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Home , Acheik, Cloth of gold, Mandalay District, Myingyan, Myingyan District, Pindale

The Transformation of in from the Tradition to the Modernity and Its Impact

Yan Naing Lin1

Abstract

Myanmar traditional such as silversmith, goldsmith and weaving suffered eclipse under the penetration of the western culture, especially, the weaving experienced the great challenge by the domination of the western under the Luissez Faire policy practiced by the British. Together with the exhortation of Myanmar nationalist leaders of YMBA in order to uplift the traditional weaving, Saunders Weaving School came to be emerged under the endeavor of Mr. Saunders. He intended to produce more clothes by means of modernized looms in order to uplift the social life of the weavers and therefore he attempted to transform the conventional weaving craft and to spread it to the whole country. As a result of this effort, many weaving schools came to be developed alongside many private weaving factories throughout the country. Also the Saunders Weaving Institute helped to the development of Lun-yar-kyaw by combination of traditional methods and modernized instruments. This is intended to explore how the weaving in Myanmar continued to develop, survive and how the traditional method was transformed into the modernity.

Introduction

The weaving craft which had been existed since the Pyu period in Myanmar came to be developed successively throughout the ages and then it was prosperous together with the combination of the weaving craft of Manipur. Together with the development of Lun-yar kyaw Acheik , Township became a centre of weaving from the Amarapura period to the Yatanabon Period. . During the British colonial period, Myanmar weaving industry faced the great challenge by the foreign textiles which were imported under the policy of free trade. And therefore the Myanmar weavers had to struggle for their survival to compete these foreign textiles. Under the momentum of nationalism, Myanmar nationalist leaders made demands to up-lift the traditional weaving and loans for weaving. Mr. L.H. Saunders, District Commissioner, who came to be aware of the hardships of weavers attempted to upgrade the traditional weaving through from Amarapura as a core and founded a weaving school there.

Research Question

How much the transformation have an impact upon the Myanmar traditional weaving?

How did the Myanmar weaving evolve from the conventional tradition to modernity?

Research Methods

Data analysis and quantitative methods are used in this research paper.

1 Lecturer, Dr, Department of History, University of Mandalay 286 University of Mandalay, Research Journal, Vol.11, 2020

Literature Review

Than Than Win ( 1998) states that under the British rule in 1890, the flying shuttle was firstly introduced into Myanmar. Mr. Barkal, an Indian Civil Servant, brought Mr. Benton, a mechanist of flying shuttle from England, and let him to teach the techniques of flying shuttle at some prisons and missionary schools in Taungoo and Kyi-myin-taing, but in vain. . These flying shuttles were repaired and reinstalled for Saunders Weaving Institute in 1910. (Than Than Win, 1998, p-21)

Sein Win (1996) argues that the measures were taken for wiping out the Myanmar traditional cultural heritages by the British government during their rule, Myanmar traditional weaving craft which had been developed under the rule of Myanmar kings had come to be faded out due to lack of encouragement and led to the extinction of it. The British did not write and compile any books and on the Myanmar traditional weaving craft though they had ruled Myanmar for years and they also purposely banned the modern weaving crafts into Myanmar, the flying shuttle which had been invented in England since in 1732 by John Kay, came to introduce into Myanmar only in the year of 1914 and so it is obvious that the British had intentionally banned the modern technologies not to reach Myanmar.(Sein Win, 1996, p-23)

The appearance of weaving under the feudalism in Myanmar

The had not been grown during the period of the Pyu and then in period. During that period, the people used Lè cotton tree (Ceiba penandra) for weaving clothing. The cultivation of cotton had to start during the period in 14th century and it was imported from India. During the Konbaung period, cotton was grown by broadcasting system and the people lived on the self-sufficient production. In every village in the country sides, the people produced their necessities and therefore hand looms were put on in most of the homes of rural community and produced home-spun clothing. In the mid Konbaung period, cotton was mostly grown as single crop. Two main kind of cotton namely Wagalay and Wagyi were grown. District and the Lower Chindwin District were the main areas of cotton cultivation during the Konbaung period. Cotton became one of the principal cash crops since in the reign of King Badon and he had put it under the royal monopoly as an important item. Myinmu, , , Myingyan, Meikhtila, Taungtha. etc were gathered in Sagaing for export to China. Sagaing continued to exist as a centre of cotton trade under the reign of King Badon and Sagaing Min. King Mindon had also put the cotton under the royal monopoly. The king appointed agents to buy cotton and they had to carefully on the quality of cotton. ( Soe Soe Khaing, 2017, p-1-6) The importing of cheap in abundance led to the thoroughly extinction of cotton and silk cultivation in Myanmar. The availability of cheap yarns led to the leave out of many former weavers to the business. (Fraser Lu, 1994, p-269)

In Myanmar, silk wares were imported from China since in the Pyu period and the weaving craft also seemed to spread from China. (Than Than Win, 1998, p-4) It is noted that since the Pyu period, the skill of weaving garments has already existed in Myanmar. According to the record of a Persian, the costumes of the Pyu artisans sent on a mission to China during the Pyu period were finely woven cotton wares. Similarly, according to the Chinese records, the Pyu men had worn the cotton while women wore hta-mein (nether garment) dyed in various colours. It states that they did not weave and wear as they did not want to kill the lives of the silkworms. Thus, the Pyus had already known the craftsmanship of weaving silk wares.(Dr. Than Tun, 1969, p-59) According to the evidences of the mural paintings, as well as the terms of garments mentioned in the inscriptions of the Hle-htauk Pagoda (A.D, 1110), that of the University of Mandalay, Research Journal, Vol.11, 2020 287

Saw Hla Wun (A.D 1236) and that of the Phwar Sqaw inscription (A.D 1301), belonging to Bagan period, it is noted that there had already developed the craft of weaving during the Bagan period. (Aung Nyein Chan, 2007, p-241-2)

Starting from the reign of King (A.D 1044), the dress style and craftsmanship of weaving of the Myanmar people had come to progress in standard. They made on the original weaving craft by combining with the crafts of Mons and Indians. Observing on the statues and the dress styles drawn in the mural paintings of Bagan period indicates that the dress style of this period was more bent on the Indian culture during the early Bagan period. Moreover, according to the inscriptions of Bagan period (the Shwe Kun Khyar Inscription A.D. 1301), (Queen Phwar Saw Inscription, A.D. 1329)(the Inscription of the Sutaung-Pyayh Pagoda, East Bagan), there mentions some weaving terms, as well as the terms associated with the dress styles. (Sein Win, 1998,p-17-8)

During the period, in the reign of king Thiha Thu, who succeeded to the throne in A.D 1312, some evidences related to were found. After the fall of Bagan Dynasty, three Shan Brothers established the Pinya Dynasty by backing Phra Mangrai of Chiang Mai from northern Thailand. King Phra Mangrai asked , the youngest one of the three Shan Brothers, for some smiths, silver smiths and weavers to be used in his palace of Chiang Mai. Although the weavers from Pinya were brought together with the gold smiths and silver smiths under the compliance of Thihathu , they were left out by Mangrai at Tong. The culture of Shan and Bamar including the weaving craft came to be combined during this period. It can be said that the weavers from Trans-Than Lwin area and northern Thailand were to be of the descendants of Myanmar weavers who were deported into these areas during the 13th century. (Soe Soe Khaing, 2017, p-30) During the Taungoo Period, King Tabin Shwehtee had deported the weavers as war captives from Siam to Taungoo. It is assumed that the weaving craft came to be more developed during the king Bayintnaung's reign through from the innovations resulted from the combination of The Myanmar weavers and the Siamese weavers.

During the Nyaung-yan period or the Restored-Taungoo Period (1599-1752), there developed the craftsmanship of weaving, as can be observed on the mural paintings of the Culamani Pagoda of Nyaung-yan period located in Bagan. According to the mural paintings belonging to the Nyaungyan period (A.D 1599-1752), which can be observed in the U-Pali Ordination Hall (Sima) of Bagan, as well as the verses and Pyo verses such as Koe-khan pyo by Shin Maha Rahttathara ,Thu-zar pyo by Wungyi Padetha-yaza and Nay-mi Bon-khan pyo (A.D 1642) by Shin Aggasami, there developed weaving and silk ware weaving very well during the period. There first came into existence the craft of weaving the Acheik , which marked the insignia to the royal circle.( Sein Win, 1998, p-19-20)

During the Konbaung Period, in the reign of King Alaungpaya (A.D 1753-1760), and his son King Hsin Phyu Shin (A.D. 1763-1776), Assam-Manipur were conquered, and the skilled weaving craftsmen of Manipur were brought along, and were first settled in Shwe Bein and Khaung near Pyay township. During the King Badon's reign(1812), skilled weavers from Assam-Manipur were once again brought into Myanmar, and were settled in Inwa and then Amarapura. With King Badon's reign, they made efforts to develop the sector of weaving alongside with the Myanmar weavers of Amarapura and invented and used the shuttles that can weave the high quality silk wares. Similarly, King Badon encouraged the skilled Myanmar weavers to learn weaving of silk wares from Indian and Chinese craftsmen. (Than Than Win, 288 University of Mandalay, Research Journal, Vol.11, 2020

1998, p 8-11) Moreover, the Kathee were assigned to weaving and silkworm farming in Amarapura, and water tanks for indigo dyes were built for weaving.

The study of the mural paintings of the Ananda Ok-kyaung of Bagan belonging to the King Bagyitaw's reign (1819-1837), points out that there had already developed the industry of Acheik weaving and silk ware weaving. During his reign, the Kathee captives from Assam- Manipur were brought along to the royal capital. Among them were the skilled weavers who were ordered to teach weaving to the local weavers of Sagaing and Amarapura. (Sein Win, 1998, p 21) It is noted that a skilled craftsman named Linzin Akkabet, well learned for weaving Acheik, was bestowed upon honoured by the king, as well as privileges. At the same time, encouragements were given for the promotion of weaving craftsmanship to other weaving craftsmen, so that the Myanmar weaving craft was blended with that of the Manipur craft. The Myanmar people were very much impressed with the Acheik garments woven by Manipur craftsmen, so much so that the status of the Acheik was promoted to the status of royal garment. (Aung Nyhan, 2007, p 243-4)

During the reign of King Badon, a royal order was issued and prohibited the commoners wearing of floral designed silk-woven, embroidered Acheik garments, pu-soess, head sear, ein- gyis and shawl. But cotton pu-soes and wares were officially granted permission for wearing. In some religious ceremonies like raising the umbrella, silk, satin, floral-designed garments were allowed. The study of the mural paintings belonging to the Amarapura period shows that the people were to wear Acheik paso and various nether garments according to the laws.(Aung Nyein Chan, 2007, p 244-6) Soe Soe Khaing (2017) argues that there were about 20 kinds of royal garments including the foreign textiles used by king Badon.(Soe Soe Khaing, 2017,p 33-4)

During the reign of King Bagan, the Northern quarter, called Myauk-Pyin, of Amarapura, was well known for their skill in . The Myanmar weavers and Kathee weavers did their best craftsmanship in competition there. (Than Than Win,1998, p 13) The price of the dresses of men and women in rural areas of that time were valuable to some extent, and so the people really could try to wear Mè-Pu-soe corse cotton Pu-soe dyed with blue indigo. King Badon had also issued an order to control the market and the price of Mè-Pu-soe. (Dr. Toe Hla,2014, p 177)

During the reign of King Mindon, soon after the new Ratanabon capital had been founded, some skilled weavers were also moved and settled in Mandalay while others remained in Amarapura. As a result, there developed weaving craft both in Mandalay and Amarapura. With the endeavours of heir prince Kanaung under the reign of King Mindon, many factories were built and included among them were weaving factory, cotton factory and garment factory, and they located near the weaponary factory in the Northern Ward of Mandalay. Between 1857 and 1865, the Crown Prince Kanaung imported loom machines from abroad, including gimming machine, machine and others. But because of the lack of skill, the industry did not develop very well. But the period of Ratanabob-Mandalay was the most progressive time of traditional weaving craft.(Sein Win, 1996, p 22)

A wooden rectangular frame called Yet-kan (loom) had been traditionally used in Myanmar for weaving cloth. It is roughly 2.00 metres long by 1.25 metres wide. Looms belonging to the well-to-do might be decorated with finely turned railing and low-relief carving along the main supports.(Fraser Lu, 1994, p-252) The principal weaving components comprised a cloth beam, a pair of haddles, and a large graceful wooden warp space beater called a ya-thwa. (Fraser Lu, University of Mandalay, Research Journal, Vol.11, 2020 289

1994, p 258) As the relied on its colour, texture, and design, Myanmar weavers traditionally used the natural dyes produced from plant, roots, fruit, leafs and bark. 74 dye plants were used throughout the Konbaung period. The indigo plants such as Mè-gyi, Mè- galay, In-yingyi, Hta-naung, tamarind, Shauk-pok, guava, cutch, sappan wood, sal tree, plum, lemes mangrove, papaya, bamboo, saffron, sesame, jiggery etc. were used as dyes.( J.G Scott and J.P Hardiman, 1901, p 379-390)

Blue colour was produced from at least three kinds of indigo in which slaked lime and a lye of wood ashes are added. Red and brown came from sappan wood (Caesalpinia sappan), and the bark of the Morinda root (Morinds citrifolia and Morinda persicaefolia). The clear orange-red came from safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) and the seeds of the annatto (Bixa orellana). Yellow came from turmeric root (Curcuma Ionga), jackfruit wood (Artocarpus integrifolia) and a local garcinia ( Garcinia roxburghii). Green came from overdyeing indigo and turmeric, papaya leaves and the leaves and twigs of mai-new (Marsdenia tinctoria).The fruit of Kya-zu (Termanilia chebula) and mon (Diospyros mollus) were used for black.

The introduction of chemical dyes from Europe in the 1880s speedily led to the demise of these natural dyes and the weavers were attracted by their bright colours and convenience of preparation. But the using of these natural dyes in the weaving of Lun-taya Acheik continued to be popular throughout the colonial period among the rich Myanmar nationals from the merchandise classes and through from the wives of Burmese civil servants. (Fraser Lu, 1994, 255-269)

During the late Amarapura period, the business of dyeing was done by the Ka-thee Mohamedan who resided in the extensive quarter near Sagyinwa Creek. The spinning and weaving cottage industry especially weaving acheik with 50 shuttles, over 100 shuttles, were conducted by the Manipur Ka-thee.(Soe Soe Khaing, 2017,p 46) The acheik designs are unique to Burma and these designs are possibly their original inspiration to natural phenomena such as wave, lighting, and cloud patterns.

The traditional weaving under the wave of nationalist movements

In the colonial period, there were about 325009 acres for the cotton growing and it was grown in , Myingyan region, Meikhtila region, township, Lower Chindwin and Southern . Altogether 12000 tons of cotton that had taken out from the seeds could be produced annually. In the year of 1930, over 10000 tons of cotton was exported to England, China, Germany, Japan and other countries. U Khin Maung, a deputy minister for weaving, estimated that the current amount of the production of cotton could be run for about 18 weaving factories. And the cotton produced from Myanmar could not be made in various size of skein like those from abroad as they were inferior in quality. Therefore, in the year of 1929- 1930, about 13808709 pounds of cotton was imported into Myanmar and their price was 10801000 Kyats. Most of them were imported from India.

He also explained the differentiations between the hand looms and powered loom and their effects and benefits. He exhorted that the weaving factories should be established quickly in Mayanmar and estimated the cost for these factories. ( U Khin Maung, 1935, p 71-9)

At the Third Conference of YMBA held in Mandalay on 26, October, 1915, the attendees accepted and decided to quit the wearing of foreign-made textiles and to wear the domestic wares and so the country-wide instigations were followed by the nationalist movements under 290 University of Mandalay, Research Journal, Vol.11, 2020

the GCBA. Such centers of weaving industry as , Henza, Wen-dwin, Monywa, Shwetaung, Mandalay, Gangaaw, Seik-khun, Chi-pa and Mudon wove the white coarse cotton and red cotton cloth. The wearing of Pin-ni was firm by the emergence of Dobama Asiayone.(Maung Pusoe Gyan, 2006, p 42) Pin-ni had indeed already been developed since the period of Myanmar kings. This nationalist movements of the Dobama Asiayone was in fan the flame because of the Great Depression of 1930.(Fraser Lu, 1994, p 271)

From the Third Conference of Y.M.B.A (Young Men Buddhist Association) which had been held in Mandalay in 1915, there had exhorted to avoid the foreign goods and garments as much as possible and to use only the domestic products.(Thakhin Ba Maung, 2018, p 40) They had also exhorted to put on at least a loom in each nationalist association and to wear the clothing woven by these looms because of the high acceleration of nationalism throughout the period of Wunthanu or nationalism (1920-1930). Under the recommendation of the 9th Conference of G.C.B.A (General Council of Burmese Associations) held in 1921 and in 1922 in order to adorn the domestic garments, Pin-ni had indeed already been developed since the period of Myanmar kings. Yaw-hte woven by hand loom in the Yaw region was unduly sold out and was not woven adequately. Silk wares were also included among the garments and utensils produced and sold out during this nationalist period. The 9th Conference of G.C.B.A which had been held in Mandalay in October, 1921 recommended to use the domestic textiles and commodities and put up its effects for Myanmar nationals and they were (1) to be cheap in expense (2) not to come out the currency from Myanmar to the other countries (3) Myanmar nationals were enabled to progress at the handicrafts (4) Myanmar nationals were to be wealthy and prosperous (5) enabled to get quickly the Home Rule they needed.(Nay Pyi Taw, Vol II, No. 8, p 8) At this conference, a silk Pu-soe in new design was invented and woven for the chairman of the conference by Amarapura and it came to be entitled as "Chairman Pu-soe".

And also an advertisement from a journal issued in 1922 shows that the machine looms and machinery parts were invented on the model of iron loom made in England, around 1917 and 1918 and they could weave 180 cubits per day. The inventor was named Saya Wa, a smelter, from Sein-pan quarter of Mandalay.(Nay Pyi Taw, 1922, p supplementary)

The Role of the Saunders Weaving Institute

The weaving industry was the largest population among the cottage industries in Myanmar of that time. Every house in the countryside had traditionally a loom for weaving clothes for their families and also the every woman had learned to weaving. Some villages had to do weaving as their profession and Amarapura has been a town famous for weaving. The weaving industry gradually came to fade out because of the imported various textiles from abroad during the colonial period. Mr. A.E. English, the Registrar of the Cooperative societies of that time, and Mr. L.H. Saunders, Commissioner, came to be aware of the hardships of weavers in Amarapura because of its fade out.

They realized that it was necessary to produce more clothes through from modernized looms in order to uplift the social life of the weavers and also it could not develop by means of conventional weaving craft although the weaving cooperative societies were formed. In 1900, Mr. Saunders brought flying frame of the reed in a loom from England, and the weavers of Amarapura became interested in it because of his demonstration. In 1912, he made demonstrations on the weaving craft by building the looms at the workshop of U Pe Ohn in the Lay-su quarter of Amarapura. Then, in 1913, Mr. A.E. Hurst, an assistant principal from Sirempur Weaving Institute, came to reach Amarapura in February 1914 as a technician under University of Mandalay, Research Journal, Vol.11, 2020 291

the exhortation of Mr. Saunders to the government in 1913 to appoint an expert who was able to teach the new techniques concerning the weaving craft. U Pe Ohn, a head of the quarter from Amarapura, gave much aid in the functions of Mr. Hurst. U Maung Maunh Pya, a deputy minister of Co-operative Department, and heads of the group had supported in order to be spread the craft of flying shuttle as they had seen the effects of its. Mr. Saunders shifted this school from Lay-su quarter to the present day site (San Yu Aung, 1957, p 140) and then a weaving institute was opened at Amarapura after the new techniques and the looms that can weave in come off well, were found out and carried out. This weaving training school was named the "Saunders Weaving Training School", in honor of Mr. Saunders and it was first managed by the Cooperative Department. Mr. Hurst was the first principal of the Saunder Weaving Institute. Although Mr. M.B. Monday had come to arrive as assistant principal in 1916, he had to resign in 1919 because of his poor health. When the demise of Mr. Hurst in 1920, he was called back and appointed as principal. He had interested on the weaving industry since 15 years old and had worked as a apprentice in the cotton and weaving department of at Nespur. And therefore, the teaching and the practical functions of the Saunders Weaving Institute came to be famous as he achieved the many degrees in weaving and also was an experienced senior technician.

The principals of the Saunders Weaving Institute during the pre-war period were Mr. Hurst, Mr. Monday, U Boe Chan and U Ko Ko Gyi. During the post-war period were U Ko Ko Gyi, Daw Khin Khin U Win.(Than Than Win, 1998, p 25) The objectives of the Saunders Weaving Institute were; to give training to the weavers in order to be able to use modern looms and weaving instruments, to give the high standard trainings to those who were qualified in order to be applied as experts and managers at the small weaving training schools and small weaving industries and to uplift the weaving industry of Myanmar to be more progressive. The Saunders Weaving Institute was ableto teach only the basic training course till 1923. The subjects taught were the basic drawing design course, calculating, the practical training in various looms and the training on the practical use of weaving tools. Besides, scouring silkworms and dyeing silk wares were also taught.

The advanced courses were opened and taught starting from 1923. The successful trainees from these trainings were taught the advanced drawing designs and calculating as they designated to be able to undertake trainers and managers in the weaving industries. They were also trained on weaving by the practical using of such machines as dobby, jacquard and Hattersley. They were also given training in addition not only on the various modernized weaving instruments, scouring silkworms, dyeing silk yarns and cotton dyeing but also weaving with jacquard was taught in practice. During that time, there were 40 wooden looms modified by modern instruments in the Saunders Weaving Institute. They also installed and used the box change slay woven by two shuttles. The automatic treadles were installed on a dozen of iron looms. Treadle could be attached from 2 to 48 healds. Besides the dobby, there had been healds and jacquards that can weave satin with bloom and the floral designs.

The weaving industry, a traditional , had transformed from the domestic weaving to the status of commercial weaving alongside extinction of the sound of loom in the country sides after the years of 1900. The people who had made professional on weaving also came to appear. Some rich men had established the weaving industry and let them who learned the weaving to weave by paying wages. Some had woven the hand-woven clothes for sale by their own looms. Those who had woven by their owned looms and had sold did not benefit as their garments were not sold well and then they were put into the wealthy traders and loom owners. There had no effect although they had solved by founding the Co-operatives. 292 University of Mandalay, Research Journal, Vol.11, 2020

The weavers were invigorated much under the exhortation and agitation of Saunders Weaving Institute to establish the weaving schools at every district in order to contribute the craft of flying shuttle. As the flying slay was enabled to install and use at every loom and its cost was not much, it can be used easily and its production also can be tripled. Around the 1921, there had been over 500000 looms in the whole Burma and also those had made profession on weaving were over 140000. There had been the professional weavers around the Amarapura and its surrounding area, Seik-khon and Chi-pa within the Shwebo district, Shwe-taung and Pann-taung within the Pyay district, Meikhtila district, Hin-thar-ta district, some villages in the Yakhine and Dawei district and Inn-lay village in the Shan State. Mr. Monday from Saunders Weaving Institute therefore made exhortation in order to be opened the weaving schools in every district town and in order to be taught the weaving craft as supplementary at every primary school and middle school.

In the earlier before these programmes were not implemented, a weaving school was opened at under the cost of district fund but it was not in long-term. And also the Resident of Yamethin had opened a weaving school under the district fund at Tharwathti. But this school came to be closed down when the co-operative attached to this school was dissolved The weaving schools in districts were unable to be opened as there had been no encouragement by government, the principal of Saunders Weaving Institute had to send three teachers who went on a tour for weaving, an expert of weaving and three students who had passed at the high level of weaving to everywhere.

This group had to go to the Chin Hill the districts such as Pakokku, Mawlamyine, Thahton, Taungoo, Yamethin, Monywa, Hinthata, Magway and and had made demonstrations to the natives by using flying shuttle and slay in practice and it enabled them to produce by using flying slay. Under Mr. Harvey, the assistant of cottage industry in 1923, the government had managed to support half of the cost for the establishment of district weaving school at maximum of 2000 kyat. They also attempted to become modernize and develop the Myanmar weaving industry by providing teachers, demonstrators and other needs from the Saunders Weaving Institute to the towns where there were people who had interested and opened the weaving schools (The Industries, 1989, p 148-161)

Table. 1. The activities of Saunders Weaving Institute from 1923 to 1930

Year Places Activities Instruments

1923 Chin Hill, Pakokku, demonstration flying Shuttle Mawlamyine, Thahton, Taungoo, Yamethin, Monywa, Hinthata, Magway and Minbu

1925-1926 Chii Hill, Shwebo, Myingyan, Six weaving 178 flying slays Pyay, Minbu and Dawei instructors/ 80 demonsrtations

1926-1927 Shwebo, Pakokku, Magway, 76 demonstrations 134 flying slays Pyay, Sittway, Thandwe, Dawei and Minbu University of Mandalay, Research Journal, Vol.11, 2020 293

1927-1928 Shwebo, Pakokku, Magway, 86 demonstrations 172 flying slays, 27 Pyay, Sittway, Thandwe, machines for Dawei,Minbu, Maawlamyine sectional warper, 75 and Myeik machines for transferring from a to a , 80 modified healds, 46 iron and copper reeds

1928-1929 Meikhtila, Yameithinn, 75 demonstrations 151 flying box Bhamaw, Thahton, Thayet, change slays 47 Myaungmya, Thayawaddy and machines for warp, Hinthada 73 machines for transferring yarn from a swift to a bobbin, 115 modified healds, 23 iron and copper reeds

Kyaik-kha-mi, Saggaing, and Upper Chin-dwin

The areas of demonstration made by SWI 12

10

8

6 Series 1 4

2

0 1923 1925 1926 1927 1928

Henza Company was the most distinctive among the private owners. This Company was founded by U Kyaw Zan who had made a living with commission on textile trading. He had sent a friend who learned the English language to Panjub and let him to learn the weaving craft there. And then in 1918, he started the weaving industry with 6 hand looms at the Shwe-chi- htoe quarter in Mandalay. He had to shift the business to Henza in the Meikhtila district because of the scarcity of weavers and continued to work the weaving industry in the name of Burma Henza Company. Around 1930 and 1931, about 100 weavers had worked as salaried workers at the Henza weaving industry of U Kyaw Zan. The looms and instruments were 294 University of Mandalay, Research Journal, Vol.11, 2020

modernized similar to those from the SWI. Besides Burma Henza Company, there were about 6 weaving industries at the Henza circle town in the Meikhitla district in about 1931-1932 and each weaving industry had 15 modernized looms to 25. As the weaving industries came to be established in advance at Henza, there were 54 weaving industries in 1933. The looms and the instruments were similar to those from the SWI.

The 54 Weaving Industries of Henza in 1933 0 9

Over 20 looms 7 10-20 looms others 38 over 500 looms

The development of weaving in other 30 regions 25 20 Over 25 looms 15 10-20 looms 10 10-15 looms 5 8-10 looms 0 5-6 looms Pakokku (1) Butalin (1), Pathein (2) Monywa (4) Myingyan(4) Thazi(1)

Myanmar weavers, the owners of weaving industry and the weaving co-operatives came to decline under the Great Depression of 1930. The hand woven clothes of Myanmar was not able to compete against the cheap cotton and silk wares imported from Japan in the market. The weavers had to face the difficulty as some weaving industries and weaving co-operatives were dissolved. Although the weaving instructors who went on tours had gone and moved to the various parts, their achievements became fewer. And also the villagers became less interested in the weaving industry. The silk weaving industry was conducted at Mandalay, Amarapura, Sagaing, Pyay, Shwe-taung and Hinthada and the imported from the China and Japan were woven. But, it did not develop as much as the textile industry because it could not compete against the Japanese silk wares in the market. There were some attempts in Myanmar in order to produce the silk yarn from the silk worm. University of Mandalay, Research Journal, Vol.11, 2020 295

During the Second World War, the Saunders Weaving Institute was ruined by bombs. The school was reconstructed in 1952-53. The aims and objectives for the establishment of the Saunders Weaving Institute were:

1. To promote the craft and technology of weaving 2. To train and nurture the weaving technicians 3. To develop and boost indigenous traditional weaving craft by using modernized technology and implements 4. To perform the research programmes in order to promote and develop the weaving craft and technology.(Than Than Win, 1989, p 29)

The Myanmar traditional weaving craft came to exist throughout the colonial period from the conquest of Mandalay capital city by the British till to the regaining of independence in 1948. Every households had put on the looms and wove the cotton and silk wares for domestic use. When the city and towns were destroyed during the Second World War, the weaving industry was conducted just at the country -sides. Besides the hand loom, the also came to be prosperous in the regions of Myanmar after 1948. In the villages of Amarapura Township, they had conducted the weaving when their works of cultivation on the silt land were suspended. In the later periods, the private industries and co-operative industries came to place and it became an all season business of the whole region of Amarapura.

During the colonial period before the World War II, the silk ware houses which sold out both domestic and foreign silk wares came to be flourished under the slogan of nationalist aspiration on the whole country. The whole of the Block F of Zegyotaw of Mandalay was the the silk ware shops. Moreover, the silk ware houses existed at the Kyauk-Thway-tan quarter and Ayartaw –san-tan in Mandalay had sold out, bought and distributed on the wholesale and to the whole country.

During the colonial period, Myanmar weavers had to rely very much upon the trading with the China. At the time when the dyes were not able to be imported, the Myanmar nationals had applied the Thatin-thee (fruit from the lipstick tree)(Bixa orellana) and Ni-par-sey (Morinda citrifolia;M tinctoria) for red, indigo leaf for black and Na-noon (turmeric) for yellow. There had come to be appeared various designs, colours and chequered patterns woven in their own ways by various regions similar to the use of fruits, bloom and leaf produced from their regions in the boiling silk. The silk weaving industry became more developed as the silk yarn were more imported under the rule of the British. The chemical dyes were also imported by the British capitalists, they also taught the methods of dyeing and therefore the strange colours came to be developed and the differentiations of the silk wares among the regions were also come to be diminished. There were many quarters in Mandalay in which the silk weaving industry had been done and the Silk from the Sein-Pann quarter was the most famous among them. Apart from Sein-Pann quarter, the looms also existed in Shay-taw-pyay-win and Ein- kon-tann.

The weaving craft had come to be developed in momentum as they had invented from the ordinary weaving to harness put on the many pair of heddles because there were so many skillful Manipur-Kathee weavers in Amarapura. The lon-gyis which were woven in Amarapura and entitled as Maha Balar, Sann-Paru, Sein-kyo-nwe and Mya-kyo- nwe were distributed from the U Khin Thet silk ware house and B.S.C Shwe-Mhaung silk ware house on the Kyauk-thwe-tann quarter in Mandalay by advertising on the magazines. Myanmar silk ware industry came to be developed very much between the 1920 and 1940 as the various strange 296 University of Mandalay, Research Journal, Vol.11, 2020

patterns with fine tone and strange tone were enabled to be woven at Amarapura. Among the garments of Amarapura, the garments woven by the Shwe-Ge weaving industry were famous for their good handiwork and also for the same texture of cotton similar to those from the Sein- pann quarter of Mandalay.

Although they were competed by the textiles imported from India, the garments woven by hand were victorious through the nationalism. The reason for that victory was the endeavours of U Boe Chan, a weaving technician, and U Ko Ko, the Principal of Saunders Weaving Institute. When the importing of foreign textiles was stopped during the war time in 1942 and 1945, U Boe Chan had sent the weaving technicians to the whole country in order to produce the national woven cotton clothes and therefore the weaving industry came to be brilliant. The progress of national weaving of that time was through from cotton to skein, from hank to textile that was an evolution developed from the basis.

When the war was over, it was not interested by anyone and had been ignored. However, the weaving industry came to be renovated again after the assuming of independence in 1948. From 1948 to 1958, the weaving industry enabled to fulfill the need of knowledge of the people up to 57%. U Boe Chan had estimated that there were altogether 300000 flying looms all over the country at that time but for Furneybell was in 500000. However, the weaving industry had gradually come to fall down after 1958, and about 50% had been stopped in 1962. The main reason for that matter was the reduction of the importing of skein from abroad and the up-lift of the importing of textiles and garments. (The Hman Nan Weekly, 1962, p 11)

The Zenmei Lon-gyi woven by a craft in which silk yarns was tied up and dyed in leave out of the white was the hardest and the most ingenious. This technique had been achieved by the Myanmar in later and Inn-lay was ableto weave this kind of pattern. The weavers from the Inn- lay region came to be learned not only this technique but they learned the weaving craft of Bangkok in which two silk yarns with different colours were twisted and woven. And therefore, Zenmei wares woven in Myanmar and Bangkon wares came to be produced from the Inn-lay region. And then before the Second World War, the weavers from Amarapura had taken the craft of Bangkok that twisted the two silk yarns and therefore the stranger and better Bangkok silk Lon-gyis were come out as they had woven with the chequered patterns.

Myanmar's local silk ware industry was fallen down due to the lack of the prohibition of the government on the importing of very cheap men ware lon-gyis named Barbu-Bangkok and women ware Persian Lon-gyis woven by satin-silk in bulk around 1930 and 1940. In the post war period, silk ware industry was not enabled to recover more based on the factors that the silk was unable to be produced very much in the country and unable to import enough from abroad and the emergence of such textile as and .(Ludu Daw Ah Mar, 2013, p)

After the Second World War, the owners of the looms had to make demands for skein and dyes to the government as they were the unemployed under the shortage of hank and dyes. (The People Daily. 1946, p 3) After the Second World War, silk ware industry was in very high capital and no benefit, and therefore it was just a work to get job and wage for members of a family. Although the owner who had owned from one to three looms had asked for the loan for weaving but in vain and 99% of the owners were noticed for income tax. There had been two kinds of the owner of loom; those who had established the weaving industry and done by the weavers and those who had established and done by themselves. Although the four packets of cotton were sold out in cheap price as a loan for each weaver based on the factor that they had University of Mandalay, Research Journal, Vol.11, 2020 297

no capital by the Department of Cottage Industry, the latter kinds were noticed for income tax. (The People Daily, 18-6-1946, p 7)

After the Second World War in 1947, the Cottage Industries Department attempted to reach the cotton packets into the hands of the weavers from the weaving associations and 11 rules were recommended for distribution of it.(The People Daily, 9-4-1947, p 7) The League for the Professional Weaving handicraft of the whole Mandalay District was founded in combination with four weaving associations of Amarapura Township. During the year of 1947, the government had managed to distribute the cotton packets and dyes through from the Saunders Weaving Institute under the Cottage Industries Department (The People Daily, 19-5-1947, p 11). And, therefore, the League did not agree with this plan and they wanted to distribute by themselves. During this year, the township union for weaving was set up with the intention to obtain loans for weaving, to distribute directly the cotton by the governent and share equally by the union, and to reduce the current price of cotton as the price was still high. (The People Daily, 21-5-1947, p 4)

Some poor weavers around the Amarapura region were dissatisfied with the distribution of the cotton packets by the government of that time because of the un-equality produced by the bias of some officers.(The People Daily, 17-6-1946, p 8) The meeting of the executive members of the weaving association for the whole nation had recommended a resolution that;

"We exhorted the Government of Burma not to export the rice into India as the so many weavers were in unemployment because of the not permission of Indian Government to export cotton together with the raw materials and dyes into Burma although the Government of Burma had exported the rice into their country."(The People Daily, 14-6-1946, p 5)

Research Finding

The weaving craft had been evolved alongside foreign textiles throughout the monarchial period in Myanmar, The traditional Myanmar weaving which had been existed as a domestic industry in the monarchial period had started to change from a hand loom to powered loom in the colonial period. Although the weaving instruments became modernized , they were still relied upon the foreign materials as the raw materials for textile industry such as cotton, silk and dyes were unable to be produced adequately in the country

Conclusion

Amarapura township became popular for its Lun-yar-kyaw Acheik which had been also changed from a royal garment to a popular one used by the people. Saunders Weaving Institute also became a center from which the weaving craft became spread to the whole country. Such Myanmar domestic textiles as Pin-ni and Yaw Lon-gyi which were produced by the Henza and Yaw regions emerged as national costume instead of Lun-yar-kyaw Acheik because of its expense and impossibility to get in abundance. Although a commercial industry came to be developed together with the emergence of powered loom, it was still sunk in the wave of the foreign textiles.

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