJ2 max(0,K k) r 4 r 1 , 220 JJ2 max(0,K k) r 4 r 1 0 . (17) 220 Hence, we have JJJJ22 Th(42 ) k K max(0,K k) 24 2r1r442 2 2 rr1 2 00 1 J2 J 4 max(0,K k) r r 1 0 22 0 where we used 1. 121 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Applying (16) and (17), we have ((w f ) )2 dx 0 , x 2 (w f ) 0 , x 2 1122 (w f )xx (w f ) 0 , 2222 Using Poincare’s inequality, we obtain 1122 (w f ) (w f ) 0 , 22x 2C15 2 11 22 min , (wf) (wf) x 0 , 22 2C15 2 2 C (w f ) 0 , 16 1,2 (w f ) 0 , H()1 w f 0, w(x) f(x) in . Thus we have w(x) f(x) 0 in . By taking m( ) , the proof of the theorem is completed. 6. Conclusion For this existence of solution, we can solve the problems which represents the quantum hydrodynamic model. Acknowledgements I would like to express our gratitude to Dr.HtunHlaing , Principal of Myingyan Degree College for his kind permission to prepare this research. I am also grateful to Dr.ThidaOo, Head and Professor of Department of Mathematics ,Myingyan Degree College for her instruction on this research. 122 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 References [1] Adams.R.A, “Sobolev spaces”, Academic Press, 1975. [2] Evans.L.C, “Partial differential equations’’,AMS,1998. [3] Gamba.I, Jungel&& .A, “Positive solutions of singular equations of second and third order for quantum fluids”,Arch.Rat.Mech.Anal.156:183-203,2001. [4] .A, “Qrasi-hydrodynamic semiconductor equations” Birkhauser&& ,Basel,2001. 123 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Histological study on male organ of Notopterus notopterus (Pallas, 1769) of Ayeyarwady River in Mandalay Ei Zin Hlaing * Abstract The study period of this research started from September 2007 to August 2008. A total of 104 specimens of male Notopterus notopterus (Nga-phae) were used for this study. According to the gonadal development, based on the monthly variation of GSI values, the monthly histological changes in the testes were seen throughout the year. On the basic of histological characteristics the testes were divided into six stages, spermatogonia, primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, spermatids, spermatozoa and regression stage. pmwrf;tusOf; ,ckokawoe pmwrf;udk pufwifbm 2007 rS Mo*kwfv 2008 xd avhvmawGU½Sdcsufrsm;udk jyKpkxm;ygonf/ pmwrf; avhvmrItwGuf ig;z,f txD; taumifta&twGuf pkpkaygif;104aumiftokH;jyKcJhygonf/ þavhvm rIwGif txD;\vpOf wpfESpfywfvkH; rsKd;yGm;t*Fg (testes) zHGUNzdK;rI tqifh qifhudk GSI (Gonadosomatic Index) wefzdk;udk tajccHí (sperm) okwf aumifwdkU\t½G,fa&mufykH tqifhqifhwdkUudk wpf½I;aA'enf;jzifh avhvmcJh&m wGif Spermatogonia okwfaumifavmif;qJvfEk Primary spermatocytes (rlvokwfaumifavmif;qJvf) Secondary spermatocytes ('kwd,okwf aumifavmif;qJvf) spermatids (okwfaumifavmif;qJvf&ifh) spermatozoa (okwfaumiftqifhESifh) regression stage (rlvtaetxm; tqifh(odkU) aemufjyefqkwfjcif;) tqifh[lí tqifhajcmufqifhtxd cJGjcm;EdkifcJhygonf/ Introduction Reproduction in fishes is the process by which species are perpetuated and by which, in combination with genetic change, characteristics of new species first appear (Lagler et al., 1962). The study of fishery biology is to determine the annual breeding cycle and their potential for production of fish protein. Gonad indices, staging based on the external appearance of the ovary and whole oocytes, measurement of oocyte size and histology to assess the stage of gonad development are methods applied in such studies (West, 1990). *Lecturer, Dr, Department of Zoology, Myingyan Degree College 124 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Fisheries management is often concerned with the assessment of size at sexualmaturity patterns of spawning and fecundity all of which require a through understanding a gonad microstructure and function knowledge of spermatogenesis spawning seasons and behavior is also important for the management of wild stocks and aquaculture such information is, however, available for only a small number of teleost species that are commercially important (Tyler and Sumpter,easier 1996; cited by Rutaisire and Booth, 2004). Reproduction occurs when food is available for the offspring in the wild. Therefore, reproduction is closely related to the environment which directly acts on gametogenesis and spawning (Wen and Lin 2001, Tollefsen et al., 2002; cited by Guerriero et al., 2005). Seasonal changes in the concentrations of circulating sex hormones and their importance for reproduction have been reported for several species of teleosts (Fostier et al., 1893; cited by Guerriero et al., 2005). Numerous authors have usually limited their descriptions of the fish reproductive cycle to listing the maturity stages of gonads they examined. A number of classification systems to assess male gonad maturity have been developed. Some authors emphasize macroscopic criteria (external appearance of the gonad), while others focus on microscopic (presence of specific spermatogenic cells) or physiological characteristics of the testis (Dziewulska and Domagala, 2002). The histological description of gonad structure is fundamental to understanding reproduction. The macroscopic or histological observations of the gonad (qualitative method) and evaluation of oocyte diameter (quantitative method) are commonly applied (Karlou-Riga and Echonomiclis, 1997; cited by Garcia-Diaz et al., 2006). Moreover, one of the most important factors necessary in the successful culturing of a fish species is obtaining a basic understanding of its key biological processes. The aims of the present study are – - to confirm the timing and duration of spawning period - to investigate the seasonal microscopic histological characteristics of the testes . 125 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Materials and Methods Study site Notopterus notopterus were purchased at the site of capture from Ayeyarwady River, hence, these fish belong to Ayeyarwady fauna. Then, the fish were brought to laboratory for further works. Study period This study was carried out from 2008 to 2010. Histological Preparation of Gonads The gonads were fixed in Bouin's fluid for 24 hrs and transferred to 70%alcohol for storage. For histological observation preserved samples were dehydrated and embedded in paraffin, sectioned at 7μ and stained with Mayer’s haemotoxylin and eosin. Histological appearance of gonads was taken as photomicrographs aided by digital camera (DP-12 Olympus) attached with microscope. Oocytes diameter was measured under by using a light microscope with an ocular micrometer. Analysis of Histological Preparation Gonad development was determined histologically by light microscope. Spermatogenesis in the testes of N. notopterus was demonstrated in the present studythrough six stages of male germ cells according to Nagahama, 1983 (cited by ELGreisy,2005).These stages are spermatogonia (SI), primary spermatocytes (SII),secondary spermatocytes (SIII), spermatids (SIV) and spermatozoa (SV) and regression stage (SVI). Htun Han, 1978; Koya et al., 1995; Kurita et al., 1995; Unver and Saraydin, 2004; Goncalves et al., 2006; Sokolowska and Kulczykowska, 2006 and EL-Halfawy et al., 2007 were also referred for staging of the spermatogenesis Calculation of Mean Percent Frequency of Different Spermatogenic stages Three regions were arbitrarily taken from each section as upper one-third,middle one-third and lower one-third. From each region the number of spermatogenic and oogenic cell were counted horizontally. Five sections were used for each month. The 126 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 number of different stages from each section was pooled and the mean values were taken to represent the percent frequency of different stages for particular month. Results Seasonal Changes in the Testis Stages of maturity, histological differentiation of testis, stages of maturity at different period are given in Table 1. Immature spermatogonia (stage I) were found throughout the year. Early developing stage (stage II) primary and secondary spermatocytes and late developing stage (stage III) spermatids observed from January to February. During this period, the spermatids and spermatozoa reached lower level (Table 2, Figure.1 and Plate 1 A to C). Ripe stage (stage IV) spermatozoa were occurred during the months from March to June. In this stage, the frequency of spermatozoa reached at the highest level (Table 2, Figure 1 and plate 1D). Spent stage (stage V) was observed from July to October. During this period, spermatocytes at the stage I and II are gradually increased and spermatids and spermatozoa are decreased (Table 2, Figure 1 and Plate 1 E). Regression stage (stage VI) was seen during the months of November to December.At this stage, a few numbers of spermatozoa, spermatids and many spermatogonia are dominant (Table 2, Figure 1 and Plate 1 F). The spermatogenic cells in each stage were counted from histological preparation of the testis. Monthly changes in percent frequency of spermatogenesis stages are given in Table 2 and Figure 1. 127 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Table 1 Stages of maturity and histological differentiation of testis at different reproductive periods in male N. notopterus 128 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Table 2 Monthly changes in frequency of spermatogenesis stages in N. notopterus during the period from September, 2007 to August, 2008 129 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 130 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Plate 1. Histological characteristics of tests in N. notopterus 131 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Discussion and Conclusion This study involves seasonal histological changes in the testis and ovaries of N. notopterus during the period from 2008 to 2010. Histology is the best way to study many of the reproductive process. These studies provide precise information on gonad development (West, 1990). In the present study, based on the monthly variation of GSI values, the breeding cycle have been divided into four main periods: the prespawning period (January to February), the spawning period (March to June), postspawning period (July to October) and resting period (November to December). Spermatogenesis was divided into six stages. They are spermatogonia (SI), primary spermatocytes (SII), secondary spermatocytes (SIII), spermatids (SIV), spermatozoa (SV) and regression (SVI). In this study, stage I and II occurred throughout the year. In the prespawning phase in January to February, stages (SI), (SII) and (SIII) were commonly observed. The lowest frequencies of spermatozoa were in January and February. Thus, it isassumed that this stage was immature stage. During the spawning period from March to June, the highest percent frequencies of spermatids were 45.58 in March and 50.22 in June. During this period, all stages of male germ cells are seen. But spermatogonia, primary and secondary spermatocytes constitutes a lower frequency than that of previous months. This condition was also found in Saurida undosquamis by EL-Greisy (2005). During the postspawning period from July to October, the frequencies of spermatozoa are gradually decreased in July to October. However, spermatids still appear in high number in July and August. Thus, these months were designated as the spent stage. In resting period from November to December, the testis contained empty lobular space except for residual spermatozoa and spermatogonia. In Liza ramada, the testes of different individuals caught during the same period exhibited different spermatogenic activites (EL-Halfawy et al., 2007). Some males, particularly those maturating for the first time, were observed to have produced lower amounts of maturing germ cells in the gonads. In other words, a large part of the germ cells remained inactive, at the spermatogonium stage, during the reproductive cycle. This 132 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 condition has been term “incomplete maturation”. However the gonad maturation process in the species studied did not show any irregularities (Dziewulaska and Domagala, 2002). In conclusion, The variation in the mature and ripe testis count have been attempted to relate with four reproductive phases made on the basis of GSI value. Therefore, this species may be regarded as a seasonal breeder. Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge our gratitude to Dr Htun Hlaing, Principal, Myingyan Degree College, for his permission to submit this research. I would like to express our gratitude to Dr San San, Professor and Head, Department of Zoology, Myingyan Degree College, for her permission to conduct this research and guidance, advice and encouragement. References Dziewulaska, K. and Domagala, J., 2002. Histology of salmonid testes during maturation. Department of General Zoology, University of Szczecin, Poland. 3(1): 47-46. EL. Greisy, Z.A., 2005. Reproductive biology and histology of male Brushtooth lizardfish Saurida undosquamis (Richardson), Family. Synodontidae, from the Mediterranean Coast of Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research, 31(1): 354-363 EL. Halfawy, M.M., Ramadan, A.M. and Mahmoud, W.F., 2007. Reproductive biology and histological studies of the Grey mullet, Liza ramada, (Risso, 1862) in Lake Timsah, Suez canal. Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research, 33(1): 434-454. Garcia-Diaz, M., Gonzalez, J.A., Lorente, M.J. and Tuset, V.M., 2006. Spawning season, maturity sizes and fecundity in Hacktail Comber (Serrans atricauda) Serranidae) from the Eastern-Central Atlantic. Fish Bull, 104: 159-166. Goncalves, T.L., Bazzoli N.T.L. and Brito, M.F.G., 2006. Gametogenesis and reproduction of the matrinxa Brycon orthotaenia (Gunther, 1864) (Pisces. Characidae) in the Sao Francisco river, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Braz.J-Biol. 66 (2): 1-15. Guerriero, G., Rosaria, F. and Gaetano, C., 2005. Correlations between Plasma Level of Sex Steroids and Spermatogenesis during the Sexual Cycle of Chub, Leuciscus cephalus L.(Pisces:Cyprinidae). Zoological Studies, 44(2): 228-233. 133 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Htun Han, M., 1978b. The reproductive biology of the dab, limanda limanda (L) in the north sea: seasonal changes in the testis. Journal of Fish Biology, 13: 361-367. Koya, Y., Hamatsu, T. and Matsubara, T., 1995. Annual reproductive cycle and spawning characteristics of the Female Kichiji Rockfish Sebastolobus marcrochir. Fisheries Science, 61(1): 203. Kurita, Y., Sano, M. and Shimizu, M., 1995. Reproductive cycle, body size and age at maturity of Haxagrammid fish Heragrammos agrammus in Central Japan. Fisheries Science, 61(2): 1-6. Lagler, K.F., Bardach, T.E. and Miller, R.R., 1962. Ichthyology. John wiley and sons. Inc. New York. 462 pp. Sokolowska, E. and Kulczykowska, E., 2006. Annual reproductive cycle in two free living populations of three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus acuileatus L.) Patterns of ovarian and testicular development Oceanologia., 48(1): 103-124. Tyler, C.R. and Sumpter, J.P., 1996. Oocyte growth and development in telecast. Review’s in fish Biology and Fisheries, 6: 287-318. Unver, B. and Saraydin, S., 2004. Histological examination of ovarian development of shemaya Chalcalburnus chatcoides living in lake Todiirge (Sivas/Turkey). Folia. Zool., 53(1): 99-106. West, G., 1990. Methods of assessing ovarian development in fishes: A Review Austrialia Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 41: 199-222. 134 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Species Composition of Birds in Mandalay University Campus Nu Nu Tun Abstract Mandalay University is located in the Mahaaungmyay Township, Mandalay. The campus is provided with old and new buildings, bushes, artificial small pond, small gardens, grass ground, and sparsely and densely distributed medium and tall trees. An investigation was made on the composition of bird species in the campus. A total of 41 species of birds represented with 36 species of terrestrial birds and five species of aquatic birds were recorded. Among the recorded bird species, two Myanmar endemic species of White-throated Babbler, Turdoides gularis and Burmese Bushlark, Mirafra microptera were included. Twelve species of birds are common residents of Mandalay University Campus because they were observed throughout the study period. Some species are local migrant occurring some months of the study period. Winter migrants such as Lanius cristatus (Brown Shrike), Motacilla alba (White Wagtail) and M. cinerea (Grey Wagtail) are also recorded during the months of October to February. This campus may be considered importance for inhabitance of bird because this area is composed with many micro habitat types and also located separately with neighbouring human settlement area. Key words : Species composition, birds, Mandalay University. pmwrf;tusOf; rEÅav;wuúodkvf y&0kPfBuD;onf rEÅav;NrdKUr[matmifajrNrdKU e,f twGif;wGifwnf½Sdygonf/iSufrsm;\ rsKd;pdwfrsm;tvdkufrwluJGjym; wnf½SdaeykH rsm;udk avhvmxm;ygonf/ iSufrsKd;pdwf pkpkaygif; 41 rsKd;udk rSwfwrf;wif EdkifcJhygonf/ ukef;aeiSuf 36 rsKd;ESifh a&aeiSuf5rsKd; wdkUudk yg0ifygonf/ 4if;wdkUxJwGif jrefrmEdkifiHwGifomawGU&aomiSufrsKd;pdwf(Myanmar endemic)(2)rsKd; yg0ifygonf/ apGUESifhjrefrmbDvkH; wdkUjzpf ygonf/4if;wdkU\awGU½SdrIt& xyfrH tqifhcJGípm&if;jyKpkcJhygonf/ 12rsKd;rSmtawGU&rsm;aom XmaeiSuf (Common resident) jzpfonf/ 31rsKd;aomiSufwdkUudka'owGif; ajymif;a½TU aexdkifaom rsKd;pdwf (Local migrant) tjzpfpm&if;jyKpkxm;Edkifygonf/aqmif;cdkiSuf (Winter vistor)rsm;tjzpf iSufbDvl;ESifhjrD§;anmifhjzL?NrD§;anmifhrJGwdkUudkvnf; awGU½Sd&yg onf/ þausmif;awmf BuD;twGif;wGif iSufwdkUtwGuf rwlnDaom aexkdif usufpm;p&mrsm;½SdNyD; vltrsm; aexdkif&mESifh oD;jcm;wnf½SdaeaomaMumifh jzpfygonf/ Assistant Lecturer, Zoology Department, Myingyan Degree College 135 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Introduction Birds are distributed over nearly the entire world. The ability to fly has enabled the birds to inhabitat virtually every area of the earth, from equator to the poles. Birds are good indicators for studying the biodiversity of a site. Because they are easily seen and not too difficult to indentify, count and estimate the population. So the data from different years can be comparable and more references are available on the identification and behaviour of birds (Chan and Kato, 2000). Myanmar is one of the richest biodiversity in Asia, with many endemic species and over 1,400 tree species, 7,000 plant species, 1,000 bird species, 250 mammal species and 400 species of reptiles and amphibians. Although the ecology of Myanmar, half covered by forests, relies largely on the rich forest and natural resources, the ongoing unsustainable forestry, mining, agricultural and fishing practices, is resulting in environmental degradation and direct biodiversity loss (BANCA, 2010). Mandalay is situated in the central Dry Zone of Myanmar. Mandalay University is located in Mahaaungmyay Township of Mandalay. It is one of the old University in Myanmar. The university was started as Mandalay College in 1925 under the Yangon University. Now, it stands as separate university and collaborated with many universities in the world. The university campus is located separately with the neighbouring human settlement area. The less disturbances, many bird species inhabited and enjoyed in the campus. Moreover, many microhabitat types available in the campus also attract the various kinds of bird species. This paper presents the composition and monthly distribution of bird species in the compound of Mandalay University. Materials and Methods Study area Mandalay University is situated in the Mahaaungmyay Township, Mandalay lies between 21º 57' 16.6" and 21º 57' 18.3" N and between 96º 5' 40.1" and 96º 5' 45.3" E. The elevation is 73.152 m. The total area of the campus is 1.0252 sq km. The area is provided with old and new buildings, open areas, bushes, artificial pond, small gardens, grass grounds, sparsely and densely distributed medium and tall trees (Fig. 1). 136 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 * Fig. 1. Mandalay University Campus (Source : Department of Geography, Mandalay) Study period The duration of the study period was from August 2009 through July 2010. 137 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Study design The data collection of bird observation was made using Point Count Method. Nine sampling points were allocated in Mandalay University Campus. Each sampling point was visited twice a month. All the birds seen or heard within 50 m distance were recorded within 10 minutes. The minimum distance between point counts was 200 m away. All counts were conducted during the first 3 hrs after sunrise. Birds were viewed using binoculars. The photos of birds were taken immediately after viewing. Identification of species Species idetification was made based on Smythies (1986), King and Dickinson (1995) and Robson (2007). Analysis of data The bird species of different sampling points for a particular month were pooled and made a list representing the species found during that month in the campus. Results Within one year survey, a total of 41 bird species representing 36 terrestrial birds and five water birds was recorded. The systematic position and monthly distribution of bird species in the campus is shown in Table 1. The different species with various activities of some recorded bird species are shown in Plate 1. The composition of different species in various orders is presented in Fig. 2. 138 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Table 1. List of recorded bird species and their seasonal occurrence in the Mandalay University Campus during November 2009 to October 2010 Common name/ 2009 2010 Order Family Scientific name Vernacular name N D J F M A M J J A S O Coppersmith Barbet 1. Piciformes 1. Megalaimidae 1.Megalaima haemacephala   -   -  -   - - (Nghat-pa-dain) Common Hoopoe 2. Coraciiformes 2. Upupidae 2. Upupa epops (Taung-pi-su/Bi- - -  - - -  - -  - - taung-po) / Indian Roller 3. Coradiidae 3. Coracias benghalensis - - -  -  ------(Hgnet-kha) / Green Bee-eater 4. Meropidae 4. Merops orientalis             (Nghat-pa-sin-htoe) Common Koel/Asian 3. Cuculiformes 5. Cuculidae 5. Eudynamys scolpacea - - - - -    - - - - Koel (Oa-au) Greater Coucal / / 6. Centropus sinensis ------ - - - - - (Boak) Great-eared Nightjar 4. Caprimulgifomes 6. Eurostopodidae 7. Eurostopodus macrotis -  ------(May-woud-hgnet) Spotted Owlet 5. Strigiformes 7. Strigidae 8. Athene brama  - - -  -  - - - - - (Ze-kwet) 6. Columbiformes 8. Columbidae 9. Columba livia Rock Pigeon (Kho)             Spotted Dove / / 10. Streptopelia chinensis             (Gyo-le-pyauk) 139 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Table 1. Continued Common name/ Vernacular 2009 2010 Order Family Scientific name name N D J F M A M J J A S O 7. Gruiformes 9. Rallidae *11. Amaurornis phoenicurus White-breasted Waterhen          - - - (Ka-lu-kwut/Ye-kyet-yin-phyu) 8. Pelicaniformes 10. Phalacrocoracidae *12. Phalacrocorax niger Little Cormorant  -     - - -  - - (Au-yaw/Tin-kyi) 9. Ciconiformes 11. Ardeidae *13. Egretta garzetta Little Egret  -  - - -  - -   - (Wai-tha-li-byain) / / *14. Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret (Kywe-  - -  - - -  - - - - kyaung-byaing) / / *15. Ardeola grayii Indian Pond Heron - - -  - -  - - - - - (Byain-auk) 10. Passeriformes 12. Laniidae 16. Lanius cristatus Brown Shrike (Nghat-ta-zat/Wa-     - -   - - - - yon-nghat) / 13. Corvidae 17. Copsychus saularis Oriental Magpie      -   - - - - robin (Tha-beik-lwe) / / 18. Corvus splendens House Crow             (Kye-kan) / / 19. C. macrorhynchos Large-billed Crow - - -   -  - - - - - (Taw-kye-kan) / / 20. Dicrurus acrocercus Black Drongo             (Lin-myei-swe/ Nghat-taw) / / 21. Aegithina tiphia Common Iora  -  -  -   - - - - (Shwe-pyi-soe) / 14. Muscicapidae 22. Saxicola torquata Common Stone Chat -  -  ------ 140 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Table 1. Continued Common name/ Vernacular 2009 2010 Order Family Scientific name name N D J F M A M J J A S O 10. Passeriformes 14. Muscicapidae 23. S. ferrea Gray Bushchat  ------ - / Pied Bushchat / 24. S. caprata   - -  ------(Nghat-kya) / Vinous-breasted Starling 15. Sturnidae 25. Sturnus armannicus             (Za-yet-gaung-phyu) / Common Myna / 26. Acridotheres tristis             (Za-yet) / / 27. A. grandis White-vented Myna         - - - - / Streak-eared Bulbul 16. Pycnonotidae 28. Pycnonotus blanfordi             (But-chwe/But-sa-mwe) / Red-vented Bulbul / 29. P. cafer             (But-phin-ni) / 17. Cisticolidae 30. Cisticola juncidis Zitting Cisticola - - - - -    - - - - / Plain Prinia 18. Sylviidae 31. Prinia inornata   -  -        (Nghat-let-ma) / / 32.Abrascopus supercilaris Yellow-bellied Warbler -  - - - -  - - - - - / Common Tailorbird 19. Alaudidae 33. Orthotomus sutorius   -   -  -  - - (Hna-pyi-soat) / White-throated Babbler 20. Nectariniidae 34. Turdoides gularis             (Swae) 141 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Table 1. Continued Common name/ Vernacular 2009 2010 Order Family Scientific name name N D J F M A M J J A S O Burmese Bushlark 10. Passeriformes 21. Passeridae 35. Mirafra microptera  -  -   ------(Be-lone) Purple Sunbird / / 36. Nectarinia asiatica    - - -   - - - - (Wut-yi-soat-nghat) House Sparrow / / 37. Passer domesticus             (Eim-sar) Tree Sparrow / / 38. P. monatus             (Eim-sar) White Wagtail (Myei- / / 39. Motacilla alba    ------ nyaunk-nghat-kya) / / 40. M. cinerea Grey Wagtail -  ------ Scaly Breasted Munia / / 41.Lonchura punctulata   -     -     (Sar-pyaut) 1 Total 30 23 27 26 24 21 29 21 17 15 19 8 * Aquatic birds 142 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 5% 8% Coraciiformes Columbiformes 2% 5% Cuculiformes 2% Caprimulgiformes 2% Strigiformes Piciformes 2% Gruiformes 64% 2% Pelicaniformes 8% Ciconiformes Passeriformes Fig. 2 The species composition in different orders Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 143 Megalaima haemacephala Upupa epops Coracias benghalensis Merops orientalis Eudynamys scolpacea Centropus sinensis Plate. 1 Recorded bird species 144 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Euroscotodus matrotis Athene brama Bubulcus ibis Lanius cristatus Dicrurus acrocercus Aegithina tiphia Plate. 1 Continued Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 145 Saxicola torquata Saxicola caprata Saxicola ferrea (Male) Saxicola ferrea (Female) Sturnus armannicus Acridotheres tristis Plate. 1 Continued 146 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Acridotheres grandis Pycnonotus blanfordi Prinia inornata Orthotomus sutorius Turdoides gularis Mirafra microptera Plate. 1 Continued Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 147 14 Nectarinia asiatica (Male) Nectarinia asiatica (Female) Passer domesticus Passer monatus Motacilla alba Motacilla cinerea Plate. 1 Continued 14815 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Discussion and Conclusion The campus is well inhabited by a large number of terrestrial birds and a small number of water birds. It is composed with many micro habitat types. The highest number of species was occurred in order Passeriformes (26 species), followed by Coraciiformes and Ciconiformes (thre species each) and Columbiformes and Cuculiformes (two species each), and Caprimulgiformes, Strigiformes, Piciformes, Gruiformes and Pelicaniformes (one species each). The number of bird species was found the highest during the month of November (30 species), followed by May (29 species), January (27 species), February (26 species), March (24 species), and December (23 species). In the case of the lowest number of species occurred in the campus, September revealed to be the lowest occurrence 15 species, followed by July with 17 species, August with 18 species, October with 19 species and April and June with 21 species each. Regarding with the seasonal occurrence of bird species, the number of species were the highest in cold season as flowering and fruiting of the plants occur more during this season. Fruits and flowers are food sources of fruitgivores and nectarivores. Some insect species that feed on fruits and flowers can also attract the species of insectivorous birds. In the study period, winter migrant such as Lanius cristatus (Brown Shrike), Motacilla alba (White Wagtail) and M. cinerea (Grey Wagtail) were recorded. These birds were observed between November and February. Some bird species such as Green Bee-eater, Rock Pigeon, Spotted Dove, House Crow, Black Drongo, Vinous-breasted Starling, Common Myna, Streak-eared Bulbul, Red-vented Bulbul, White-throated Babbler, House Sparrow and Tree Sparrow are common resident species in the campus because they were observed every month throughout the study period. In conclusion, the results of the study revealed that this area is very important for bird conservation, because a great number of bird species, including Myanmar endemic bird species of Turdoides gularis (White-throated Babbler) and Mirafra microptera well occupied in the available microhabitat of campus. Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 149 16 Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge our gratitude to Dr Htun Hlaing, Principal, Myingyan Degree College, for his permission to submit this research. I would like to express our gratitude to Dr San San, Professor and Head, Department of Zoology, Myingyan Degree College, for her permission to conduct this research and guidance, advice and encouragement. References BANCA, 2010.Biodiversity and nature conservotion association of Myanamr environmental Project. Available fromwww.banca (Accessed 5 May 2011) Chan, S. and Kato, K., 2000.Training course on wildlife studies in wetland at the Moyingyi Wetland and Wildlife Sanctuary. Wild Bird Society of Japan.Forest Department Ministry of Forestry Union of Myanmar. King, B.E. and Dickinson,D.E.C., 1995. A field guide to the birds of South East Asia.Japan, Collin, London Robson, 2007.New Holland field guide to the birds of Southeast Asia.New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd. London. Smythies, B.E., 1953. The birds of Burma. Oliver and Boyd Ltd. Edinburgh, London. 150 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 TAXONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCULENT XEROPHYES IN MYINGYAN TOWNSHIP Khin Hnin Yee1& Soe Myint Aye2 Abstract The succulent xerophytes from Myingyan Township were collected, identified and studied. According to the studies in the years from 2016 to 2017, 10 species from 6 genera of 4 families were found in this studied area. The resulting species are Caralluma fimbriata Wall., Caralluma umbellata Haw., Cereus peruvianus Mill., Cissus quadrangularis L., Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Haworth, Opuntia elatier Mill., Euphorbia antiquorum L., Euphorbia neriifolia L., Sarcostemma breviistigma Wight & Arn. and Sarcostemma brunonianum Wight & Arn. ex Wight. Although the studied area is mostly covered by cultivated lands, many wild succulent xerophutic species are found along the road-sides. The detailed taxonomic characters of the studied species are presented with relevant photographs. Introduction The present research deals with the taxonomic study on the succulent xerophytes of Myingyan Township which is located in Myingyan District of Mandalay Region, part of the central dry zone of Myanmar. Myingyan Township constitudes 66 village Tracts and 186 villages. It lies between latitudes 21 30’ and 21 46’ N and longitudes 95 14’ 30” and 95 36’ 30” E, total area is 374.287 square miles. The Ayeyawady River is flowing across Myingyan Township. The area of Myingyan Township situated as the part of Dry belt and therefore xerophytic plants are densely growing in many parts of area. A succulent is a term that describes plants which have developed the ability to store water in their tissues, to be used during conditions of water scarcity. It is no doubt that succulents are more common in regions that are hot, arid, or dry, but they may also be found in forests and wet areas, hills and high altitude regions, and even in cold environment. The genus Euphorbia includes species that are diverse in their habits. Some are stem succulents, some are shrubs, while several species are trees. Many of the Euphorbia species have spines, resembling Family Cactaceae at a first glance. Not all of them are thorny, however and among the genus Euphorbia, there are several species that do not sport spines at all. Members of this family contain within their stems milky sap which may be latex irirritating toxins whose chemical composition, depending on the species could be diterpene esters, alkaloids, glycosides, and ricin-type protein toxins. The succulent plants mostly belong to families Apocynaceae, Cacatceae and Euphorbiaceae. Albert and Meve as cited in Eggli (2002) stated that stem are succulents, with watery or milky sap. Leaves sometimes much reduced, absent or spinescent in Asclepiadaceae (present days treaed as under Apocynaceae). Huntas cited in Eggli (2002) stated that Cactceae is a highly distinct family and clearly differentiated from other cactoid plants, such as the succulent-semmed Euphorbiacae and Asclepiadaceae, by the modification of the axillary buds into aeroles with persistent indumentum trichomes. The floral structure of cacti is also highly distinctive. According 1Professor and Head, Department of Botany, Myingyan Degree College 2 Professor, Department of Botany, Univesity of Mandalay Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 151 to Carteras cited in Eggli (2002), the succulent plants of Euphorbiaceae were dioecious or monoecious shrubs or trees, sometimes with milky latex or coloured sap; stem and branches smooth or sometimes succulent, unarmed or sometimes spiny. Some succulents have a unique capacity to shift their photosynthetic mode between the C3 type and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM), depending on environment and age. CAM has been shown to be affected by salt treatment, water stress photoperiod, temperature fluctuations between hot days and cool nights, stage of maturity, and flowering (Koch and Keneddy, 1980) Eggli and Nyffeler (2009) stated that for centuries, plants with pronounced succulence have piqued the interest of botanists and plant collectors the world over with their bizarre and unusual forms. More than just botanical oddities, however, the strange morphologies of highly succulent plants underlie their specialization to environmentally stressful conditions. Pagel (1994) also described that the strong morphological and ecophysiological convergence among many disparate lineages with succulent tissues provides researchers with unparalleled evolutionary replication of the adaptive experiment. An examination of succulence thus presents an excellent opportunity to identify adaptive links between morphology, physiology, and ecology (Ogburn and Edwards (2010). The aims and objectives of this present research are to study the distinct characteristics of the species, to get the record of succulent xerophytes of Myingyan Township, and to get the valuable information for using in various advance researches. Materials and Methods The plant samples were collected in Myingyan Township during the months of December 2016 to August 2017. The methods of specimens collection were followed to plant collection and herbarium technique of Lawrence (1969). The identification of the collected species was based on taxonomic key, checking on description and comparison with images and illustrations based on reference of Hooker (1879), Dassanayake (1980-2001), Backer and Brick (1963). The valid names and synonyms were based on online database of IPNI (International Plant Name Index) and TROPICOS(Garden’s Botanical Information System by Missouri Botanical Garden). Results 1. Caralluma fimbriata Wall., Pl. As. Rar. 1: 7. 1829. (Figure 1.A) Local Name : Tazaung-ga Family : Apocynaceae Succulent herbs; stem ascending and rooting at the base, obtusely quadrangular, slightly bitter in taste, with the ribs broadly rounded and the sides very faintly sulcate; without prominent teeth; teeth reduced to small tubercles less than 1 mm high, 5-10 mm apart from each other, greenish-green. Leaves subulate. Flowers axillary and solitary, bisexual, actinomorphic, cyclic, pentamerous, hypogynous, ebracteate, pedicellate; pedicels slender, slightly nodding.Calyx widely campanulate, deeply 5- partite, the lobes lanceolate. Corolla campanulate, purple-brown in colour; lobes lanceolate, much longer than the united portion, reduplicate, glabrous within and without, but densely ciliate with long, purple bristles in the upper half of the margin (fimbriate). Corona staminal, slightly exserted above the tube, slightly exserted above the tube. Stamens 5; anthers retuse, dithecous, adhering to the stigma and forming a gynostegium; 152 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 pollen-masses solitary in each anther-loculus, ascending, with a pellucid margin (pollinia). Ovaries 2, free, superior, bicarpellary, syncarpous, bilocular with numerous ovules on the axile placentae; styles 2, free, very short; stigma 5-angled. Follicles in pair, linear-lanceolate. Seeds endospermic, numerous, ovate, with thin membranous wings, comose. Flowering from March to August. Specimen examined: Myingyan Township, Thein-ywa, along the roadside; 7th March 2016; Khin Hnin Yee Collected no.5 2.Caralluma umbellata Haw., Syn. Pl. Succ. 47. 1812. (Figure 1.B) Boucerosia umbellata Wight & Arn., Contrib. Bot. Ind. 34. 1834. B. campanulata Wight, Ic. 4. t. 1287. 1840. Local Name : Tazaung-gyin Family : Apocynaceae Perennial, succulent herbs, with watery sap; stem much-branched at the base, prostrate, distinctly 4-angled, sour in taste; angles slightly thick and obtuse, shallowly canaliculate between the wings, dentate at the node. Leaves simple, alternate, much reduce, fleshy, caducous, sessile. Inflorescences terminal, umbelliform cymes with 6 to 10 flowers. Flowers purplish, bisexual, actinomorphic, hypogynous, pentamerous, bracteate, pedicellate; bracts spathulate, thick and fleshy; pedicels 1.0 to 1.5 cm long. Calyx pale grennish-yellow, widely campanulate, deeply 5-partite; lobes narrowly ovate- lanceolate, thick and fleshy. Corolla pale yellowish-green with many purplish transverse bands, 5-lobed, rotate; tube widened; lobes broadly ovate, acute at the tip, glabrous. Corona staminal, inserted at the base of corolla-tube, adnate to the columns, coronal scales 5, purple, subulate, each with 2 short appendages, inflexed over the anthers. Stamens 5, included; column short; anthers yellow, dithecous, adhering to the stigma and forming a gynostegium. Pollinia yellow, ovoid; translators large, short; corpusculums orange or red, subcylindric. Ovaries 2, superior, free, conical, bicarpellary, syncarpous, bilocular with numerous ovules in each locule on the axile placentae; styles 2, free, very short, with a common stigma; stigma 5-angled, depressed. Fruits narrowly fusiform, glabrous, folicles of a pair spreading at acute to right angles. Flowering from September to December. Specimens examined: Myingyan Township, Thein-ywa, along the roadside; 6th December 2016; Khin Hnin Yee Collected no.6 3. Cereus peruvianus Mill.,Gard. Dict. 8. 4. 1768. (Figure 1.C) C. curvispinus Pfeiff., Enum. Diagn.Cact. 89. 1837. Local Name: Shazaung-pyat-that Family: Cactaceae Perennial, succulent, robust and arborescent shrubs. Stem much-branched, terete at the base, glabrous, the upper portions 4- to 6-winged, glaucous, green. Areoles brown, with long silvery hairs and brown spines. Spines 6 to15 per areoles, needle-like, straight. Leaves reduced. Flowers solitary, white, bisexual, actinomorphic, epigynous, sessile. Perianthtubular-infundibuliform; tube pale green, widen above; lobes numerous, the outer ones linear-lanceolate, the inner ones ovate, fleshy, acute at the apex, entire along the margin. Stamens numerous, free, spiral, adnate to the perianth-tube; filaments filiform; anthers dithecous, basifixed, dehiscing longitudinally, oblongoid. Ovary inferior, carpels 10 to 15, syncarpous, unilocular with many ovules on the parietal placentae, ovoid, immersed in the base of the perianth-tube; style 8-13 cm long; stigma 10- to 15- Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 153 fid. Fruits simple, indehiscent, baccate, oblongoid, many-seeded with white pulp. Seeds non-endospermic, ovoid, black, tuberculate. Flowering from June to October. Specimen examined: Myingyan Township, Ywa-si area, along the roadside; 8th June 2017; Khin Hnin Yee Collected no.7 4. Cissus quadrangularis L., Mant. 1. 39. 1767. (Figure 1.D) Vitisquadrangularis (L.)Wall., Cat. 5992. 1830. Local Name: Sha-zaung-let-set Family : Vitaceae Perennial, herbaceous, tendrillar-climbing vines; stem succulent, quadrangular, with constricted nodes, glabrous; internodes 6-14 cm long. Tendrils simple, stout, with scales at the middle, glabrous. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate, petiolate; stipules paired, scaly, ovate or ovate-orbicular, deciduous; petioles stout, glabrous, shallowly canaliculate above; blades cordate-ovate or reniform, often 3 to 5 lobed, slightly fleshy, glabrous on both surfaces; cordate at the base, crenate-serrate along the margin, subobtuse at the apex. Inflorescences leaf-opposed, compound umbels of cymes; primary peduncles stout, glabrous, erect or erecto-patent; secondary peduncles spreading, glabrous, each bearing 6 to 13 flowers. Flowers red, bisexual, actinomorphic, tetramerous, hypogynous, bracteate, pedicellate; bracts ovate, caducous, glabrous; pedicels usually stout, curved, glabrous. Calyx short, cup-shaped, obscurely 4-lobed or apparently truncate, glabrous. Petals 4, coherent in bud, ovate-elliptic, glabrous on both surfaces. Stamens 4, free, antipetalous, included; filaments about 2.2 mm long; anthers ovoid, yellow, dithecous, latrorse, dorsifixed, dehiscing longitudinally. Disc short, 4- lobed. Ovary superior, bicarpellary, syncarpous, bilocular with 2 basal ovules in each locule on the axile placentae, ovoid, surrounded by a distinct disc; style conic; stigma minute. Fruits baccate, globose. Seeds endospermic, globosely pyriform. Flowering from June to October. Specimen examined: Myingyan Township, Gyoke-pin village area, along the roadside; 8th June 2017; Khin Hnin Yee Collected no.8 5.Euphorbia antiquorum L., Sp. Pl. 1. 450. 1753. (Figure 1.E) E. trigona Mill.,Gard, Dict. 8. 3. 1768. E. arborescens Roxb., Hort. Beng. 36. 1814. Tithymalus antiquorum Mounch, Meth. 665. 1794. Local Name : Tazaung-gyi; Tazaung-pyathat Family : Euphorbiaceae Perennial, succulent, xerophytic, monoecious, under shrubs to small trees, milk-juicy; stem terete and woody at the base, the upper portion much-branched; branches acutely triangular, with constricted nodes, articulate, green. Leaves early deciduous and stipulate, sessile; stipules paired, spinous, black. Inflorescences terminal or axillary, cyathia per cyme along the wings, subtended by 2 yellowish-green scaly bracts at the base of involucres, the central cyathium staminate only, sessile, dark yellow, the lateral cyathia both staminate and pistillate, shortly peduncled, pale yellow. Involucre campanulate, 5-lobed, apically bearing 5 nectary glands; lobes ovate, pale yellow; glands yellow.Flowers unisexual, actinomorphic, apetalous. Staminate flowers numerous, 5- grouped, small, with articulate pedicels, surrounding a single pistillate flower, subtended by minute bracts; pedicels 0.5-0.8 mm long, elevated with one stamen, pale green; filaments red; anthers ovoid, orange or yellow, dithecous, extrorse, basifixed, dehiscing 154 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 longitudinally. Pistillate flower solitary, central, sessile, naked. Ovary superior, on a short stipe, trilocular with one pendulous ovule in each locule on the axile placentae; styles 3, basally connate; stigmas 3, each bifid. Fruits schizocarpic with three 2-valved cocci, subglobose, 1-seeded in each coccus. Seeds endospermic, ovoid-trigonous, brown. Flowering from October to January. Specimen examined: Myingyan Township, Myingyan Degree College Campus; 7th January 2016; Khin Hnin Yee Collected no.1 6. Euphorbia neriifolia L., Sp. Pl. 4: 451. 1753. (Figure 1.F) E. ligularia Roxb., Fl. Ind. 2. 465. 1832. Local name : Shazaung-myin-na Family : Euphorbiaceae Perennial, xerophytic, monoecious shrubs or small trees, succulent with milky juice; stem woody at the base; branches jointed, pentangular with vertical tubercles along the wings; tubercles not more than 3 mm thick, 3.0-4.5 cm apart from each other. Leaves simple, alternate or spirally arranged, fleshy, stipulate, sessile; stipules spinous, paired, arising from the tubercle, sharply pointed, straight or slightly recurved, persistent; blades obovate-oblong, fleshy, cuneate and oblique at the base, entire along the margin, acute or mucronate at the apex. Inflorescences terminal or axillary cyathia, combined into corymbose dichasia, 3 cyathia per cyme, subtended by 2 yellowish-green scaly bracts at the base of involucre, the central cyathium staminate only sessile, the lateral cyathiaboth staminate and pistillate, shortly peduncled. Involucre campanulate, 5-lobed, apically bearing 5 nectary glands; lobes pale green, ovate, entire or slightly toothed at the margin, fimbriate and obtuse at the apex; glands transversely oblong, reddish-brown, flattened at the upper surface. Flowers unisexual with a minute scaly bract, apetalous. Staminate flowers numerous, with articulate pedicels, surrounding a single pistillate flower, subtended by minute bracts; filaments about 1 mm long; anthers ovoid, dithecous, extrorse, basifixed, dehiscing longitudinally. Pistillate flower solitary, central, naked. Ovary superior, tricarpellary, syncarpous, trilocular with one pendulous ovule in each locule on the axile placentae, globose, on a short stipe; styles 1.3-1.5 mm long; stigmas 3- lobed.Fruits simple, schizocarpic with three 2-valved cocci, 1-seeded in each coccus.Seeds endospermic, ovoid-trigonous, ecarunculate. Flowering from January to March. Specimens examined: Myingyan Township, Gyoke-pin village area, along the roadside; 10th January 2016; Khin Hnin Yee Collected no.2. 7. Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Haworth, Suppl. Pl. Succ. 79. 1819. (Figure 2.A) Cactus dillenii Ker-Gawl., Bot. Reg. 3, t-255. 1818. Opuntia roxburghiana Voigh, Hort. Suburb. Calc. 62. 1845. Local Name : Kyasha; Shazaung-letwa Family : Cactaceae Succulent perennial shrubs, with flattened stem-segments. Stem-segments broadly oblong, ovate or suborbicular, glaucous; aeroles raised, densely elongate-bristly, glochidiate. Spines 2 to 5 per areole, often curved. Leaves usually present only in rainy season, deciduous and absent in other seasons, green and scale-like, exstipulate. Flowers solitary, bright yellow, bisexual, actinomorphic, acyclic, epigynous, sessile. Receptacle cupulate terminated by numerous tepals,green, bearing pale brown spines and fleshy red scales. Tepals many, free, outer ones bright yellow with a purple medium band, ovate, the inner ones bright yellow, ovate-oblong, obtuse at the base, entire or slightly toothed Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 155 along the margin, bilobed at the apex. Stamens long numerous, free, spirally arranged, adnate to the rim of the receptacle, inserted; filaments filiform, pale yellow; anthers yellow, dithecous, introrse, basifixed, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary inferior, carpels 5 to 7, syncarpous, unilocular with many ovules on the parietal placentae, oblongoid, fleshy, immersed within the receptacle, style about 1.8 cm long, white; stigma 5- to 7- branched, linear, pale yellow. Fruits simple, indehiscent, baccate, obovoid, purplish when ripe, the few areoles with glochidia. Seeds non-endospermic, ovate, white, slightly compressed. Flowering from August to October. Specimen examined: Myingyan Township, Ywa-si village area, along the roadside; 16th August 2017; Khin Hnin Yee, Collected no.9 8. Opuntia elatier Mill., Gard. Dict. 8. 4. 1768. (Figure 2.B). Local Name : Kya-sha. Family : Cactaceae Succulent perennial shrubs with flattened stem-segments. Stem-segments ovate-oblong or clavate, glaucous; areoles with many glochidia; glochidia white, straight, thin. Leaves usually present only in rainy season, deciduous and absent in other seasons, green and scale-like, exstipulate. Flowers solitary, bright red, bisexual, actinomorphic, acyclic, epigynous, sessile. Receptacle cupulate, terminated by numerous tepals, green, bearing glochidia.Tepals many, free, outer ones red, actutely ovate, thick, fleshy, inner ones red, spathulate or clavate, entire or slightly toothed along the margin, membranous. Stamens numerous, free, spirally arranged, adnate to the rim of the receptacle, exserted; filaments filiform, purplish-red, but white at the apex; anthers yellowish brown, dithecous, extrorse, basifixed, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary inferior, carpels 6 to 8, syncarpous, unilocular with many ovules on the parietal placentae, obovoid, immersed within the receptacle, fleshy; stye purplish-red, swollen at the base; stigma 6- to 8- branched, linear, yellowish brown. Fruits simple, indehiscent, baccate, ovoid-oblong, red when ripe. Seeds non-endospermic, ovate, white, slightly compressed, embedded in the white pulp. Flowering from August to February. Specimen examined: Myingyan Township, Taloke-myo village area, along the roadside; 18th September 2017; Khin Hnin Yee, Collected no. 10 9. Sarcostemma breviistigma Wight &Arn. in Wight, Contrib. 59. 1834. (Figure 2.C) Asclepias acida Roxb., Hort. Beng. 20. 1814. Sarcostemma acidum K. Schum., Engl. & Prantl. Natural Pffanzenfan. 4. 2. 256. 1895. Local Name : Shazaung-let-nyo Family : Apocynaceae Perennial twining veins, with milky juice, woody at the base; stem and branches terete, succulent, glabrous; internodes 1-12 cm long. Leaflets or the leaves reduced to minute, deciduous scales. Inflorescences umbels, 17- to 20-flowered, subsessile; peduncle clavate or globose. Flowers greenish yellow, bisexual, actinomorphic, hypogynous, pentamerous, fragrant; bracts minute, caducous; pedicels about 4 mm long, sparsely puberulous. Calyx campanulate, deeply 5-partite, fleshy; lobes ovate, puberulous without and glabrous within. Corolla campanulate-rotate, 5-lobed, greenish yellow, rigid, glabrous; lobes oblong, slightly contorted in bud. Corona in two 156 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 series, the outer 10-lobed annulus arising from the base of staminal column, the inner of 5-ovoid segments attached to the staminal column. Stamens 5, free; filaments short; anthers dithecous, adhering to the stigma and forming a gynostegium. Pollens agglutinated into pollina. Ovaries 2, superior, free, bilocular with numerous ovules in each locule on the axile placentae; styles 2, with a common discoid stigma. Follicles in pairs, ellipsoid.Seeds numerous, endospermic, comose. Flowering from January to March. Specimen examined:Myingyan Township, Thein-ywa, along the roadside; 8th January 2016; Khin Hnin Yee, Collected no.3 10. Sarcostemma brunonianum Wight & Arn. ex Wight, Contr. Bot. India 59. 1834. (Figure 2.D) S.viminaleMoon, Cat. 20. 1824. Local Name : Shazaung-let-nyo Family : Apocynaceae Perennial twining vines, with milky juice, woody at the base; stem and branches terete, succulent, glabrous; internodes 2-11 cm long. Leafless or the leaves reduced to minute deciduous scales. Inflorescences umbels, 6- to 10-flowered, subsessile; pedunclesclavate. Flowers pale yellow, 6.0-7.5 mm in diameter at anthesis, bisexual, actinomorphic, hypogynous, pentamerous, bracteate, pedicellate; bracts minute, caducous; pedicels about 3.5 mm long. Calyx campanulate; lobes ovate, puberulous. Corolla campanulate-rotate, 5-lobed, pale yellow ,submembranous; tubes very short; lobes oblong, membranous, glabrous on both surfaces, with reflexed margins, acute at the apex, slightly incurved. Corona staminal, adnate to the base of filament, fleshy; coronal scales double, the outer ones annular, 10-lobed, the inner ones 5-lobed. Stamens 5, free, adnate to the base of corolla-tube; filaments short; anthers dithecous, adhering to the stigma and forming a gynostegium. Pollens agglutinated into pollinia. Ovaries 2, superior, free, bicarpellary, syncarpous, bilocular with numerous ovules in each locule on the axile placentae; style 2, with a common discoid stigma. Follicles in pairs, ellipsoid.Seeds endospermic, numerous, comose. Flowering from January to March. Specimen examined: Myingyan Township, Thein-ywa, along the roadside; 7th February 2016; Khin Hnin Yee Collected no.4 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 157 A B C D E F Figure 1.A.Caralluma fimbriata Wall. B. Caralluma umbellata Haw. C. Cereus peruvianus Mill. D.Cissus quadrangularis L. E. Euphorbia antiquorum L. F. Euphorbia neriifolia L. 158 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 A B C D D Figure 2.A. Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawl.)Haworth B. Opuntia elatier Mill. C. Sarcostemma breviistigma Wight & Arn D. Sarcostemma brunonianum Wight & Arn. ex Wight Discussion and Conclusion CEA The present research deals with the taxonomic characteristics of succulent xerophytes in Myingyan Township. The distributing species are Caralluma fimbriata Wall., Caralluma umbellata Haw., Cereus peruvianus Mill.,Cissus quadrangularis L., Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Haworth, Opuntia elatier Mill., Euphorbia antiquorum L., Euphorbia neriifolia L., Sarcostemma breviistigma Wight & Arn. And Sarcostemma brunonianum Wight & Arn. ex Wight. Caralluma fimbriata Wall., Caralluma umbellata Haw. Sarcostemma breviistigma Wight & Arn. And Sarcostemma brunonianum Wight &Arn. ex Wight are member of the Apocynaceae, formally these species were treated as under Asclepiadaceae and recently accepted as under subfamily Asclepianoideae of family Apocynaceae. Cereus peruvianus Mill., Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Haworth and Opuntia elatier Mill. C D Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 159 are members of Cactaceae while Euphorbia antiquorum L. and Euphorbia neriifolia L. are menbers of Euphorbiaceae. Morphologically, the stems are succulent and can store the large amount of water and possessing the thick cuticle and waxy surfaces for the protection of water loss due to transpiration. According to the present finding, the inflorescences are found as solitary flower in Caralluma fimbriata Wall., Cereus peruvianus Mill., Opuntia dillenii (Ker- Gawl.) Haworth, Opuntia elatier Mill.; umbelliform cyme in Caralluma umbellata Wall., Sarcostemma breviistigma Wight & Arn. Sarcostemma brunonianum Wight & Arn. ex Wight. and Cissus quadrangularis L.; cyathium in Euphorbia antiquorum L. and Euphorbia neriifolia L. Among the study species , the fruits of Caralluma fimbriata Wall., Caralluma umbellata Haw., Sarcostemma breviistigma Wight & Arn. and Sarcostemma brunonianum Wight & Arn. ex Wight. are follicles, those of Euphorbia antiquorum L. and Euphorbia neriifolia L. Are schizocarpic and those of the rest species are baccate. The pollinia formation of the pollens are found only in members of Apocynaceae, such as Caralluma fimbriata Wall., Caralluma umbellata Haw., Sarcostemma breviistigma Wight & Arn. and Sarcostemma brunonianum Wight & Arn. ex Wight. The staminate flowers and pistillate flowers of Euphorbia genus are naked and represented by stamens or pistil, together forming a cyathium inflorescence, those of Cereus peruvianus Mill., Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Haworth, Opuntia elatier Mill. cannot be differentiated into calyx and corolla and those of rest species possessing calyx and corolla. Judd et al. (2002) stated that morphological characters are features of external form or appearance. They currently provide the characters used for practical plant identification and some of those used for hypothesizing phylogenetic relationships. These features have been used for a longer time than anatomical or molecular evidence, and they were the only source of taxonomic evidence in the beginning of plant systematics. Morphological characters are easily observed and found practical use in keys and descriptions. Therefore, the present results help to identify the resourced species of succulent xerophytes. Rowley (1997) stated that while succulence is commonly and intuitively defined on a morphological basis, a less prominent, though important, viewpoint treats it as primarily an ecophysiological phenomenon. In this view, succulence is seen in terms of its effect on the plant’s ability to function and survive in its particular habitat, most prominently as a component of water-use strategy. Although even some of the earliest attempts to define succulence recognised the ability of these plants to withstand desiccation, only relatively recently has research begun to identify the ecophysiological traits associated with a succulent morphology. Ogburn and Edwards (2010) also mentioned that this functional perspective has provided two important, and seemingly contradictory, observations: while there is great morphological and phylogenetic diversity among highly succulent plants, there is also often broad convergence in water-use strategies among morphologically dissimilar taxa; at the same time, many succulent taxa that may look very similar morphologically in fact make their living in extremely different ways. Therefore, wide adoption of a quantitative measure of succulence will surely facilitate a deeper understanding of the evolutionary dynamics of this trait, and its complex and varied relationships to other aspects of organismal structure and function. 160 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 According to the present investigation succulent xerophytes are distributed as wild in open fields and cultivated as hedge plants in dry zone area. The morphological characteristics of succulent xerophytes are interested for its green succulent stem, covering by thick cuticles or skin, presence of latex or spines. The reproductive morphology is very useful for taxonomic identification of the species. It is sincerely hoped that the present knowledge can support valuable information for the identification of the xerophytes in Myingyan Township. Acknowledgements We would like to express our sincere thank to Dr. Htun Hlaing, Principle of Myingyan Degree College, for his encouragement to do this research topic and support the necessary facilities in various ways. References Backer. C.A. &. R.C. Bakhuizen Van Den Brick, 1963. Flora of Java.Vol. 1 & 2. Rijksherbarium, Leyden, N.V.P. Noordhoof. Dassanayake, M.D., 1980-2001. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon, Vol 1 to 14. University of Peradeniya, Department of Agriculture, Peradenya, Sri Lanka. Eggli, Dr. Urs. 2002. Illustrated Handbook of Succulent Plants: Dicotyledons. Spinger-Verlag Berlin. ISBN 3-540-41966-7. Eggli, U. and Nyffeler, R. (2009). Living under temporarily arid conditions: Succulence as an adaptive strategy. Bradleya 27, 13–36. Hooker, J.D., 1879. The Flora of British India, Vol.1-7, L. Reeve & Co, 5 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London. Lawrence, George H.M., 1969. Taxonomy of Vascular plants. The Macmillan Company. New York. Ogburn, R.M. & A.E.J. Edwards, 2010. The Ecological Water-Use Strategies of Succulent Plants. Botanical Research, Vol. 55, Burlington: Academic Press, 2010, pp. 179- 225. ISBN: 978-0-12-380868-4 Pagel, M. D. (1994). The adaptationist wager. In ‘‘Phylogenetics and Ecology’’, (P. Eggleton and R. I. Vane-Wright, eds.). Academic Press, London. Rowley, G. D. (1997). A History of Succulent Plants.Strawberry Press, Mill Valley, CA. IPNI. International Plant Name Index.www.ipni.org.online data base TROPICOS. Garden’s Botanical Information System. www.Tropicos.org. online database Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 161 Effect of Spirulina suspension on Physiological Parameters of Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Win Mar1 Abstract The effects of Spirulina suspension on physiological parameters of Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. (Pe lun phyu or Cowpea) were studied. The seeds of cowpea were grown with 1gl- 1 and 2gl-1 of Spirulina suspension at Kengtung University Campus. The physiological parameters of cowpea were also highest in 2gl-1. Key words: Spirulina, biofertilizer, Vigna unguiculata, physiological parameter Introduction Myanmar is a developing country whose economy is mainly based on agricultural product. Myanmar has various kinds of ecosystem including delta to hilly and tropical to temperate regions. At present, Myanmar is a leading country of pulses production among ASEAN countries and exported 866 thousand metric tons in 2007. The major exportable pulses are black gram, green gram, soybean and cowpea. Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. (Cowpea) can adapt many kinds of regions in our country. Cowpea is one of the major export legume crops in Myanmar and it is used both for local consumption and export. It covered about 4.5℅ of the total sown area of pulses ( OAI 2010). oreover the rapid growth population of global population, there is a need to supply enough food for the growing population. Pulses are of major importance as protein-rich foods. Cowpea is often grown as a green manure for soil improvement. It can tolerate drought and therefore is an important crop of dry areas. It is very susceptible to water-logging and is not suitable for heavy rainfall areas. Cowpea can be grown in rotation with many crops. In the northeast region of Thailand, villagers have a limited supply of the foods required for a nutritionally balanced diet, namely meat or fish, fruit and vegetables. Protein energy malnutrition is widespread among the populace and legumes could provide a good source of cheap, high-quality protein (Rathore 1999). However, the growth of a plant depends on a sufficient supply of each nutrient and the yield is limited by the nutrients. These nutrients have to be applied in the form of mineral fertilizers in order to obtain satisfactory yields. Fertilizer is one of the most important factors which contributes to increase productivity and sustainable agriculture. To obtain high yields, fertilizer is needed to supply the crops with the soil lacking nutrients. Microalgae produces plant hormones, or demonstrate plant hormone-like activity. Dense suspension or extracts of microalgae contain an assembly of beneficial compounds that can be used senescence and 1 Lecturer, Dr., Department of Botany, Myingyan Degree College 162 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 transpiration; increase of germination rate of seeds; increase of pod set, leaf chlorophyll content and seed protein content; enhancement of the root and shoot development (Toth 2011). Blue green algae, Spirulina can be regarded as a high quality complementary protein of vegetable origin as it contains about 60% protein with 18 kinds of amino acids including all essential amino acids. It is also a comparatively rich natural source of beta carotene (pro-vitamin A), vitamin B12, calcium, potassium, phosphorous, iron and gamma linolenic acid. Thus, Spirulina from Myanmar can also be used as a nutritional supplement or health food as produced and marketed in some countries (Min Thein 1987). The aim of this study is to analyze the effect of different concentration of Spirulina suspension on physiological parameters. Materials and Methods The plot experiment was conducted at Kengtung University Campus during July to October 2010. The seeds of cowpea were obtained from Department of Agricultural Research, Yezin Pyinmana. The Spirulina platensis biomass used in this study were obtained from Myanmar Pharmaceutical Factory (M.P.F). The land uses for the experimental study is virgin upland. The wild grasses were cut and the land was ploughed to clear the root-stocks and to clean the land a week before the experiment was started. Randomized Complete Blocks Design (RCBD) was used with five replications. Each plot was 1.5 m x 3 m in size. The land was prepared and experimental plot consist of six rows per plot and 21 plants per row with a spacing of 0.3 m between adjacent rows and 0.15 m between adjacent plants. The outermost rows were bordered, the second inner rows were sampled and the two innermost rows were harvested. The total experimental area was 321.36 m2 including platform. In this experiment, some seeds of cowpea were soaked in water as control. Other seeds of cowpea were presoaked in different concentrations (1 gl-1 and 2 gl-1) of Spirulina suspension as treatment 1 (T1) and treatment 2 (T2) for 5 hours. Then, the seeds were sown by hand in rows the using 3 seeds per hole with a uniform depth of 3 cm according to the different treatments -1 -1 i.e., C (control), T1 (1 gl ) and T2 (2 gl ). At 14 DAS, plants were thinned to one plant per stand. Data Collection The plants from middle row were used for sampling. Plants sampling were started from three weeks after sowing. The plants were collected at intervals of two weeks taking three consecutive plants from one row of each plot randomly. The collection was made only from four rows between the two border rows. Then all the soil from the roots were gently washed in a bucket filled with water. Care was taken to minimize loss of root parts. Plants from each treatment was placed in fully labeled plastic bags and taken to the laboratory without delay to minimize loss of weight through respiration and transpiration. Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 163 Physiological Parameters To determine the leaf area, the length and the breath of each expanded lamina were measured and then multiplied by an adjustment factor 0.65. Following physiological characters were calculated by using the given formulae; (1) Leaf area = K (L × W) (Manian and Balarkishan as cited in Field Crop Production Group-3 1999) L = length, W = width, K = adjustment factor (K value of pulses = 0.65) (2) Leaf Area Index (LAI) Leaf area index is defined as leaf area per unit area of land. LAI is the functional size of the crop standing on the land area P (Hunt 1978). L LAI = A P Where, LA = Total leaf area, P = Ground area (3) Net Assimilation Rate (NAR) NAR expresses a plant's capacity to increases dry weight in terms of the area of its assimilatory surface. The term represents photosynthetic efficiency in the overall sense, and in conjunction with LAR and RGR it can be used to analyze the response of plant growth to environmental condition. The relative growth rate becomes the product of net assimilation rate and leaf area ratio. RGR = NAR × LAR (Leopold et al. 1975). RGR NAR = LAR (4) Relative Growth Rate (RGR) Relative growth rate (RGR) expresses the dry weight increase in a time interval in relation to the initial weight (Gardner et al. 1985). 1 dW 1n W 1nW RGR = 21 W dt t21 t Where, W1 = dry weight at initial time 164 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 W2 = dry weight at end of time W = dry weight of whole plant t2 - t1 = time interval (5) Leaf Area Ratio (LAR) Leaf area ratio (LAR) defined as the ratio of total leaf area to whole plant dry weight (Hunt 1978). L LAR = A W Where, LA = leaf area, W = Total plant dry weight (6) Specific Leaf Area (SLA) Specific leaf area (SLA) is the mean area of leaf displayed per unit of leaf weight (Hunt 1978). L SLA = A Lw Where, LA = leaf area, Lw = Dry weight of single leaf Results Effect of Spirulnia suspension on Physiological Parameters of V. unguiculata (L.) Walp Relative Growth Rate (RGR) RGR for all treatment were more or less the same. It was observed that mean RGR was the highest at 21-35 DAS. Generally RGR fluctuated in all of the treatments till 49-63DAS and after that it declined in later growth period (Table 1 and Figure 1). Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 165 Table 1. Effect of Spirulina suspension on the relative growth rate of V. unguiculata (L.) Walp 0.08 ) -1 d 0.07 -1 0.06 0.05 C 0.04 T1 T2 0.03 0.02 0.01 Relative growth rate (gg 0 21-35 35-49 49-63 63-77 77-91 DAS Figure 1. Effect of Spirulina suspension on the relative growth rate of V. unguiculata (L.) Walp Leaf Area Ratio (LAR) Leaf area ratio was significantly different at 49 and 91 DAS among the treatments (Table 2 and Figure 2). It was found that LAR was the highest at 35 DAS in all treatments and then it gradually declined later. The maximum LAR value was (43.75) for T2. Table 2. Effect of Spirulina suspension on the leaf area ratio of V. unguiculata (L.) Walp 166 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 50 45 ) -1 g 40 2 35 30 C 25 T1 20 T2 15 10 Leaf area ratio (cm 5 0 21 35 49 63 77 91 DAS Figure 2. Effect of Spirulina suspension on the leaf area ratio of V. unguiculata (L.) Walp Leaf Area Index (LAI) Leaf area index was significantly different in all the growth stages and showed in (Table 3 and Figure 3). All treatments increased their LAI value from 21 DAS to 63 DAS and reached their maximum LAI values at 63 DAS. Then, it gradually declined later. Among all treatment, T2 was the highest LAI value of 1.734 at 63 DAS. Table 3. Effect of Spirulina suspension on the leaf area index of V. unguiculata (L.) Walp 2 C 1.8 T1 T2 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 Leaf area index 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 21 35 49 63 77 91 DAS Figure 3. Effect of Spirulina suspension on the leaf area index of V. unguiculata (L.) Walp Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 167 Net Assimilation Rate (NAR) NAR was the highest at 49-63 DAS. After 63-77 DAS, NAR was gradually declined. The lowest NAR was found at 77-91 DAS (Table 4 and Figure 4). Generally NAR is high during the early stage of growth because almost all of the leaves can intercept direct sunlight before canopy formation. At the later stage of growth, NAR is decreased because of the increased leaf production can cause mutual shading. Table 4. Effect of Spirulina suspension on the net assimilation rate of V. unguiculata (L.) Walp 0.003 C T1 0.0025 T2 ) -2 0.002 0.0015 0.001 Net assimilation Net rate (gcm 0.0005 0 21-35 35-49 49-63 63-77 77-91 DAS Figure 4. Effect of Spirulina suspension on the net assimilation rate of V. unguiculata (L.) Walp Specific Leaf Area (SLA) SLA for all treatments were more or less the same. SLA was the highest at 21DAS (531.6cm2 g-1) and then declined. SLA changes with environment and age (Table 5 and Figure 5 ,6). 168 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Table 5. Effect of Spirulina suspension on the specific leaf area of V. unguiculata (L.) Walp 600 500 ) ) -1 g 2 400 C 300 T1 T2 200 Specific leaf area (cm 100 0 21 35 49 63 77 91 DAS Figure 5. Effect of Spirulina suspension on the specific leaf area of V. unguiculata (L.) Walp Figure 6.Experimental plots of V. unguiculata at 21DAS and 49 DAS A. Experimental plot of control at 21 DAS B. Experimental plot of control at 49 DAS C. Experimental plot of T1 at 21 DAS D. Experimental plot of T1 at 49 DAS E. Experimental plot of T2 at 21 DAS F. Experimental plot of T2 at 49 DAS Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 169 Discussion and Conclusion The results of the present plot experiment indicated that the Spirulina suspension affect on physiological parameters of cowpea cultivars. The results indicated that RGR of cowpea were highest at 21-35 DAS and then declined at 35-49 DAS and increased again until 49-63 DAS. After that it declined in later growth period. Leopold and Kriedeman (1975) stated that RGR decline with age, mainly because of an increasing proportion of non dividing to dividing cells or the structural tissues to functional cell. The decrease was also due in part to shading and increased age of lower leaves. Kalubarme and Pandey (1979) reported that the relative growth rate (RGR) was the highest during 21-28 DAS in all green gram varieties. In this research, LAR of cowpea increased from 21 DAS to 35 DAS and after 35 DAS it declined with age until maturity. When the plant was young, the amount of light energy intercepted by the plant will be proportional to the leaf area subtended by it. As the plant grows and produces new leaves, they will increasingly shade each other and the amount of light energy intercepted per unit area will decreased. This might be the cause of the decline in RGR of the plant as its weight increases (Charles-Edwards et al. 1986). In cowpea, NAR was the highest at 49-63 DAS and after 63-77 DAS, NAR was gradually declined. This may be due to formation of new leaves at the lower plant nodes coupled with the increased demand for assimilates from the developing pods. NAR is correlated with high sink demand (Tayo 1982). During the rapid grain filling stage, the NAR increased steadily in all the cultivar of Pigeon pea at 49-63DAS. In this experiment, LAI of cowpea was significantly different in all the growth stages. In all treatments the LAI values increased from 21 DAS to 63DAS and reached their maximum values at 63 DAS. Then, it gradually declined later due to mutual shading as the LAI was maximum during this period and to an increase in the number of old leaves having low photosynthetic efficiency. SLA of cowpea for all treatments were more or less the same. In cowpea, the highest of SLA were 531.6 cm2g-1 and 260.5 cm2 g-1 respectively at 21 DAS and then declined. SLA changes with environment and with age (Littleton et al. 1979). The SLA of newly produced leaves declined with increasing age of the plant, because of accumulation of starch in the chloroplast. A decrease in SLA is synonymous with an increase in leaf thickness (Charless-Edwards, et al. 1986). The result of physiological parameters indicated that 2gl-1 was better than other treatments and control in cowpea. These results recommended that Spirulina platensis could be used as a successful biofertilizer. There were an increase in physiological parameters of cowpea cultivars by using Spirulina. It can be concluded that using Spirulina suspension is an advantage for cowpea production. 170 Myingyan Degree College Research Journal Vol .8, 2017 Acknowledgements I am grateful to Dr Htun Hlaing, Principal and Dr Khin Hnin Yi, Professor and Head of Department of Botany, Myingyan Degree College for their permission to submit this paper. I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to Dr Nu Nu Yee, Professor and Head, Department of Botany, University of Mandalay, for her permission to carry out this research work and for providing me the necessary facilities. My grateful to my supervisor, Dr Min Thein (Part-Time Professor), Myanmar Pharmaceutical Factory, Ministry of Industry No. (1), Ye Kharr, Sagaing Township, for his valuable supervision, constructive suggestions and for providing his laboratory facilities. References Charles-Edwards, D.A., D. Doley & G.M. Rimmington. 1986. Modeling plant growth and development. United States Edition Published by Academic Press INC. Field Crop Production Group 3. 1999. Leaf area determination method of pigeon pea, green grain, cotton and sesame. Department of Agronomy. Yezin Agricultural University. Gardner, F.p., R.B. Pearce and R.L. Mitchell. (1985). Physiology of Crop Plants. The Lowa State University Press. Hunt, R. 1978. Plant growth analysis. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited. London. Kalubarme, M.H & R.K. Pandey. 1979. Note on the growth analysis of green gram genotypes. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 49, (12). Leopold, A.C. & P.E. Kriedemann. 1975. Plant growth and development. Mc Graw Hill Book Company. New York. Littleton, E.J., M.D. Dennett, J. L. Monteith & J. Elston 1979. The growth and development of cowpeas ( Vigna unguiculata ) under tropical field conditions. Accumulation and partion of dry weight. J. Agric. Sci. Cam.93. MOAI (Ministry of Agricultural and Irrigation), (2010). Myanmar Agriculture in Brief. Ministry of Agricultural and Irrigation. Nay Pyi Taw. Myanmar. Min Thein, (1987). Laboratory Examination of Spirulina Samples from Burma and a Study of Spirulina Production and Use. UNIDO/UNDP/BUR/85/85/018 in Netherlands. USA and Mexico. Rathore, P.S. 1999. Technique and management of field crop production. Associate professor and Head. Department of Agronomy. College of Agriculture. Tayo, T.O. 1982. 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