Nationalism and Ethnic Politics

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Nationalism and Ethnic Politics Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713636289 The political transformation of the Maronites of Lebanon: From dominance to accommodation Simon Haddad a a Notre Dame University, Lebanon

Online Publication Date: 01 June 2002 To cite this Article: Haddad, Simon (2002) 'The political transformation of the Maronites of Lebanon: From dominance to accommodation', Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 8:2, 27 - 50 To link to this article: DOI: 10.1080/13537110208428660 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13537110208428660

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Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 4 1 3 2 loyalties overnationalones:parochiatiemayberacial , ethnicreligious because ofthrefactors.Firstisthdominancparochia l politica PUBLISHED BYFRAN K CASS,LONDON Nationalism andEthni c Politics,Vol.8No.2Summer2002 , pp.27-50 Simon Haddad,Notr e DamUniversity,Lebanon destroy one'ssocialidentity . identifications mayseemextremel y threateningbecauseitappearso foreign orirrelevantoneself.Imanynations,thelos s ofparochial case, attachmentothenationanditspoliticalinstitution s seemalien, developing societieswherenation-buildinhabeenlargel y unsuccessful What theyallhaveincommon,howeversaminimu m ofideological people attemptodestroyeachotherfolandanpowe r inanation'. denote culturaloridentity-boundconflicts.AccordingtAbraham, Western grouptheoristscoinedtheterm'protractesocialconflicts'to of thistypeconflictarextremelycommoni multi-ethnicor content thacancuacrosstheirdifferenceandunifyanation. Examples political system. low supportforaChristianautonomousentityandoverpreferenceunitar Lebanese religiousgroups,particularlythMuslims.Finallyanswerpointo Respondents manifestedunfavourableattitudetowardcooperationwithother some ofthem,withafeelingpridanddistinctivLebanesnationalism. attachment, strongpreferenceforMaronitleadersandatthsamtimdislik political efficacy;intra-groupattachmentpropensityforinter-groucooperation political behaviourinthecontextofLebanespoliticsbydrawinganumbe The aimofthisarticlitexaminthshiftingtrendnMaronitsocialand sectarian, linguistictribalorclan-anymixturefth e above.Inthis and preferrepoliticalarrangement.Thefindingssuggestpositivintra-group towards sectarianleaders;perceivedself-identitypoliticalestrangementan recent surveys.Theexaminationfocusesosixdimensionrelatedfeeling 'These confrontationsaralsocalled"peoplwars"in whichgroupsof From DominancetoAccommodation The PoliticalTransformationof the MaronitesofLebanon: SIMON HADDAD Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 5 7 racial/ethnic exclusivenessandreligiouprejudices. rules thatareenforcedthroughnationalpoliticainstitutionanbaseon Deutsch proposesthatin-groupcohesioncauseout-grouhostility: remain itheirgroup,havepositivattitudestowardgroupandenjoy extent ofgroupcohesiveness.Membersacohesivedesir features, whichinvolveissuesofidentitypossession'historiclands' Thus aclashbetweentraditioandmodernizatioresulticommunal fragmented politicalcultures,isoftenendemictointer-grouprelations. concede thatpoliticalconflictsshouldbresolveaccordingoabstrac procedures inconflictresolutiostemfromawidespreadinabilityo for conflictmanagement.Inmanydevelopingnations,thefailurofcivil economic organization , pastandpresent.Itend s tobegreateramonggroup s enhanced bysuchintra-ethni c cohesionthabytrans-ethniclasssolidarity. persuaded thattheirsecurity welfareandexpectationsarbestserve political andsociaposition whilesimultaneouslyusing,maintainingand group thattheelitraisesitselfthroughimproving e group'sgeneral that thegroupisalsoservedbest.Ifarbettefobothleadershi p andthe pressing itspreferredpoliticalstrategyontheentirgrou p andmobilizing unresolved conflictbetweengroupsexacerbateout-grou p hostility. Fielder assertsthatinter-communalhostilityenhancegrou p cohesiveness grievances oraspirationarecongruentwiththgrou p aswhole.By group cohesiveness.Morelikely,thelitbelievestha t itsparticular and thatreduceexternalthreatendsoloosengroupcohesion . Intenseand a greatlevelofcommunicationamonggroupmembers.Ithiscontext, conflict-group theoristsdirectlyrelatethratofinter-grouconflict consolidation ofgroups,theirfunctionsandinter-grouprelations.Several strife. Allprotractedsocial-ethnic-religiousconflictspossescommon impersonal standardsratherthantraditionamodeofconflictresolution. 28 NATIONALISMandETHNICPOLITICS group solidaritybehinditsrecommendations,theleadershi p isconfident strengthening itslinktothegroup . Andtheethnicgroup'slowerclassear The elitorleadersfthgroupservalsavehiclfo r strengthening Group theoryliteratureprovidesinsightintothemergencand Third, theprevalencofpoliticaldistrustbetweensociagroupsi The extentofcohesionisa functionofagroupsocial,politicaland Second, thereisalackofwidelyacceptedanoperatingcivilprocedur 6 their leadership.Alsoantipathymabeemployedtdiscrediinternal In-group cohesionisfosteredorpreservebydisplacinginternal opposition byidentifyingtheopponentswithhatedgroup. another groupasploytomaintainincreasein-grouloyalt internal dissention.Groupleadersmaydeliberatelfosterantipathto conflict andinternalfrustrationontoothergroups,thusreducing Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 10 9 8 8 responses tosample s ofLebanesecommunities . recent surveysand,othe degreetheypermit,comparingMaronit a numberofvariables.Thestud y isconductedbdrawingonanumberf with Maronitebasicpolitical orientations,whichwillbeassessedrelyingon divisions withintheLebanes e politicalsystem.Tharticlwilldeathen historical evolutionofthecommunit y andtherootsofconfessional The nextsectiondescribesthnormativvalueof e Maronites,th understanding ofLebaneseMaronitattitudestowardthei r environment. to membersfLebanon'Maronitecommunityinrelatio n tothetheoretical framework ofthestatroutsidlegitimatpoliticalsphere . setting presentedinthisintroductioordertoprovid e abetter extinction.'" Politicalstrugglesconsequentlytakeplac eitherwithinthe tremendous violenceandofteninvolvthpossibilit y ofoneside's that ethnicconflictsaremainlyattributedocollectivfear s ofthefuture. the interestsofcommunalgroups.Mostimportantly,manyscholarargu identities ononehandand,thothertmakstatabattlegrounfor incorporating localinstitutions.Thisservetostrengthenprimordia forces attachthemselvetothestatthrougverticalnetworkandby mass mobilization.Thiiespeciallytruewhensocialrelationar recognition andprotectioasdistinctculturalentity. representation, groupautonomyeconomicempowermenthegemonyor group canalsoactspurmobilization.Groupsmaydemandgreater providing material,politicalandmorasupport.MordechaiNissansuggests varies withthescopofpre-existingorganizationalnetworks. aspirations, self-confidenceandanationaldreamforcollectivstruggle. the strengtheningofsuchagroup.Foreignassistanccainjectnew that externalinterventionothesidfcommunitymacontribut group's cohesionandpoliticalmobilizatioforcollectiveactioby basis forpoliticalmobilization.Aperson'potentialmobilization the group.Religiousorganizationprovidstrongnetworkthatform it srareforonpoliticalorganizationoincorporatmosalmemberf movements andpartieconstituteagencieofcommunalpoliticafiction,but traditional authoritystructuresareintactandrelativelcohesive.Politica that areconcentratedinasinglregioratherdispersed.Groupswith POLITICAL TRANSFORMATIONOFLEBANON'SMARONITE29 strategic dilemmasarisethatcontainwithithemth e potentialfor structured arounpatrimonialmodels,anresourcedistributionis subsequently essentialtomaintainingpatron-clienrelationships.Socia 'As groupbegintofearfotheisafety,dangerouanddifficult-to-resolv e The purposofthisstudyitexaminsocio-politicalvalue s pertaining In thiscaseprimordialloyalties,i.e.ethnicitybecomeffectivtoolof Foreign sympathizerscacontributesubstantiallytoacommunal Perceived threatstothedominancrestablisheinterestfa Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 18 14 13 12 17 15 16 Muslims. TheLebanesmountainshadtraditionallyprovide d shelterfo with theWest.In1182Maronithierarchyaccepted e papalauthority Lebanon whereaMaronit(Mardaite)stathadexistebetweethseventh religious persecution,theMaroniteinhabitednorthernregioof Christians againsttheurbanecclesiasticalcontrol'.Seekingrefugfrom In thissense,Salibiviewedtheiremergencea'revoltofruralSyria church anddistinguishethemselvesfromotherArabeasternminorities. themselves aseparatechurchafterbreakingawayfromthMelchit Monophysite heresy.Sinctheirappearance,thMaroniteshavorganized Emperor JustinianItofindacompromisebetweeOrthodoxyanth Emirate rul(1516-1842) , despiteseriouslimitationonthidual peoplehood andynamism firstcoincidedwiththeDruzduring religious minoritiecoexistin g injuxtaposition.TheMaronitsensof two heterodoxMuslimcommunities , theShi'itesandDruzewhowere and preservationofaChristiahaveithemidstsurroundin g Arab Maronites. Astrategicfactorhastodwiththegeograph y ofthecountr of Rome,thusbecomingthefirstUniatCatholicchurchi n theMiddlEast, and thefreChristianstatdisappeared. expedition, theMaronitindigenouspresencinLebanowaterminated religious brotherfromEurope.By1305,aresultoftheMamluk time, theMaroniteswouldpayahugpricfortheicooperationwith were thonlyeasternArabcommunittosupporCrusaders'campaig associating themselveswiththeCrusaderinthirteentcentury-the they soonacquiredtheenmitofconqueringMuslimArabsb neighbouring sects(Druze,Shi'ites)weremostlyhostilandviolent attempt oestablishaChristianenclaveithArab-MuslimMiddlEast'. and thetenthcentury.AsattestebyPhare'thiconstitutefirst who adoptedtheMonothelitheresy,whichgrewoutfanefforby their name-anasceticmonkborinorth-eastSyrithseventhcentury Lebanon. TheyarethfollowersofSaintMarun-fromwhothetak The MaronitesrepresentthlargesandmosstridenChristiangroupi Background oftheMaronitCommunity from therulingSunnileadership . ThusMountLebanonbecamethhomof as muchtheMaronites,intereste d insafeguardingtheirseparateidentity and itsmountain(naturalelevations),whichplayeapar t intheformatio Several factorshelpedtodevelopatraditionfpolitica autonomyamong an allianceformallyconfirmedmuchlateri1736tthSyno d ofLuwanza. dwellers werewillingtousanyallhelpweakentheirSunniruler.Ove against Muslimadversaries.Accustomedoindependence,themountain- 30 NATIONALISMandETHNICPOLITICS In theirnewsanctuary,theMaronites'relationswithvariou One importantoutcomofthCrusadeswaagradualMaronit e allianc Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 2 21 20 19 new state.Consequentl y theLebanes e groups,inspitofthei r tacit agreemendefinedtheinterna l andexternapoliticaorientationsofthe National Pact,whichdespit e somimpediments,lasteduntil1975.This Republic withtheproclamatio n ofLebanon'sindependencei1943-th ties withtheirArabneighbours , demandingunionwithSyria.Aattempt marked bydeepdivisionsoveritlegitimacy:theMaronites , whofeared relationship wasrewardedin1920wheFrenchauthoritieproclaimethe Lebanon underadirectFrenchmandate.TheamicablFrench-Maronit historical stageforfurtheMaronitpoliticasuccess,sincitbrough what theMaronitesconsideredtheirsocialanhistorica l boundaries,was establishment ofGreaterLebanon,inwhichtheMaronite s formedthe Maronites, whoregardedthemselvesculturallyanethnicalldistinctfrom belief hadbeenconveneintoageographicalexpressioantheMaronit was madetoovercomthi s divisionoverthenaturofLebanes incorporation iaChristian-dominatedstateansought o strengthentheir other hand,whomadeupnearlyhalfthpopulationwer e againstarbitrary their existenceinthmidstofArabMuslimmajority.Th e Muslims,onth absorption itheArabworld,perceivedGreaterLebano asguaranteefor nations. Fromitsinception,thenewstatewhichwaconstitute d within more thanaforcedassociatioofopposeanindividualisti c communal largest singlecommunity. the ArabMuslimmajorityinregion.ThFirstWorldWarse crowned victory.'Thissolutionsatisfiethepoliticalaspirationof as explicitlyacknowledgedbBritishnotable:'Afterthatdate,religiou arrangement thatransformedtheMaroniteso'rulerfMounLebanon' the aftermathofMaronite-Druzcivilwarin1860,resultedapolitica helped promoteMaronitcultural,religiousanpoliticalinterestsbutcut referred toas'thenourishingmother',tooknresponsibilityforprotectin European countries,namelyFranceBritaiandTsaristRussia. political, religiousandeconomiccapitulationbytheOttomantoseveral political entity,aeliteandworkingrelationshipbetweenDruz their relationswithvariouneighbouringsects.Westernintervention,i the Maronitcommunityofffromallotherlocacommunitiesandaffecte the communalinterestsandphysicaexistencofMaronites.Th and Maronites. framework forLebaneseidentity-orientedpolitics,asensofbelongingt cooperation bytheCaliphate.Thispoliticalautonomcreatedaproper POLITICAL TRANSFORMATIONOFLEBANON'SMARONITE31 survive inthmidstofIslamicOttomaEmpire.Frenchinterventio status oftheOrientalChristiana'proteges'Europenabledthemt with theweakeningofOttomanEmpire,resultedianumber Conceived undertheexclusivaegisofreligion,new entitywasno Constant WesterninterventioitheMounLebanoarea,coinciding Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 25 24 23 external meddlinginLebaneseaffairs.Nevertheless,th tried toshunconflicbyfreezingdifferencesoveridentitandefusin in thestataccordingtotheirdemographicandpoliticalweight.Lebano religious communitiesharinginthedifferentaspectofpoliticalauthority between theLebanescommunitiesandthuletocivilstriff1958. West versuspro-Arabdividecontributedothaggravationftensio key politicalandmilitarpositionswaseenaimportantguarantee concerning thecountry'sindependence.Meanwhile,continuinpro- against pan-ArabnationalismandserveocalMaroniteworries its founder,equatedpatriotismwithMaronitism.Maronitedominationof historical politicacommunitywithMaronitismatitsbasis.PierreJumayil, regard, theleadingMaronitpartyPhalangedefinedLebanonas is theonlyguarantetopreservsecuritfcommunity'.Inthi their increaseddemographicweight,claimingthat'aleadinMaroniterol demands forgreateparticipationipoliticalpowecommensuratewith independent institutionsandpoliticalaspirations. able toreachconsensusnfundamentals,andeacsechelitow their differenthistoricalbackgrounds.Asaresult,theLebaneswerneve communities continuedtodisplaydifferenidealanloyaltiebecausef dissimilarities, succeededinproducingainter-communalentente,withal 32 NATIONALISMandETHNICPOLITICS Christians hadalwaybeenwaryofSyriaambition s inLebanon, or atleaswiththetaciapprovalfChristianleadership . Since Syrian andIsraeli,intervention. describe thMaronites,whostrovtcuLebanonof f fromitsArab PLO onLebanesesoil.ThMuslimscoinedthterm 'isolationists'to order, whilethleadershipoflatteropposedverypresenc Palestinian militarypresencetoenlistheirhelpichangingthexistin late 1960sandearly1970s,whenthleadershipofformersupporte Jews andtheMaroniteha theiroriginsinthe1930s,continued in thecountry,asthad1958despitpersistenChristia n requests.Itwas Christian fearofdefeatandfrustratiowithAmerica'srefusa l tointervene into thecountrywasonfforcedacquiescence.It s theresultof particularly regardingthenotionofGreaterSyria,theidecisio n toleSyria must forgeastron g alliancetowardoffhostil e Muslim-Arabcontact . In 1940s andreachetheirpeakshortl y afterthestatofIsraelwasestablished. Israel ashedgeagainstth Syrianintervention.Closertiesbetweethe at thisstagethasomMaronite s begantoentertaiclosecooperatiowith surroundings. ThedivisionsamongthLebanesprompte d foreign,namely Such relationswerefoundedo n thecommobeliefthatJewsandMaronite Within threedecades,thMaronitesrejectedanyconcessiontoMuslim In 1976,Syria'sinterventioiLebanowamadeupoforma l request, Muslim andChristiancommunitieshainitiallybecomepolarizeith Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 30 29 31 28 and thetimha s comeforthSyrianarm y tore-deploinLebano n i the communities-declin e ofthMaronitesandadvanc in thepoliticalstructurtotak e accountofthnewpowerbalancamong various sectandsucceeded.Essentially,theagreementwrough t achange the statofwarincountry.Thisarrangementbase d onthepower- they couldpreservetheirculturalannationaidentit y andeventually, Front -amajorMaronitepolitico-militarybodissued'historical statement fromBkirki,thesea t oftheMaronitpatriarch,challenging Sunnis andtheShi'ites. sharing principleinordertoregulatthconflicfinterest s betweenthe through self-determination,establisapopularanddemocrati c Christian that thecivilwarinLebanoasodefendChristia n peopleso'that direct referenceothChristiansanationalcommunity. SamiFaressaw document' whichopenlycalledforafederalsolutioniLebano n andmade order topreservethChristiancharactefnation'.ThLebanes based onMaronitehegemonyanfunctioneunderitsaegis." In thecoursof1982PeacforGalileoperation,Israeleveattempted state'. famous Maronitehistorian,calledfor'areductioniLebanesterritorie cannot beidentifiedyArab,Syrianoranotheattribute'.Al-Bustanya chauvinistic definitionoftheidentityLebanon:'thLebanesnatio Maronite politicalpartycalledGuardiansofthCedars,adhereta advocated asthemostpreferresolution.EtiennSakr,commanderof to establisha'neworder'inLebanon,settingupregimetherthawas believed thatIsraelcoultakeadvantagofseparatisMaronitsentiments fact, duringthe1950sIsraeliprimministerDavidBenGurionwho POLITICAL TRANSFORMATIONOFLEBANON'SMARONITE3 'Syrian rule'andstipulating'tha t IsraelhaswithdrawnfronsouthLebano creation ofaChristiastateiLebanon,saying: to bringabouapro-IsraelichangenLebanon,outlinedplatowardsth On 20September200the CouncilofMaroniteBishopsreleaseda However, mostChristiansacceptedtheTa'ifAgreemeni n ordertoend During thecivilwar,ideaofChristianautonomousstatwa 26 Without ourinitiativeandstrongsupporhistaskwillnobachieve might havearrivedofounaChristianstatthabordersus... matter thatishistoricallyjustified,andwillmoscertainlbe the ArabLeague.ThestablishmentofaChristianstatisnatural majority hasadistincttraditionandculturefromthothermemberof about aradicalchangeinLebanon. supported bytheworlofCatholicismanProtestantism...Thtim Lebanese ChristiansconstitutamajorityinhistoricalLebanon.Thi ... wemustdoourutmost,utilizingallavailabloptionsbrin Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 32 34 3 power, whichdidnotallowtheMaronitpoliticalsupremacyofpast. but dissentedondetails.Syria'smilitarypresencemaintainethbalancf political orientationsofMaronit e respondentssurveyedduringthpast Lebanese groupswithinth Ta'ifframework?Didtheyrelinquishtheir privileged position.Byrejectingallpoliticainitiativesdurin g thewar(from preventing themfrosubordinatinMuslimswereth e Syrians.Their trying tofuelsectarianstrife.TLebanon'sMuslimreligiouandpolitica gaining strengthandthusdeepeninthepoliticalcommunadivide complaints intheChristiacommunitynotonlreinforcedthibeliefbu traditional Maronitethoughtregardingoutsidinfluence.Simmerin Maronite attitude:'ThcommonbeliefithChristiacommunitysthat government andfromtheChristianpartiesthahaaccepteneworder politically underrepresented,alienatedanexcludebothfromthe reduced theirpoliticalroleinthcountrytoinsignificance.Thefel reconciliation, onlytofindouthaSyrianhegemonanmanipulatio Lebanon, manyChristianshadalreadcontendethatthegaveupmuchof and addressthesensitivissuofChristianpoliticalpower.Ipost-Ta'i Bkirki statementwasabacklashagainsSyria'hegemony,meanoraise preparation foritsfullwithdrawaiaccordancewiththTa'ifaccord'.Th their powebysigningtheTa'ifaccordininterestsonational 34 NATIONALISMandETHNICPOLITICS decade, assuggeste d bytheliterature,follo w closelythepoliticaldynamic s desire foranautonomoushomelan d forLebaneseChristians?Doth and coexistence. and politicalsetbacksha d tosufferthedestructionftheicommunity the ConstitutionalDocumentoTa'ifAgreement)they incurredmilitary introduced aneworderantheMaronitesarunlikel y toresumetheir mechanism suchastheTa'ifAgreement.However , thecivilwars according toPhares.ThebeliefthadefinesLebano n asMaronite- departure wouldmeanareturtoMaronitdominanc f Lebanon. leaders, theonlybalancingforckeepinChristian s atbayand sovereignty threatenedstillbZionistaggression,thechargedBkirkiwith In general,whiletheydefendedSyriapresencasthpillarofLebanes Christian toneofMaronitpatriarchNasrallaButresSfeir,begaspeaking among manyLebanese.Muslims,whosuddenlfeltthreatenedbthepan- also couldnlongerbeignored.ThdebatcenteringSyriahabee balance itselfoutnaturally.'Nosurprisingly,thisbelieholdwith whenever thisaddedinfluenceiremoved,thinternalsituationwill out, defendingSyria-ormorespecificallytheirownexistence. dominated statemakesthemuncomfortablwithan y power-sharing For theMaronitesofLebanon,Ta'ieraion'declin e anddefeat' Simon Karam,aformerambassadotoWashingtonbesdescribedthe Are thMaronitescapabl ofharmoniouscoexistencewithother Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 39 38 36 35 examine thpolitica l attitudes,sectarianis m andsecularism,grou p included 561Maroniterespondents . Theobjectivofthstudywast A cross-sectionalsurveycarrie d outbyHaddadduringNovember2000 Recent SurveyFindings behaviour ofmembersdifferentsectinLebanon'Secon d Republicare Maronites, todeterminewhetherthpoliticalpreferences ; attitudesand focused exclusivelyoncollegestudents.Thsurvewa s administeredto were Maronites.Th1996survey,carriedoutthpost-Ta'i f period, based onsurveyscarrieduringthewar.Relyinaremarkablybroa converging ordiverging. 917 studentsatfiveLebanesuniversities,ofwhich13. 5 percentwere confessional groupsatsixLebaneseuniversities.Ofthos e surveyed,450 employed thebehaviouralmethodologyofquantitativpolitica l scienceto empirical studyduringtheperiod1981-87.Afewyear s later,Khashan respondents towardnationalissues. the socialandpoliticaorientationsofordinaryLebanesMaronit individual Maroniteisthunitofanalysis,andaccordinglyverfew perhaps mostimportant,therehabeenlittlresearchiwhicth discover whatconditionssocialandpoliticarelationships.Third, address theissuofLebanon'viability.Duringperio d fromOctober sample (n=2003)ofwhom25percentwerMaronites,Hancarriedan standing. Second,onlyrarelarestudiescross-nationalwithaconcernto or mainlyconcernedabouttheihistoricalbackgrounansocio-politica Lebanon arenumerous,mostofthemtendbefirstverymuchdescriptiv to thedimensionsoutlinedabove.AlthoughwritingabouMaronitein war hasledtoshifintheperceptionfMaronitrespondentwithregar • preferredpoliticalarrangement. • propensityforinter-groupcooperation;and measured toachievethobjectivfstudyare: POLITICAL TRANSFORMATIONOFLEBANON'SMARONITE35 of theMaronitCommunity?Thsixpoliticaldimensionsthatwillb systematic data-basedinvestigationsthathavefocuseonthlinkbetwee • groupconsciousness; • politicalestrangementandefficacy; • perceivedself-identity; • feelingtowardssectarianleaders; 1988 toFebruary1989,Khashansampled2,300students drawnfromeight 37 There isconsiderablempiricalevidenctosuggesthathbittercivi A decadeago,TheodorHanfandHilalKhashanpublishetwobooks Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 41 40 43 42 Maronite divisionspredatedthTa'ifAgreement,althoughafterTa'ifthey leadership tosupportheMaronittraditionfcommopeople,enlis prospects ofanindependentChristiastatedependthability To achievethMaronitaspirations,politicalleadershipplays Feelings TowardsSectarianLeaders to determinethrelativstrengthfMaronitopinion. attitudes arecomparedwithresponseofmemberotherLebanessect into thequestionsraisedbythistudy.Wherpossiblthesopinionan The opinionsandattitudearthenanalyseforconsistencyinsight This studyreviewthesesurveyforindicatorofthtraitdiscussedabove. behaviour andinter-groupperceptionsofrespondentinpost-waLebanon. their ownpersonalconcerns , whichledtotheintra-Maronitwarin1990 Aoun incurtheblamfoconfoundin g theinterestsoftheircommunitywith Haddad's dataonMaroniteconsciousnes s indicateuncontestedpreferenc measured bytheanswerstospecificquestionaboupolitica l preferences, thereby losinganformoflegitimacwithinradicalChristia n circles. Lahoud wasanewcomertothescene,ancoulplayonl bySyria'srule- religionists. UnlikeHrawi,whospoliticalcareerdatedbac k tothe1960s, base withinthMaronitcommunity,Lahoudwassnubbe d byhisco- match Hrawi'sachievementinthidelicatebalancingact . Lackingapower establishment. Hrawi'ssuccessor,GeneralEmileLahoud , wasunableto Maronites a'oneofthem'whilremainingloya l totheSyrian Maronite originsandSyrianrequirements,Hrawiappeale d todisgruntle the Lebanespolityundercontrol.Strikingadelicatbalancbetweenhis the presidencyin1991.ASyrialoyalistoend,Hrawmanagedkeep politics itheelevationofEliaHrawi,aseasonedLebanesstatesmant essentially astruggleforpowebetweenMaronitfactionsovewhoshould entered amoreseriousandamagingphase.Maronitdivisionreflect was aturning-pointinthefurtherdeclinofMaronitpower.However, Agreement playedadecisiverolinsplittingthMaronitcommunityan visions ofLebanon'future.Anexampleithcontextpost-warLebanes speak forthecommunity.Theyweralsoproductfdifferennormativ were subjectoenormousdivisionnmanypoliticalissues.ThTa'if support offoreignpowersandrejecArabism. an importantroleiincreasingthcohesioofcommunity.Th 36 NATIONALISMandETHNICPOLITICS and thedeclin ofMaronitepower.ThChristia n Maroniteresentmen t of and atthesamtimstriking hostilitytowardsMaroniteleaders.Wartim and alsotbeinferrefromresponsesgeneralquestions . Inthefirstcase, sectarian leaderslikeSamirJaaja , LebaneseForcescommanderandGeneral Empirical dataonthissubjectallowMaroniteleaderpreferenc e tob Data fromthe1988and2000surveysdemonstratethatMaronite Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 45 4 The ideathatLebanonwoul d notexiswithoutheMaronitesiaprimary Expression ofPerceivedSelf-Identity Lebanese groupsandespeciallythMaronites.ToLebanon' s Maronites,the explain whyHaddad'srespondentplacedAouanJaaja a ontopfthelist represent thebasicfeelingincountryandfunctiobetter. ' Thismay put theirfaith'.Appreciationofmilitiaandnationalisleader s ireported Rafik Hariri'saction,deputyGemayelstilinsistedondescribingthenew Parliamentary deputPierreGemayel,sonofformerpresidentAmi expression ofth e determinationofthMaronit e populationtoachiev e only forcekeepingthChristian s atbayandpreventingthemfro economic resources,whichresultedinlarge-scaleaversio n amongmany life andprohibittheirsiphoningoffoasignificantportio n ofitsmeagre army fromLebanon,preventtheirmanipulationofthecountry' s political is anappreciatiooftheChristialeaders'demand-t o evicttheSyrian of themostpreferredleaders.Thlikelyexplanation forthesechoices with thestatement'Thtimofoldpoliticiansifinished . Thenewleaders also byHanf,whfoundthatasman62percenf Maronitesagreed is afewcourageous,tirelesanddevoteleadernwhomthepeoplca per centfotheShi'itesandSunnirespectively,agreewithstatemen power struggleinordetoconsolidattheiarpresentedby who areabltunifythcommunitinsteadfmanengageinainternal leaders canbeinferredfromotherdata.Thneefoauthoritaria expression ofpersistenceifollowingapolicymarginalization'. is somethingtakinplaceforthfirsttimsincindependencandan excluding Maronitesfromkeyministerialportfolioandchargethat chairman oftheMaronitLeague'sExecutivCouncil,protestedagainst cabinet as'politicaldisaster...andnationatragedy'HarithShihab, Gemayel, gavethnewgovernmentavotofnconfidence. outspoken patriarchSfeirseemedgenerallysatisfiewittheMaronitslots. displayed bytheirparliamentarseats-inthenewcabinet.Eve extreme carinproportionatelyrepresentingthmaipoliticalforces-a parliamentary electionsin1992and1996.DespiteChristiaparticipatio the orderestablishedundeTa'ifwasexpresseinboycotto subordinating othergroupsar e thSyrians. Khashan: 93percentofMaroniterespondents(n=540)agains5and48 to abarragefcriticisms,mainlyfromthMaronites.Thishappeneddespit the 2000parliamentaryelections,formationofcabinetwassubjected POLITICAL TRANSFORMATIONOFLEBANON'SMARONITE37 'excluding Christians,andMaronitesinparticularfrompoliticalministries 'What thiscountryneedmost,morethanlawandpoliticalprogrammes Fully cognizantofthepoliticalenvironmendictatingPrimMinister Evidence supportingMaronitdissatisfactionwithwartimmilitia Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 48 467 52 51 memorial servic e forPresident-electBashi r Gemayel,whodiedina1982 , Tannios ChahineintroducedthPhoenicianidentityanationalideology, Christian historyandcharacterisseebscholaraattemptoden geographically andtotheWeshistoricallreligiouslpossessesa geographically andpolitically. where bothIslamandChristianitycoulunitintoaLebanessociet only asinternalldifferentburacialldistincwell.Thesecularwrite the worldofIndianOcean.ThMaronitesasuchregarthemselvenot in thefirstplacoMediterranean,whereasMiddlEasbelong distinct aswell'.Lebanon,theyclaimiessentiallnon-Arabandbelong perceives theMaronite'notonlyaculturalldifferenbuethnicall political insulationfromtheirIslamicneighbours.MicheChiha its power-sharingfeatures. Thisviewwastressedrecentlywhenat entity.' political dominanceofthMaronitesivitatviabilit y oftheLebanes political systememanatingfroit.Tabarasserts:'Themaintenanc e ofth They expressedloyalttohistoricalanmodernLebano n aswelltothe heartland intheMiddlEast. West andinsistenceonthsurvivalfLebanoasChristian,democratic considered themselvesanexclusivecommunitydifferentfromallother Maronites becameattachedtoLebanonatheirnationalhomelanan their Arabancestry: inhabitants. Lebanesenationalismemphasizesindividualisandself- 38 NATIONALISMandETHNICPOLITICS were thereforcommittedtoth e preservationofthconfessionalsystemand was theonlyguaranteforpreservin g thesecurityofcommunitand over Lebanon.Theystressedtha t aleadingroleforthMaronitcommunity communal prerogatives,whic h wasaMuslimdemand,plototake sufficiency, rejectionofIslamandtheArabworldidentificatiowith The Maronites'beliefthatLebanonbelongsothArabEasonly During thecivilwar,Maronit e leaderssawthatanyreductionitheir 50 49 Phoenicianism -theattemptolinkcivilizationf5,000yearsag history. TheytendtoforgetheiroriginastribefromSouther with theirownwasonemethodusebyMaronitunittodistanc Islamic rule,Lebanesenationalaspirationcouldhavdisappeare d nation itheMiddlEast. the onlytrudemocracinArabWorldanas y Catholic forever. TheMaronitesseethemselveathdefendero f Lebanonas Had itnobeenfortheexistencofMaronitesa thetimof Arabia. themselves fromtheArabs,thuignoringanerofintervenin Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 5 53 overwhelming supportforanyonepolitica l grouping,withaslow18 per per centansweredno.Furthermore , Maronitesdidnotshowan Maronite respondentsweraske d iftheysupporteapoliticalgrouping, nationalism. Thesefindings, however,appeartoconflicwithHanf.When homeland? Asmaretal.foundthaMaronitesfavoure d Lebanese estrangement? DoestheMaronitcommunitystillvie w Lebanonasit community, whichhascometosymbolizabroaderproces s ofsocial Source: Khashansurvey,1992. Greco-Roman and theAounmovementver y lowratingsandbroadlrejectingArab nationalism abovealltendencies , givinggroupssuchaLebaneseForce Pheonician Islamic Arab heritage Q2: WhenyouthinkofthehistoryLebano International Lebanese responsibilities towarduandalloweallthearmeforeignertoattack Syrian Arab Ql: Whichofthefollowingembodiesyournationalisticfeeling? was acountryforeveryone,bothChristianandMuslimsbutealsonote us.' Laterheremindedhisaudiencoffather'positionthat'Lebano rights, oursecurityandfreedomattimethgovernmenneglecteits POLITICAL TRANSFORMATIONOFLEBANON'SMARONITE Christians needed'anoasiofsecurityantranquilititheMiddlEast'. Gemayel's son,Nadimdeliveredaspiritespeech:'Wedefendeour heritage heritage heritage Does thibehaviourexplaintheincreasingalienatioo f theMaronit _ - 7 23 (n=430) Sunnis 94 (n=430) Sunnis 4 2 1 45 53 (n=540) Shi'ites (n=540) Shi'ites 81 1 4 4 1 1 PERCEIVED SELF-IDENTITY(%) (n=180) Druze (n=180) 84 3 57 Druze 4 6 2 9 6 TABLE 1 , fromwhataspectsdoyoulookait? 67 32 (n=450) ites Maron- (n=450) onites Mar- 84 13 2 1 1 1 38 29 (n=280) dox Ortho- 40 26 (n=280) 29 dox Ortho- 17 17 5 4 4 (n=180) 60 (n=180) Catholics 2 Catholics 1 13 2 5 _ _ 32 68 (n=65) Protest- _ ants 31 51 (n=65) ants Protest- 19 - _ 62 (n=175) ians Armen- 40 Armen- 62 (n=175) ians 15 15 9 39 Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 54 Nasrallah Sfeir,hasbecomevocalinraisingthissuofSyriawithdrawal main ChristiapoliticalforcesfelundersystematicSyriaandpro-Syria presence onLebanessoil.Furthermore,atthtimfHanf'ssurvey boosted ageneralfeelingofpatriotismheightenebyforeigntroops cent favouringmilitanChristians.Thereasonforthdiscrepancymali 40 NATIONALISMandETHNICPOLITICS product ofone'ssenseabilityparticipatmeaningfullin by thecitizenry.Astrongsensofpoliticalefficacoftengenerates Political AlienationandEfficacy declarations callingforaSyrianwithdrawalfromLebanon. particularly oncethCouncilofMaronitBishopsissuedsevera thereby re-establishingthepopularlegitimacofChristiannationalism, Geagea, wasjailed.SincethenthMaronitchurchunderitpatriarch Christian militia-turned-politicalpartywasdisbandedanitchief,Samir persecution: in1991AouwasexpelledtoFrance,an4theformer warring parties.Conversely,theAsmartalsurveytookplacafte the respondentssincnopoliticalagreementwayetconcludedbetwee launching oftheLiberationWaragainstSyriatroopsbyGeneralAou in thefacttha1987surveysampledrespondentstwoyearbefore wishes andneeds. because theyfeelthoutputsofgovernmentarunresponsiv e totheir may feelalienatedbecausethepowerlesstoinfluenc e governmentor distinction betweepersonalpoliticacompetenceamong citizensandtheir political efficacy,thegreaterone'sparticipation tendstobe.The political activities.Ittendsoreflecacombinationfone' s innateability, legitimacy ofthestate.Thdegrepoliticalefficacexperiencedisa low senseofpoliticalefficacynamassscalcaseriouslunderminth loyalties tothestate,itsymbolsinstitutionandonwhereaavery affections towards,orsensefattachmenttopoliticalobjectexperienced In amoderdemocraticpolity,politicalefficacydenotesthepersona austere politicalatmosphercouldhavpossiblyinfluencethanswersof of activitiestchangeith e imagIprefer'.Thesresults,andthos the statement'Iamdissatisfie d withmysocietyanIaminvolveinlot political efficacy. that theMaronites-alongwit h DruzeandProtestants-displaysubstantial their senseofpoliticalalienation?Khashan's'politicaefficac y scale'shows assessment ofhowthepoliticalsystemrespondsifundamental : people social conditioningandcircumstances.Thehighe r one'sdegreeof and 4percent forSunnisand16pecent d 14percentfoShi'ites.Th e obtained fromsimilarquestions , arestrikingwhencomparedwith3percent To whatextenistheMaronites'feelingflowpoliticalefficac y behind For example,41pecentstrongl y agreedan26percentwith Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 The verycommoncriticismlevelle d againsttheMaroniteshabeenfac that theyhav e developeddemarcationstrategies , betheycultura l or influence theirpoliticalstatus . item, Maronitesappearedt o feelbothlesssatisfiedanablet destiny; Maronitesrankedtopinthiscale.Therefore , onboththe efficacy) respondentswereaskedtoindicatnafive-poin t scalehow political impotence.Asafurthermeasureof l confidence(or pronounced senseofhelplessness-whichdescribeawidesprea d feelingof peace, inthatthewartimsufferingtheyenduredhasnobeecompensate Group Consciousness much theysharedthatfeelingofbeinunablecontro l theirpolitica Maronite estrangementfromthbodypoliticisalsoindicate d bytheir for bypoliticalgains,sothatthearedoublbitter.Khazenremarkthat: envisaged. Maronitesperceivethemselveahavinglostbothinwarand grievances againsttheTa'ifAgreemenemanatfromclaithatheir diminished fromadominantpositionomorebalanceone.Maronit share inLebanespoliticsnotproportionalwiththspeciarolthey the ratificationofTa'iAgreement,Maronitessawtheirpowestatu indicated acorrespondinglygreatersenseofpoliticaltrustanefficacy.With while thmuchhigherlevelofconfidencmanifestedbyMuslimsects position itheLebanespoliticalsystem.Ifact,Maronitculture per centstronglyagreedan28agreed).Harikattributesthiothe Druze, ontheotherhandscoredhighethaMaronitesthiitem(46 authors attributedthesefindingstoMaronitdisaffectionfromthsyste all significantlymoreconfidentthathMaronitesinpoliticasystem.Th in thestatmachinerythroughcontrolofkesecuritandpoliticaoffices. which stressesanindependentLebanon,grantedthemdominanpositio accommodate thprevailingpoliticalconditionstosecuraprivileged incursion ofcentralpowersandhavebeewiththMaronitecorpolitica fact thatheDruzhavdefendedfiercelytheirfreedomagains POLITICAL TRANSFORMATIONOFLEBANON'SMARONITE41 'Confidence inthPoliticalSystem'scale,andosingl e 'helplessness' System' revealedthatDruze,SunnisShi'itesanOrthodoxChristianwere survey. Responsestoa30-poinscalelabelled'ConfidencinthPolitical actors inLebanon.AteverystageoftheirhistorthMaronitemanaged These resultsardiscrepantwithAsmaraal.'findinginth1996 5 decentralization stalled,manydisplacedpersonsdino t return,and elections wereneitherfrenofair. national unitygovernmentswereformed,administrativ e government authoritiesoptedfortheoppositcourso f action:no Rather thanbroadethebasofChristiasupportfoTa'if,Lebanes Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 56 42 NATIONALISMandETHNICPOLITICS considered thecanonsofculturalanpoliticaoptionprevailing promote mental,culturalandpoliticaseparationmeasureagainstwhaar political. Thisveinwalabelled'isolationist'ithesensthattendo In responsetothstatemen'amparticularlyproudfbeingmember evidence, drawnfromHaddad'sdataoethnicattachmentirepresentative. what theiractualnumberswouldentitlethem,haapparentlybecoma dominant SunnisintheArabEast.Overyeartheysucceeded They believethehavsurviveddefiancofthnumericallanpoliticall Maronites ofMountLebanonhavealwayhadahighlevelautonomy. Lebanon expressedthehighestlevelofsatisfactiowiththeirreligious country areclear-cut.KhashanreportedthatthMaronitesipre-war their vision.ThefindingsonthMaronitcreedattachment Lebanon assourceofpatriotismandloyaltyhabeevercompellingi Islamic majority.Asaruralminoritythehavebornintheirpsychth community (68percent).Thisfindingcanbeexplainedthfacttha distrust ofimperialdesignsandastrongsenseterritoriabelonging. Lebanon intoa unifiedstate.Seenfromthis radicalMaronitestance,itcoul d Ta'if Agreementwasasetback , sinceitentailedthreintegrationof Agreement werelimitedan d coulhavebeentolerabliprinciple, the actualbalancofpower,whichdoesnotallowMaronit e political order butdissentedondetails.Syria'smilitarypresenceserve s tomaintain the governmentandfromChristianpartiesthahav acceptedthenew They feelpoliticallunderrepresented,alienatedanexclude d bothfrom community undertheTa'ifarrangementarnodiscrepan t withreality. its normalroleinLebanon'. 5 percentdisagreemenand2strongdisagreement . However,only statement 'MysechasaspecialmissionoperformiLebanon'agains similar results:37pecentstronglyagreedan2withthe and 2percentstronglydisagreed.Anothequestionprobethisthemewith accord havemodifieMaronitperceptionstothaeffect.Thfollowing source ofsatisfaction. and culturalconnectionwiththeWest.Theirachievement,whictranscends developing ahighlevelofpoliticaarticulationandendurin sect', 75percentstronglyagreed1disagreed were aspiringtoestablisha n autonomousMaroniteChristiaentity,th community amidachallengin g confrontation.ForthoseMaroniteswho accepting themwouldhaveamounte d togivingconcessionstheMuslim a Maronitepointofview,althoughthreformsembedde d intheTa'if supremacy ofthepast.Againstthisbackdrop,Syrrieh"conclude s thatfrom 18 percentconcurredwith'TheMaronitcommunityiscurrentl y assuming The Christians'resentmentandfrustrationwiththrolassigne d tothe In contrast,changingcircumstanceswiththeconclusioofTa'i Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 58 be arguedthatthTa'ifAgreemensignallelossoMaronitlegal for politicalstabilit y inLebanon,andthatconfessionalis m washoldingbac k point scalethextenowhic h theyagreedthatconfessionalismisnecessar representation andsayitsapplicatiofaileiLebanon.Oneimminent use statinstitutionstodistributeconomicwelfarandpoliticalbenefit Accordingly, thepursuitofparticularisticobjectivesoftenbecome preferentially totheirethnicbrethren.Becausethstatsetstermf In multi-ethnicsocieties,competitioforscarceresourcestypicallylieat Propensity forInter-GroupCooperation basis foranethnicnationalistclaim. the post-warperiod.Asma t al.askedrespondentsoindicatenafive- The uncompromisingMaronit e positionfindsitspracticalapplicabilityi relationship isthoroughlydiscussedbSirrieh: the NationalPactformulainformofmorbalanced Christian-Muslim outbreak ofthewarsnotnegotiable.Maronitunwillingnes s torevise respondents) stronglyagreedthat'tocompromiseis betrayone'sown group (72percentagains4and18scorebySunniShi'ite agreeable toallLebanesgroups'.Similarly,morMaronitesthananyother Maronites. Khashanconfirmsthipatterithathi'politicalcompromise' change favouringMuslimsversuChristianandShi'iteSunni undertake anypowerreadjustmentinviewofthgrowingdemographic factor behindthepoliticalcrisesencounterewaMaronitrefusato side'. TheseresponsesshowclearlythatMaronitsupremac y beforeth give upsomofitsnaturalrightsinordertreachapoliticasolutio Maronites stronglydisagreedwiththestatementtha'Yourgroupshoul orders. embodied incompetingvisionsofjust,legitimateanappropriatpolitical competition betweegroups,itbecomesaobjecofgroupstruggle. scenarios, leadersofadominantethnicgroupgainpoliticalpowerandthe identity, groupcompetitionofteformsalongethniclines.Itypical the heartofethnicconflict.Wherethnicityisanimportanbasifor POLITICAL TRANSFORMATIONOFLEBANON'SMARONITE43 scale showsthatMaronitrespondentscorearlowest.Sixtypercenof Many puttheblamonconsociationalissystemfproportional 59 across itfrontiers. needs amidstanoverwhelmin g MuslimpopulationiLebanoand preserve theirethnicandreligiousidentitysatisf r security made thmaximumconcessiontheycouldtolerate,i n orderto dominance toacceptingpower-sharinthroughthNationa l Pact Having hadtocompromisefromapreviouspowerpositio n of System, ontheevfcivilwarMaronitesbelieve d theyha Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 61 60 renegotiated easily , theethniccontractwillb e atriskofcollapse. not beenanticipated,orifth e safeguardsaroverlyrigidandcannotb the ethnicbalance.Whensuc h changesintheethnicbalancofpowerhav evolve overtime.AsinLebanon , disparitiesinpopulatiogrowthratewill Preferred PoliticalArrangement may increaseprosperitforsom e groupsandpovertyforothers,alsoshifting eventually alterthebalancbetwee n groups.Differingaccesstoresource capacity toorganizeeffectively.However,thethnicbalanc e ofpowerdoes determined bydemography,theresourcesavailabltoeac h groupandtheir credible commitmentcreatedbychangesineithertheethni c balanceofpower behaviours. However,ethniccontractscanbeundermine d anproblemsof between thegroupsandtheirbeliefabouteachother'intention s andlikely politics inpeacefuldirections. be understoodasbaseupon'contract'betweegroups thatchannel In multi-ethnicsocieties,resourcerivalriesandthstruggl e tocontrolstat Source: Asmaretal.survey,1999 Disagree Neutral or thebeliefsfgroupaboutothers.Thpoliticalpowe r ofgroupsi policy producecompetingcommunalinterests.Stablethni c relationscan Agree Ql: Isconfessionalismnecessaryforstability? for stabilityandmanofthemwoulseektdefenivigorouslshoulan 4 NATIONALISMandETHNICPOLITICS communalism. the extentofpoliticalstratificationiLebanoandintensitysectaria by Haddad,whofoundthatmorentwo-thirdsfMaronitrespondent opportunity beplacedonthpoliticalagenda.Thesattitudesarconfirme that Christiansaremorlikelyobelievconfessionalisminecessar impedes developmentregardlesofsect.Theauthorconcludedtherefor of allrespondentsagreedwiththeseconstatementthaconfessionalism Maronite respondentsexpressedtheirdisagreement.Conversely,62pecent Lebanon's development.Inresponsetothfirsquestion,onlyone-thirdf supported themaintenancofconfessionalsysteminLebanon,revealing The termsofthethniccontractreflecbalancpolitica l power 50 Sunnis 25 25 (n=283) VIEWS ONCONFESSIONALISMi 53 (n=108) Shi'ites 34 13 TABLE2 37 Maronites 30 3 (n=155) 42 (n=206) Orthodox 39 19 58 (n=S7) Druze 35 7 Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 62 in theabsenco f suitableregionalandpolitica l circumstances. political systemandtheadjustmen t fromunitaryodecentralizedpolitical reflected Maroniterespondents ' generaldisillusionmentwiththeexisting redress thebalancofpowerbetwee n Lebanesecommunities.Otherchoices choice forthMaroniteswoul d betocallforpoliticareformsthawoul view ofthesereformsandthselectivapplication Ta'ifaccord,one framework, butthesefindsuppor t onlyamongaminoritthepresentim representation betweeChristiansandMuslimwithith e legislature.In president, increasingthepowerofparliamentandintroducin g equal different confessions.Thisinvolvedreducingthepowe r oftheMaronit made toestablishamorequitablpower-sharingformul a betweenthe (Christian andMuslim)stateintoafederalstate. the onlyremainingsolutionwouldhavbeetospli t thebi-national cards badlyduringthewar-pactof1943beinamajo r blunder,since In thisregard,PharesarguethatsincethMaronitelit e hasplayedit circles startedtoconceiveaprojecforthChristianonly-federalstat findings: only23percentofhisrespondentbelievedthenthatheNational Maronite communityinpost-warLebanon,andupothisbasith Responses tothiquestionsummarizethentirpoliticalexperiencf Sources: Khashansurvey,1992;Haddad2000. Federal state630 The NationalPactof194320 Substantial reformsinacentralizedframework521 it underminedMaronitepoliticalhegemonyanseupa bi-nationalstate- or widedecentralization-butnonfthesideashabeeclearlydefined. and intellectuals.Duringthewar,majorityofpoliticalintellectua decentralized politicalsysteminlinewiththcallsofmostChristiapartie aid coulberevitalized.ThmajorityofKhashan'srespondentfavourea Covenant, towhichtheTa'ifaccordhasgivenanewlifewastillworkabl the solandfinalpoliticaarbiterincountry.ComparthistoKhashan' belief isthatthepacguaranteedforMaronitpresidenpositiono workable andcanservtoregulatpoliticallifiLebanon.Centrathis number ofrespondentsdbelievethatthNationalPac1943istil respondents arelikelytoreflectheirfuturexpectations.Asubstantial Substantial reformsinacentralizedframework819 Q: WhichpoliticalarrangementdescribesbesyourattitudetowardthLebanessituation? POLITICAL TRANSFORMATIONOFLEBANON'SMARONITE45 1992 2000 With theratificationofTa'iAgreementi1989,a n attemptwas PREFERRED POLITICALARRANGEMENT(%) TABLE 3 Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 politicians wh o eitherlackapowebas e orwhhavnmainstrea m Christian leadersduringth e waryears,sself-destructive.Today power butalsoemergedinternallyfragmenteanmarginalized.AsRabil political behaviour.Perhapsthemostsignificantfindingrelateo orientations -i.e.,attitudesbeliefsvalueandexpectationthatshape 46 NATIONALISMandETHNICPOLITICS struggle, whichtookonvariou s politicalandmilitaryformamong is theabsencofacrediblan d effectivepoliticalleadership.Thpower • theleadership'sinabilitytoformulatanationalpoliticaplatformtha This authoridentifiethecentralcauseleadingtothisituationa remarks: only losttheiredgeinLebanespoliticsandwerforceoaccommodat entity whichdidnotmaterialize.Wittheenof1975-90war,the Muslim groups,theMaronitesoptedforanindependentLebanesChristia political order.Maronitepreferencesappeartohavundergondifferen this studyhadetectedsignificantmovemeninMaronitepolitical As aresultofreviewingempiricalworkconductedbetween1987an2000, • itsreluctancetoexaminandreassesthparty'historica l recordan • theleadership'swillingnestoresorexcessivcoercio n iorderto • theleadership'snaivandtotallyunsubstantiateassertio n thatthe outbreak ofthecivilwarin1975;unwillingtgivconcessions stages oftransformation:afterenjoyingapositiondominanceuntilth Conclusion 64 the community-makingitnearlimpossiblforosustai n itselfas Khazen holdsthatoneofth e mostpressingproblemsforthChristian grass-roots politicalmovement. learn frompastmistakes-alwayblamingsomeoneels fortheillsof drastically improve; country's problemmainlyresultedfromexternalfactor andthatonce could appealeithertotheoveralcommunitycountr y atlarge; squash internalcommunadissent;and they wereremovedthpoliticalconditionofcommunit y would 63 in post-Ta'ifLebanon. Throughout itslonghistory,theMaronitcommunityhaexperienced economic andmilitaryfortunesgraduallsinktoadisastrounewlo their militaryfront,theLebanesForces)hasseenitpolitical war in1975,theMaronitcommunityledbyPhalangists(an threatens itownpoliticalsurvival.Sincethbeginningofcivi internal strifeanddisunitybutneveronthcurrenscale,which Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 reality oftheLebanesentity. Lebanon. TheMaronitesfinditdifficulointegratththemef fully onitsown,theMaronitleadershipandrankfilewouleventuall once thregionalsituationallowsLebanespoliticasystemtooperat launched theLebanespoliticalsystemanprovideitwithsovereignty drawn-out conflict,mainlybecausethTa'ifAgreemenhasnoyetre- The protractedcivilwarserveasmilestoninthmoderhistoryof differs fromthepreviouone,whichMaronitefeltcomfortablwith. local andregional,haveproduceanewpoliticasystemthatsubstantially politicians wouldnotbeinoffice.Havingclearethstagofradicalright- accept, andinduetimenrichthnewpost-civil-warsocialpolitica and self-steeringcapabilityneedeforeffectivegovernance.Itishopetha of socialandpoliticachange,aswelthecomplexnaturactorsboth come togripswiththconsequencefLebanescivilwar.Thrapidity leadership. Asaresult,Picardmaintains wing Christianleaders,moremoderatfigureswerpromotedfor Lebanon are,withfewexceptionsrestrictedtothoseclosties legitimacy representChristians.Christianpoliticiansipowerpost-wa POLITICAL TRANSFORMATIONOFLEBANON'SMARONITE47 Syria. Underdifferentcircumstances,someofthmosvisiblChristian 4. WalterARosenbaum , PoliticalCulture(London:Praege r Publishers,1975)p.43. 3. Examplesofhistoricalandcontemporaryconflictbetweendifferentethnic , nationalracial 2. Inafewcases,someformofnationalisisespousedbutonlybrid offoreignforcesi 1. AntoineJAbraham,'NewStrategiesforThirdWorlConflicts:Th e LebanonModel,' The Maronitcommunity,morsoitmainstreamleadershiphanotye recently beenundertakeitheUnite d Statesannew,tentativepeacaccordhavbeen fundamentalism inEgypt,theSuda andAlgeria.Althoughanationalinitiativeonrachas Philippines, Indiaclanrivalryi Somalia,theethniccleansinginBosniaIslami objective. a countryandcertainlnotomaintainunitamongthedivergengroup s beyondthat conflict persists. signed inLebanon,NortherIrelan andtheMiddlEast,globalthreatofinter-group peace andthtenacityofdiscor betweengroups:NortherIreland,SriLankathe and religiousgroupareabundant d serveascompellingreminderofthfragility Contemporary Review,Vol.264,No.536(1994)p.38. 65 dissatisfaction, arethChristians. Lebanese society,thmostaffectedandthusvocalinexpressing Christians. Whiledisenchantmentiswidespreadacrosallof and questionitsutility.Lebanotodayinotareassessingplacefor some ChristianleaderswhooncsupportedTa'ifarnowcriticalit NOTES Downloaded By: [Ingenta Content Distribution - Routledge] At: 08:28 27 April 2008 48 NATIONALISMandETHNICPOLITICS 30. Phares,p130 . 29. FuadFramAl-Bustani,De1'Erreur DuGrandLiban(Kaslik,Lebanon:KaslikUniversity 28. Phares,p126 27. SeeEyalZisser,'ThMaronites , LebanonandtheStatofIsrael:EarlyContacts'Middle 26. MZuaaeiter,Al-Mashrual-Maruni fiLubnan(Beirut,Wikalatal-Tawziial-Dawliah1986) 24. MahmoudAyoüb,'Lebanonbetweenreligiousfaithanpoliticalideology' , inCollings 22. EdmondRabbath,LaFormationHistoriqueDuLibanPolitiqueet Constitutionelle1973 21. IskandarAkbarius,LebanonandTurmoil:SyriaThePowersin 1860(NewHaven,CT: 20. AlbertHourani,SyriaandLebanon:APoliticalEssay(Beirut:LibrairieduLiban1968) 25. SeePierrJumayi.,'LebanesNationalismanditsFoundations:Th PhalangistViewpoint', 23. 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