Identification of 1850s Brown Paint Made with and at the U.S. Capitol Author(s): Frank S. Welsh Source: APT Bulletin, Vol. 39, No. 1 (2008), pp. 17-30 Published by: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25433934 Accessed: 25/12/2009 10:57

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http://www.jstor.org Identification of 1850s Brown Zinc Paint Made with Franklinite and Zincite at the U.S. Capitol

FRANK S. WELSH

Research and analyses disclose that Introduction white lead and application of lead-based

brown, zinc-based primer used on paints. Recent investigations of interior paints The findings of this project add not 1850s cast iron at the U.S. Capitol in the 1850s House and Senate of wings to the of the construction of the United States have revealed only history contains made from the Capitol more pigments the U.S. Capitol but also, and for the first time the original brown zinc crushed ore of franklinite and zincite significantly, to the history of zinc-paint paints that were made by the New manufacture and the use of as advertised by the New Jersey Zinc Zinc inNewark, New Jersey Company architectural in this as a paint pigments Jersey. Used factory-applied, rust Company. in the mid-nineteenth on country century. inhibitive primer the cast-iron door Much has been written about zinc and window enframements installed at paints and the Franklin-area mines; however, the this contains unusual Capitol, paint until the at the the that were made discovery Capitol, pigments by crushing use of crushed franklinite and zincite ore franklinite and zincite ore from the as an pigments in architectural paint celebrated Franklin and Sterling Hill was never studied in detail. Identifica mines in Sussex County in northwestern tion of these minerals can be used as a New Jersey. reliable benchmark for and/or The New Zinc was dating Jersey Company a authenticating layer. The results one of the first manufacturers of zinc paint that future studies oxide and zinc-based architectural and suggest published concerning zinc pigments should include industrial paint inAmerica. In addition a more accurate of their manu to the also made at least history white, company facture franklinite and zincite in seven other colors of zinc using paint, espe the mid-1800s in America. cially brown, for use principally as primers on metals but also for finish coats on exterior wood surfaces. The ore Identification of Brown Zinc Paint at the from which American-made zinc paint Capitol was first manufactured was discovered The Capitol was constructed in the late in Franklin, New in the cen Jersey, eigh eighteenth and early nineteenth ore teenth century. The contained many was turies. It greatly expanded between minerals of different colors and compo 1850 and 1867 with the addition of sition, the primary ones, including north and south wings and a new cast zincite and which occur ? franklinite, iron dome all designed by architect nowhere else on earth. Thomas U. Walter and overseen by The of the Franklin-area history engineer Capt. Montgomery C. Meigs. mines and the zinc extracted from the The extension project, as it was ore are linked. The mines two inextricably called, comprised the wings that and innovative manufacturing processes housed new House and Senate chambers to gave birth the zinc pigment, zinc new cere plus offices, meeting rooms, paint, and ready-mixed-paint industries monial spaces, grand staircases, and in America. The nineteenth-century elegant corridors (Fig. 1). Fireproofing incentive for the and manufac mining was a great concern to Walter and oth turing industries to develop after the British burned Fig. 1. The United States Capitol, 1867, looking ers, especially as an alternative white for southwest, as the 1850s extension project pigment the Capitol in 1814. Consequently, architectural and industrial was designed by Thomas U. Walter was nearing paints Walter elected to trim all of the new completion. The north (Senate) wing is in created the health by significant prob door and window openings with cast south (House) wing is in back foreground; lems associated with the manufacture of or iron casings enframements (Walter ground. Courtesy of the Architect of the Capitol.

17 18 APT BULLETIN: JOURNAL OF PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY / 39:1, 2008

and called them Meigs window and ments. These projects started in 2002 in ings and ornaments in order to get the door The door dressings). enframements Senate Office S-312 with the Office of thickest layer evidence, since paint tends in the were basement manufactured by the Senate Curator and continued in to accumulate in crevices and corners. the Baltimore firm of as a Hayward, Bartlett 2004 part of window-shutter survey The samples from the various fea and but the basement win tures were Company, throughout the Capitol with the Office analyzed microscopically, dows and all door and window en of the Curator of the Architect of the initially in a loose fractured state under framements well as all (as ornamental Capitol. In 2005 the project culminated the stereomicroscope and afterward in and in the cross ceilings gallery fronts) upper with taking additional samples from mounted sections. All samples floors were manufactured, starting in door and window enframements in exhibited the same brownish gray, oil 1855, by Janes, Beebe and Company of other offices and public spaces in order based, shop-prime paint layer(s). The New York.1 to distribute the locations of samples color of the paint varies little from of the more than to Many 600 cast-iron throughout the first, second, and third sample sample and is very close to door and window enframements have floors in both wings. The basement the Munsell color reference value of detailed ornamental on moldings their rooms, dome, and ceilings were not 2.5 YR 6/1. This color is described in are so architraves, all of which finely sampled. the National Bureau of Standards Color executed that when finish painted they This last stage was unusual in that it Name Charts as Light Brownish Gray. resemble carved and on a exquisitely molded focused prime paint layer, in con Stereomicroscopical studies show wood Walter have even trast to most (Fig. 2). may paint analysis, which that this brownish gray paint layer that Beebe and a specified Janes, Com typically concentrates on finish paint contains number of very colorful and enframents be before rare - pany primed ship layers and their colors. It is that unusually large (0.1 0.25mm), coarsely as he did with ment, the castings for the pigments in architectural paints are ground yellow, orange, red, and black in even more Congressional Library 1853, giving analyzed, and so for those pigment particles. Their size, color, and instructions "to the with can be as a paint castings that categorized shop primers. appearance in paint film were totally two coats to before shipping, prevent This project focused specifically on the unfamiliar. Upon initial inspection they rust and to a foundation for unusual did not share lay good color of and the pigments used any characteristics of paint the ornamental painter."2 to make the brownish gray oil primer on pigments heretofore seen or described in three the door Recently, during separate paint and window enframements in standard artist-pigment references (Fig. investigation and analysis projects Senate Office S-312 and on all other 3). the throughout first, second, and third door and window enframements subse To identify these unknown pigments floors of the interior of the north (Sen quently sampled. and, subsequently, their source and and south brown ate) (House) wings, Numerous sites from door and win fascinating history of manufacture, they zinc was identified for the first dow in rooms were paint enframements eight in analyzed microscopically and time as the on the mid-1850s both were sam to primer wings investigated and instrumentally document their optical cast-iron door and window enframe pled. The selected spaces and features characteristics and chemical composi are representative from each floor and tion.3 wing. They included H-128, window enframements; H-218, window en framements; H-319, window enframe ments; and the west grand staircase third-floor door enframements in the south wing (House side) and S-128, window enframements; S-211, door 'mm^?M?^'^?^M' enframements; S-312, door enframe east ments; and the grand staircase third-floor door enframements in the north wing (Senate side). In a many cases, sample of the cast iron substrate could not be extracted with the paint layers intact, as is typi cally done with wood and plaster. As a Fig. 3. Cross section of the layers of paint sample S-312-5 from the cast-iron architrave of result, the paint samples were thor the southern-most window on the east wall in oughly scraped off of the feature's sur Senate Office 312 (20X). The lowest layer face a curved X-Acto blade in such using exhibits the characteristic large, colored-pig a as to cast way expose the iron, allow ment agglomerates of the original brownish ing all of the numerous tiny fragments gray, zinc-based, shop-prime paint. The yellow, that to fall into a orange, and red particles are zincite; the black 2. Cast-iron enframement of in separated sample Fig. doorway pigment particles are franklinite. Note the thin Senate Room S-211, the Baines John envelope held below. The locations Lyndon dirt layer (arrow), a clue that the shop-prime son Room, at the Capitol. All selected for were photographs by sampling consistently paint was exposed and collected dirt during the author unless otherwise noted. associated with inside corners of mold shipment and construction. IDENTIFICATION OF 1850s BROWN ZINC PAINT MADE WITH FRANKLINITE AND ZINCITE 19

tion of lead in the paint layer.5The %M were results of this test negative.

Polarizing light microscope. The PLM S ? - was used for further microchemical * ? v* *** v+v tests. Chamot and Mason describe many \ quick and reliable microchemical tests carried out on a microscope slide that <# can be used for detection of ions of -.J? elements in paint pigments.6 Micro chemical tests with the PLM using Fig. 4. Photomicrograph of the initial stages of Fig. 5. Photomicrograph of microchemical test potassium mercuric thiocyanate reaction in the microchemical test for zinc, for zinc, how the precipitate on film illustrating [(K2Hg(SCN)4] both the paint showing orange zincite pigment particles from grows into feathery crosses that appear black in and the individual colored and black the prime paint used on the enframements at the transmitted ?ight of the microscope (50X). pigment particles yielded precipitated the Capitol (50X). The cross-shaped are The precipitate formed is a salt: [ZnHg (SCN)J. crosses and orthorhombic in a solution of potassium mercuric The test confirms the presence of zinc in the feathery precipitating ? a thiocyanate. orange pigment particles (zincite). prisms positive result indicating the presence of zinc (Figs. 4 and 5). A of the brownish Analysis of the Brown Zinc Paints: A brief explanation of the instru sample gray paint film was mounted on a slide under Instruments, Techniques, and Findings ments and the microanalytical tech glass a cover Aroclor niques used to identify these pigments slip using mounting The identification of the pigments in the which has a refractive index of and relevant findings derived from the medium, brownish gray paint from the Capitol in order to observe and follows. Descriptions of the 1.66, measure, enframements was not a exer analyses simple minerals are in Table 1. at magnifications ranging from 40X to were eight presented cise, especially since the pigments the and charac There is an extensive body of informa 1000X, physical optical in various sizes and distributed trans ground tion on all of them in numerous miner teristics of both the colored and the layer.4A variety of as throughout paint references. parent particles, such shape, size, instruments was em alogical microanalytical color, refractive index, birefringence, to the structure and Stereomicroscope. The stereomicro ployed study layer and polarization colors. Transparent color of this and to determine its was used to evaluate the brownish paint scope particles, which were difficult to Of inter to observe its structure pigment composition. primary gray color; layer identify because of their similar charac est were the colored and orange, red, con pigment particles, coarsely ground yellow, teristics, were either identified or but as the the and black and to do analyses progressed, particles; prelimi firmed using dispersion staining. This white in the were also microchemical tests, pigments paint nary including technique is used for identification of studied. The instruments specifically the sodium sulfide in a using reagent (Na2S) transparent particles when mounted relevant to their analysis and identifica as described by Perrault for the detec tion included the stereomicroscope, polarizing light microscope (PLM), scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS), ultraviolet microscope (UV), and the Raman spectrometer. With these five instruments and docu a mentary research, total of eight pig ments was identified in the brownish gray prime paint. Of the eight, only one, zinc white, is a manufactured seven are pigment. The other all crushed minerals. The yellow, orange, are and red pigment grains zincite, and the black pigment is franklinite. The colorless pigments identified include , , , dolomite, and barite. The source of the frank linite, zincite, willemite, and tephroite could only have been the orebodies associated with the Franklin-area mines not occur because they do anywhere white characteristic skeletal two- and three-arm else as an associated group of minerals. Fig. 6. Photomicrograph of zinc crystals, showing shapes (50X). 20 APT BULLETIN: JOURNAL OF PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY / 39:1, 2008

by observing its refractive indices rela tive to that of the mounting liquid (Fig. id. were Two colorless particles very difficult to distinguish and identify, willemite and In ' tephroite. plane-polar ' ' * ized the of wil * ' --- light, larger particles ',* '.''' '*$ *. lemite in the prime paint exhibit a very faint green coloration, while the smaller are as are particles colorless, tephroite particles. With the dispersion-staining tech nique, both 10X and 15X oculars were used with the 10X DSO and the annular to stop observe the dispersion-staining Fig. 7. Photomicrograph of pigments in the Fig. 8. Photomicrograph of pigments in the colors on the borders of the transparent brownish gray prime paint from the enframe brownish gray prime paint from the enframe particles in the the paint from the Capi ments at the Capitol (50X). The yellow and ments at the Capitol (50X). The yellow particle is tol. In Aroclor those with orange particles are zincite, and the deep zincite, and the deep reddish brown particle is particles reddish brown particle is franklinite. franklinite. yellow borders are barite; orange red borders are calcite; faint blue are wil blue and medium of known refractive index and franklinite (Figs. 7 through 10). To lemite; strong golden yellow are a more were dolomite. Those with black borders requires special 10X dispersion-stain confirm, analyses done. were identified later with the Raman ing objective (DSO) equipped with an With the PLM, some of the colorless as Reference annular and a central stop in its back particles in the paint film have one or spectrometer tephroite. of these colorless minerals were focal plane. Use of the stops produce both refractive indices higher than the samples on used for comparison using the DSO dispersion colors the particle bound mounting medium. In crossed polars all aries.7 are some more (Figs. 12 16). bir?fringent, than others. through of the smallest in the Not all could be identified at this time. Many particles Ultraviolet microscope. Many pigments paint show unique crystal forms of two, Those exhibiting low-order gray bire fluoresce with characteristic colors or four needles like are barite. Several colorless three, combined, fringence under shortwave ?V light. Some of arms radiating from a central join: a pigments exhibit twinning striations that the fluorescent minerals found in the characteristic of the acicu bisect the acute on well-formed distinguishing angle Franklin-area mines include willemite, lar form of zinc white These rhombohedra and have interfer pigment. strong which fluoresces green; calcite, which look like there are ence colors characteristic of the carbon crystals typically only fluoresces either red, pink, or orange three needles because one of the and dolomite. In joined ates, calcite, Aroclor, red; and barite, which fluoresces white four is almost always hidden from view; dolomite has one refractive index higher or bluish white.8 sometimes when two and one lower than whereas both broken, only (a 1.66, The ultraviolet microscope (UV) was boomerang shape) or one (a single refractive indices of calcite are lower. used for detection and observation of needle are visible Dolomite was from calcite shape) (Fig. 6). distinguished fluorescent minerals (pigments), as well The colored and black pigments from the paint exhibit conchoidal fractures and look like pieces of broken colored glass. Their refractive indices are all higher than the mounting media. The majority of the yellows and light or anges are bright yellow with crossed <# polars; the majority of the deep oranges and reds do not show birefringence. The pigments that are black by the reflected light of the stereomicroscope appear deep red to reddish brown in the trans mitted light of the PLM, depending on the thickness of the conchoidally frac 4 tured grains, and they too do not show birefringence. These initial findings with the PLM suggested that the yellow, and red minerals be orange, might Fig. 9. Photomicrograph of crushed franklinite Fig. 10. Photomicrograph of crushed zincite zincite and the black (or reddish brown), prepared as a reference sample from a mineral prepared as a reference sample from a mineral collection at Bryn Mawr College (50X). collection at Bryn Mawr College (50X). IDENTIFICATION OF 1850s BROWN ZINC PAINT MADE WITH FRANKLINITE AND ZINCITE 21

Table 1. Pigments and Minerals Identified in Brown Zinc Paint

Pigment or Mineral and Colors Occurrence and and (Formula) Refractive Indices Reflected Transmitted Fluorescent Distinguishing Characteristics

Zinc Oxide Hexagonal Manufactured pigment = (ZnO) s 2.02 White Colorless None With PLM and SEM, acicular, skeletal shapes = cd 2.00 are like two, three, or four joined needles

Zincite Hexagonal Franklin-area mines Yellow-to Yellow-to None = Zinc Oxide e 2.02 orange-to-red orange-to-red Associated with franklinite, willemite, and calcite co = 2.01 (ZnO) Yellow particles can demonstrate strong birefringence

Franklinite Member of the Deep red to Confined to Franklin-area mines; always group of minerals reddish brown None associated with zincite and willemite Zinc and is not bir?fringent Black (depending on Iron Oxide particle thickness)

[(Zn,Mn2+,Fe2+) (Fe3+,Mn3+)204]

Willemite Hexagonal Varies in color Colorless to faint Franklin-area mines in association with from yellowish green depending Light green franklinite and zincite = Zinc Silicate e 1.71 green, to red and on particle size Well known because of green fluorescence co= 1.69 brown, but is (ZnSi04) white when pure Faint blue borders with annular stop of DSO in 1.66 refractive-index liquid

Tephroite Member of the olivine Varies from gray group of minerals to pink and is Ubiquitous at Franklin-area mines Manganese Silicate generally light Colorless None Range of 1.77 to 1.82 brown or tan Best identified with Raman spectroscopy (Mn2Si04)

Calcite Hexagonal Common 8 = Calcium Carbonate 1.48 White Colorless Pink to red Shows strong birefringence, exhibiting high-order co =1.65 polarization colors (CaCO.) Well-formed calcite crystals will show twinning striations that bisect the acute rhomb angle

Dolomite Hexagonal Found in Franklin-area mines, but not common

Calcium e = 1.50 White Magnesium ColorlessI None Exhibits moderate to high birefringence. Shows high co= Carbonate 1.68 order polarization colors and twinning striations on both short and long diagonals of well-formed rhomb (CaMg(C03)2) crystals

Can be differentiated from calcite by observing refractive indices relative to the mounting liquid, i.e., the Becke lines Barite Orthorhombic Fairly common at the Franklin-area mines Typically white but Barium a =1.636 can to Sulfate vary bluish Colorless White to Pigment-sized particles show low-order white = 1.637 ? white and yellow bluish white birefringence = (BaS04) Y 1.648 Yellow borders with annular stop of DSO in 1.66 refractive index liquid

as for the paint-layer structure. Only Scanning electron microscope. The sions identify the elements present at two of the in the brownish pigments scanning electron microscope (SEM) each point analyzed. fluoresced. One fluo in gray paint layer used this study is equipped with an The SEM was used both on the paint resced which is light green, willemite, energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) layers in cross section and on the indi and the other fluoresced In the a pale pink, accessory. SEM, beam of elec vidual yellow, orange, red, and black which is calcite. These characteristics trons is to scan a used regular array of pigment particles (grains) that were make UV examination one of the easiest on a points specimen. An image is pro picked out of the paint and mounted on to confirm the of these duced that a ways presence derives from detector that a carbon stub.9 A yellow zincite grain two minerals in a 17 paint layer (Figs. captures and analyzes the intensity of picked out from the prime paint for and electron 18). emissions from the specimen. In imaging with the SEM exhibited a cavity addition, using the EDS, X-ray emis containing several of the skeletal two 22 APT BULLETIN: JOURNAL OF PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY / 39:1, 2008

and three-arm crystals of the processed ing Raman spectra and comparison to called franklinite because of the location zinc white pigment as observed with the reference spectra was used to evaluate of its source. area was a PLM. Also in the image 10 and confirm findings of franklinite and Gradually franklinite, whose compo zincite was micrometer-long hexagonal prism-and obtained from the analyses using sition known by 1819, was mined pyramid zincite crystal. This tiny crystal, the SEM and the PLM.11 The colorless not only for its iron but also for zinc. when measured with was was to spot EDS, particle that difficult identify and The other zinc-containing minerals, ? no pure zinc oxide manganese. Spot that has black borders with dispersion which are intimately associated within measurements were also was as are taken of indi staining identified tephroite (Figs. the orebody, zincite and willemite. a cross sec vidual pigment particles in 27 through 29). The composition of zincite, the red tion of the brownish gray paint layer When the individual colors of these mineral, was known by 1810. The (Figs. 19 through 26). eight pigments are crushed with the oil composition of willemite, the fluorescent The data gathered from the SEM paint films studied, they appear much mineral, was not known until circa analyses matches that presented in like the brownish gray color of the 1822-24, but willemite was not used as reference data for franklinite and zincite paints used at the Capitol (Table 1). a zinc ore until 1866.12 was to and used confirm the preliminary These extraordinary zinc- and iron results from the PLM occur in gathered analyses Franklin and Sterling Hill Mines: containing minerals deposits (Table 2 and Table 3). Source of Minerals Used in Brown only in Franklin and Sterling Hill, New Zinc Paint Jersey, and they were mined extensively Raman spectrometer. The Raman for decades.13 a spectrometer is becoming valuable The analysis and identification of these What makes the Franklin-area mines instrument for analytical paint pigments. pigments led to documentary research even more and In Raman a intriguing accordingly microprobe spectroscopy, the of concerning history mid-nine famous is that: laser of a single wavelength is focused teenth-century mining, manufacturing, approximately 10 percent of all mineral species a microscope onto a are through objective and marketing of zinc oxide, zinc paints known found here. Such a claim cannot be The that comes back is made on behalf of any other on earth.... sample. light in general, and brown zinc paints in locality More valid mineral have been described analyzed for its wavelengths and intensi The research disclosed that species particular. from this for the first time than which locality {69) ties, provide molecular-structural brown zinc were made the paints by from any other Also, about 10 percent information that can locality. uniquely identify New Jersey Zinc Company in the 1850s of the minerals found locally are found nowhere the in the else on are to these compounds/minerals sample.10 and that they contained crushed frank earth; they unique The Raman was used deposits....14 spectrometer linite and zincite ore that the company for of the colored not analysis pigment mined in Franklin and Sterling Hill, Had it been for these deposits, were a particles that picked out of mi the and the innovative Sussex County, New Jersey. mines, pigment of the brownish croscope prep gray Iron initially attracted settlers to manufacturing processes associated with as well as one of the colorless paint, Sussex County in the eighteenth century. them, then the explosive growth of the individual ones. is in (This analysis The principal ores used in early forges zinc paint and ready-mixed-paint in contrast to the colored grains that were were never have occurred in haematite and . By the dustries, may out of a loose under picked paint sample early 1800s experiments began with America. the stereomicroscope for analysis with ore another black, local iron-bearing The of the result SEM.) interpretation that looked like magnetite. The ore was

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11. a Fig. Photomicrograph of well-formed dolomite rhombohedron from Fig. 12. Photomicrograph of a reference sample of crushed willemite using the brownish gray prime paint from the Capitol, which exhibits characteris the central stop of the dispersion staining objective (50X). Dispersion tic twinning striations bisecting the acute angle (100X, plane polarized staining colors on the borders of the willemite particles are a golden white. light). IDENTIFICATION OF 1850s BROWN ZINC PAINT MADE WITH FRANKLINITE AND ZINCITE 23

. . ?^P^'". ?.* r ? ' -. . * .-i .x . #<*

Fig. 13. Photomicrograph of a reference sample Fig. 14. Photomicrograph of a reference sample Fig. 15. Photomicrograph of a reference sample of crushed willemite using the annular stop of of crushed tephroite using the central stop of of crushed tephroite using the annular stop of the dispersion staining objective (50X). Disper the dispersion staining objective (50X). Disper the dispersion staining objective (50X). Disper sion staining colors on the borders of the sion staining colors on the borders of the sion staining colors on the borders of the willemite particles are light blue. tephroite particles are white. Note the willemite tephroite particles are black. Note the willemite particle in the center with the golden white particle in the center with the light blue borders borders (arrow). The presence of willemite was (arrow). predicted by X-ray diffraction analysis of the reference sample prior to the mounting of the grains for microscopical examination.

Manufacture of Zinc White Pigment temperature, producing fumes (white The zinc oxide was obtained directly by ? of white zinc which the zinc ores as smoke) pure oxide, calcining originally Zinc oxide, commonly known zinc were collected.17 This method became franklinite and zincite and, later, wil white, was manufactured and first ? known as the French or indirect process lemite and trapping the resultant introduced as an artist's pigment in because it involved two separate manu fumes in collection bags.19 France in the 1830s using the French, or facturing procedures to obtain the zinc The minerals, mining, inventions, so-called indirect, method. In the earli white pigment, zinc oxide. E. J. Leclaire discoveries, and manufacturing methods est process in France metallic zinc was and J. J. E. Barrnel of Paris, France, developed within a short period of time first extracted from a mineral calamine, the for which in the to mid-1800s and in in developed process they early together occurring large deposits Belgium.15 were an set granted American patent in this the stage for the paint industry to In the early nineteenth century, mineral country in 1850.18 develop and ultimately address, with ogist James Smithson discovered that In America, however, the zinc-metal zinc oxide and zinc-based paint, the the calamine was two distinct actually concerns to and industries did not emerge serious relating the health minerals: zinc carbonate and zinc sili zinc-paint until the mid-1800s using the American, hazards associated with the manufactur cate (hemimorphite).16 The zinc metal or so-called direct, method. It was devel ing of white lead pigment and applica was calcined in furnaces at very high oped by both accident and discovery. tion of lead-based paints.

** T ' *~%t % * ". H * * * ' tab L'*A.*' %.* ' '

; s' =,' "*.' 'Sir'.' :^'

Fig. 16. Photomicrograph of paint sample from Fig. 17. Paint-layer cross-section photomicro Fig. 18. Paint-layer cross-section photomicro brownish gray prime paint from the Capitol graph (reflected light) of Capitol paint sample S graph (short-wave ultraviolet light) of Capitol using the annular stop of the dispersion staining 312-2, from the architrave of the entrance paint sample S-312-2. Note the characteristic objective (50X). Notice how the small particle of doorway. The lowest two layers are the original light green fluorescence of the large willemite willemite with light blue borders, in the center brownish gray, zinc-based shop prime paints particle (arrow). of the prep, is clearly discernable amidst the with the characteristic colored-pigment agglom other pigments in the paint layer, which appear erates. The yellow, orange, and red particles are black. zincite; the black pigment particles are franklinite. Note the large white pigment particle (arrow). 24 APT BULLETIN: JOURNAL OF PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY / 39:1, 2008

' 300pm X-section S312-2a l

Fig. 19. Paint-layer cross-section photomicrograph of Capitol paint sample Fig. 20. SEM-EDS image of the paint-layer cross section of Capitol paint S-312-2. The lowest layer (0.57mm thick) and the one above it are the sample S-312-2. Using the point-and-i.d. option of the instrument, nine original brownish gray, zinc-based shop prime paints, which exhibit the pigment particles were measured to collect data on their elemental compo characteristic large, colored-pigment agglomerates. The yellow, orange, sition. The results are presented in Table 2. and red particles are zincite; the large black pigment particles are frank linite. This image was used as a map for the subsequent SEM EDS imag ing and analysis.

Zinc-Based Paint and the New Jersey ably the first application of zinc paint in experimented with manufacturing paints Zinc Company this country and preceded by several made with the crushed ore, franklinite the discoveries of Le Claire and and and mar As the two years zincite, they successfully competing manufacturing Sorel in France in the late 1830s.22 keted them in a of colors includ methods for zinc oxide became estab variety mar As the industry developed, the ing orange, stone-color, light brown, lished in France and inNew Jersey, the keting of zinc paints emphasized not brown, dark brown, black, and delicate demands for zinc paint grew in Europe only the health advantages over lead blue. Documentary sources suggest that and inAmerica.20 Early French zinc but also its rust-inhibitive the made these colored were paints quali company paints paints not widely accepted because once were ties, they recognized.23 This with the crushed ore only in the 1850s, of problems with body and brittleness.21 latter its ad as as 1850. This fact is same quality (plus economy) starting early At the time, competition was dressed the rising demand for coatings significant in that itmay help establish taking shape in America. InNew Jersey, for cast iron in the construction of dates of any paint identified as contain about 1830, Dr. Samuel Fowler and commercial buildings and, most likely, ing the crushed ore of franklinite and George Ballou succeeded in a making was a consideration for Janes, Beebe and zincite. It is also very important because bluish white zinc-based paint utilizing to use to Company zinc-based paint Kuhn mistakenly reported that the red zinc oxide obtained from zincite, and the cast-iron enframements for colored zinc ores were "useless as a man prime they used it to paint Dr. Fowler's the U.S. because of and at Capitol. pigment impurities" sion Franklin. This project was prob In 1852 the New Jersey Exploring "were never used."25 and Mining Company and the Sussex In 1850 geologist Dr. C. T. Jackson Zinc and Copper Mining and Manufac summarized the connection between the turing Company completed their merger zinc-containing ore at the Franklin-area (initiated in 1851) into the New Jersey mines, the New Jersey Zinc Company, Zinc Company and thereby took control and the brown and colored zinc paints were of the major Franklin and Sterling Hill they manufacturing with the area ore: mines. The New Jersey Zinc Com crushed pany became the major manufacturer of During the past month I visited the celebrated mine of red oxide of zinc and Franklinite, in zinc and zinc oxide as well as zinc paints Franklin,... N.J., and subsequently...examined in America, although other companies, the zinc furnace and paint mills of Newark. e.g., the Passaic Mining and Manufac The red zinc ore of Franklin and Sterling has also zinc turing Company, produced been known for many years. It was originally mined Lord anterior to the American oxide paint.24 by Sterling, - Revolution, under the mistaken idea that the ore Fig. 21. Franklinite zincite ore from a mineral The New Jersey Zinc Company not was red oxide of copper.... collection of the of ore Geology Department Bryn only mined the but also manufac Recently, a few enterprising gentlemen of Mawr College. The red, orange, and yellow is tured the zinc oxide and the pigment New York have undertaken to work the mine, zincite (ZnO); the black is franklinite paints at their plant inNewark starting with a view to the manufacture of zinc white, [(Zn,Mn-\Fe2+)(Fe^Mni+)2OJ; and the white is in the late 1840s. In addition, that beautiful and unchangeable paint lately calcium carbonate (CaCOj). they IDENTIFICATION OF 1850s BROWN ZINC PAINT MADE WITH FRANKLINITE AND ZINCITE 25

Table 2. SEM-EDS Data O Al Cl Ti Mn Fe Zn Ba Pb Spectrum Mg _Ca_ 1: Yellow 40.21 18.14 0.19 0.40 0.28 0.35 0.29 0.69 1.84 36.73 0.89

2: Orange 34.29 24.86 0.36 0.44 0.24 0.32 0.43 1.11 0.75 36.46 0.74 3: Dark orange 26.36 40.83 0.30 0.65 0.63 0.23 0.33 0.34 25.30 4.22 0.81 4: Red 35.33 21.70 0.20 0.37 0.21 0.16 0.42 1.14 0.97 38.79 0.71 5: Black 27.19 28.30 0.22 0.16 0.28 0.20 0.35 0.19 535 25.30 12.47 6: Clear 32.47 30.27 0.33 6.13 0.39 1.53 1.31 1.00 4.87 21.70 7: Clear 28.05 29.93 0.29 6.65 0.25 0.29 1.55 3.82 29.1? 8: Reflective 31.25 8.63 1.08 0.45 0.19 0.31 0.84 51.00 4.55 1.70 ! Cross section S-312-2a. Particles 1, 2, and 4 are zincite; 3 and 5 are franklinite, may be franklinite or magnetite, and 6 and 7 are barytes. AU elements analyzed (Normalised). All results in weight%.

Table 3. SE M-EDS Data ground paints produced, but that as early as May last the demand exceeded the supply.... Iron Zinc Manganese Oxygen The sale of Zinc Ore above named, was for the 10.24 48.22 19.88 21.66 purpose of being ground with brown paint. Whether itwould sustain that for conver 3.07 77.16 19.78 price sion to white oxide, cannot now be decided; but 2.47 77.78 19.75 the manufacturing establishment of this Com 80.34 19.66 pany, if separated from the mining department, could pay handsome dividends upon the capital necessary to carry it on.... All results in weight% The favor with which Zinc paints are re Processing Option: Oxygen by stoichiometry (Normalized) ceived, and the rapidity with which the demand is increasing, indicate with unerring certainty, the time is near at when a establish discovered and applied in France, as a substitute Franklinite alone makes an excellent grayish hand, single ment, even ten times the manufactur for white lead. brown paint, very permanent, and drying possessing facilities we now use, will On our return from the mine we visited the quickly. The red oxide of zinc also makes an ing prove inadequate excellent red to its supply.2* furnace and mills in Newark, N.J. This furnace quickly drying paint. By adding Prussian &c. several shades of was erected for the purpose of manufacturing lamp black, blue, color be free from the white oxide of zinc, and the mills are used for may readily obtained, Advertisements for Brown of lead.27 Zinc Paint grinding the Franklinite and red oxide of zinc. disadvantages Not is the zinc ore used for zinc zinc only making The New Jersey Zinc Company The brown and other colored white, or metallic zinc, as may be required, but were manufactured published numerous reports that de paints initially by the ground ore itself ismade into an orange scribed the success of the the New and colored paint of value. And the Franklinite is company's Jersey Exploring Mining a which then into the ground and used for brown paint.26 efforts inmaking, marketing, and selling Company, merged zinc New Zinc Advertise Dr. made a similar in paints. One from 1852 explains Jersey Company. Jackson report ments both from the December 1850 but added: that: by companies early The sales of Paint for the last ten months have 1850s describe the paint products and The Astor House in New York, and Mr. Alger's yielded the sum of $185,577.28 and the Com their intended house in this city, are painted with zinc white. It usage. Primarily they pany's sales agents state distinctly that not only is ground in spirits of turpentine, and mixed were advertised as for iron have found for all the prime paints with varnish to it consistence. they ready sale dry and give that was manufactured for the architec

Fig. 22. Individual pigment particles were Fig. 23. This red particle contains zinc, man Fig. 24. This orange particle is also zincite. The analyzed with SEM-EDS. This black particle is ganese, and oxygen: it is zincite (ZnO). Note the approximate particle width is 125 urn. See also the only one containing iron; it is the franklinite relationship of manganese to the color of the Table 3. [(Zn,Mn2+,Fe2+)(Fei+,Mn?+)204]. The approximate zincite particles. The approximate particle width particle width is 60 urn. See also Table 3. is 200 urn. See also Table 3. 26 APT BULLETIN: JOURNAL OF PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY / 39:1, 2008

Fig. 25. This yellow particle is also zincite. The approximate particle width Fig 26. SEM image of a particle residing in a depression of the yellow pig is100 um. The depression (dark area) in the upper portion of this image is ment particle, zincite, showing a tiny crystal of pure zinc oxide (prism and enlarged in Fig. 26. See also Table 3. pyramid) (arrow) and two- and three-arm crystals of zinc white (arrows).

tural, industrial, shipping (maritime), Philadelphia, in the Novelty Works and other The ads above do not describe how foundries in the large vicinity. They possess great were and railroad markets. The printed ads the paints packaged for sale. How drying qualities, so that, in a few hours from stressed the economical value of the ever, the advertisement below from an their application, they form a hard metallic as as paints, well their rust-inhibitive coating upon wood, brick or stone, without the 1854 issue of the New York Tribune use of siccative. to and adhesive qualities. The ads also any They have been found mentions both dry and paste form and resist the action of salt water better than red state that the brown zinc was that the was in A paint hence their value for marine Two paste packaged kegs. use as a lead, purposes. excellent for finish coating for coats of these Black and Brown Paints will cover copy of this ad was published in the on as as coats wood houses. Both companies used well three of any preparation of history of the New Jersey Zinc Com Lead/'' sales agents for marketing their paints, pany. It is probably one of the most and they are identified in the ads. One of the earliest advertisements, which is undated but ismost likely from 1850 or 1851 and reproduced by Dunn, is for "Zinc White Paint."29 This ad is by S. T Jones and Company, agents for New Jersey Exploring and Mining Black franklinite Company, No. 53 Beaver Street, N.Y. Near the bottom of this ad, there is the following description: "Brown zinc paint, requires no dryer; to black, a little may be added." One of the most descriptive of the paint advertisements is for the New Jersey Zinc Company. Although it is undated it is probably from before 1854. It has the address of sales agents Manning & Squire inNew York. In part it reads: 'WMffi?^ffWrH*^H|ULj Brown and Black Zinc Paints, which are sold at the low price of 5]/i cents per pound in oil, are 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 the nearest to FIRE-PROOF of any paints in use. They are admirably adapted for painting roofs Raman shift and all metallic surfaces, particularly iron, which (Acm'1) they perfectly protect from rusting, whether exposed to heat or weather. Their use has been Fig. 27. Raman spectrum of reference sample of the mineral franklinite. Note the characteristic adopted in the Navy Yards at Brooklyn and labeled peaks at 347, 493, 597, 661, and 1206. Spectrum by Jill Dill Pasteris. IDENTIFICATION OF 1850s BROWN ZINC PAINT MADE WITH FRANKLINITE AND ZINCITE 27

Their BROWN ZINC PAINT, which is sold at a low price and can only be made from the Zinc Ores from New-Jersey, is now well known for its protective qualities when applied to iron or other metallic surfaces. c Orange-red zincite Their STONE-COLOR PAINT possesses all 3 the properties of the Brown, and is of an agree able color for out fr painting cottages, depots, buildings, bridges, & c. Dealers supplied on SS liberalterms byMANNING & SQUIER, Agents, 165 Washington St., N.Y.32 i CO The advertisements and the market

ing of the zinc paints was extremely was successful. The zinc-paint industry born and flourished in the 1850s. The use of the crushed ores of franklinite as a and zincite paint pigment appears to a have been wide-scale experiment, was a and it triumph. It is unknown 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 how long the company continued to manufacture paints using the crushed Raman shift (Acm"1) ores to make the brown and colored zinc paints. If itwas short lived, changes in be to Fig. 28. Raman spectrum of an orange-red reference sample of the mineral zincite. Note the charac manufacturing could attributed labeled at teristic peaks 438, 478, 522, 569, 1080, and 1603. Spectrum by Jill Dill Pasteris. economy of scale. As the refining pro cesses for iron improved, it may have more become profitable to use the franklinite for both its iron content and zinc content rather than just for its use as a an unprocessed pigment in inexpensive, zinc-based prime paint. If Gray tephroite the end date for its use as a crushed ore can be established, then itwill create a significant benchmark for dating any paint layer inwhich franklinite and zincite are identified.

Conclusions

The analyses and research disclose that the 1850s brownish gray paint used as a primer on the cast-iron enframements at the Capitol and applied in the shop by their New York manufacturer, Janes, Beebe and 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 Company, is the brown zinc paint manufactured by the New Jersey Raman shift (Acm1) Zinc Company. The paint was made at their plant inNewark and advertised by their agents, Manning and Squier, and it Fig. 29. Raman spectrum of reference sample of the mineral tephroite. Note the characteristic peaks was made from the crushed ore of at 806 and 840. Spectrum by Jill Dill Pasteris. franklinite and zincite, which do not occur anywhere else but in Franklin and valuable historic documents, not only Their WHITE ZINC, which is sold dry or New in iswarranted unsur Sterling Hill, Jersey. because of the product and ground oil, PURE, and descriptions for BODY andUNIFORM WHITE The documents cited indicate that date but also because the ad relates the passed NESS. distribution and use of the colored zinc ore from Franklin to the paints of the A method of preparation has recently been paints made in the 1850s were exten New Jersey Zinc Company. discovered which enables the to war so use - Company sive, their at other sites may be ZINC PAINTS. The NEW ZINC rant their Paints to fresh and soft in the JERSEY keep discovered. some for In Perhaps of the other COMPANY having greatly enlarged their works kegs any reasonable time. this respect their Paints will be to on colors described and advertised be and improved the quality of their product, are superior any other the may prepared to execute orders for their SUPERIOR market. identified also. It is likely that most PAINTS. especially the dark brown, blue, and 28 APT BULLETIN: JOURNAL OF PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY / 39:1, 2008

black were marketed to and purchased linked. The mines in Franklin and the Brown, Harvey E. Zinc Oxide Rediscovered. use on New York: The New Jersey Zinc Company, for industrial, railroad, and innovative processes in manufacturing 1957. maritime equipment. Newark spawned the zinc pigment, zinc Dana, Edward S., and William E. Ford. Dana's The research also discloses that in paint, and ready-mixed-paint industries Manual of Mineralogy. 16th ed. New York: recent artists' materials in America.33 publications nineteenth-century John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1952. there is no reference to these minerals After 100 of intense years operations, Klein, Cornelius, and Cornelius S. Hurlbut Jr. ? use as were no eco Manual D. for paint pigments they have the mines finally longer of Mineralogy (after James are were over Dana). New York: John Wiley and Sons, been overlooked. There probably nomically viable. They closed 1977. two important reasons for this over a period of time in the mid- to late McCrone, Walter C. "The Microscopical sight. One is that the paints made with twentieth century. By that time 33 mil Identification of Artist's Pigments." Journal the crushed franklinite or zincite ore lion tons of ore had been removed from of the International Institute for Conserva - were uses to tion no. targeted for related archi the ground, and many tons of iron, zinc, Canadian Group, (J.IIC-CG) 7, were 1&2, (1982): 11-34. tecture, industry, shipping, and rail and zinc paint made.34 Today, in not arts. testament to museums McCrone, Walter C. Asbestos roads, the Most paints, which this rich history, Identification. McCrone Research Institute, are studied for their at both sites are to visitors Chicago: pigment composi open provide 1987. are to tion, those associated with the fine ample opportunity explore and be McCrone, Walter C, and John Gustav Delly. arts, for the purposes of documentation come enriched by the fascinating story The Particle Atlas. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Ann and/or authentication. The second rea behind the Franklin and Sterling Hill Arbor: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., 1973. son, related to the first, is that most mines and their important contribution are to an Walter Gustav and historic architectural paints studied American industrial legacy. McCrone, C, John Delly, Samuel Palenik. The Particle Atlas. for structure and color and James only layer 2nd ed. Vol. 5. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor FRANK S.WELSH is president of Welsh Color occasionally the paint vehicle. Seldom is Science 1979. and Conservation, Inc., Bryn Mawr, Pennsylva Publishers, Inc., on the value of deter nia. He received a Charles E. Peterson Fellow emphasis placed Neese, William D. Introduction to Optical in was research mining, through microanalysis, the ship 1992-1993, appointed Mineralogy. New York: Oxford University associate at Mawr in the 1986. pigment composition of architectural Bryn College geology Press, department in 2004, and was awarded a Phillips, Wm. Revell. Mineral Optics, Princi paints. research fellowship in 2005 from the United was ples and Techniques. San Francisco: W H. This research, which in part States Capitol Historical Society. Freeman and Company, 1971. funded by the United States Capitol Phillips, Wm. Revell, and Dana T. Griffen. Historical Society's Fellowship, under The Acknowledgements Optical Mineralogy: Nonopaque scores the potential of gaining new Minerals. San Francisco: W H. Greeman This has been one of the and most com and 1981. information by observing, noting, and longest Company, prehensive, yet most enjoyable analytical/research the of Stephenson, H. B. "Zinc Oxide and Leaded analyzing pigment composition I have undertaken. I extend sincere projects my Zinc Oxide." In historic architectural not Pigment Handbook, paints, just thanks and appreciation to all involved, but Properties and Economics. Vol. 1. Edited by their color or vehicle. to the following people: William C. Pigment analysis especially Temple C. Patton, 37-52. New York: John can a Allen, architectural historian, Ann Kenny, Cura easily and economically become Wiley and Sons, 1973. tor's Office, and Barbara Wollanin, curator, at the part of comprehensive analyses related Welsh, Frank S. "Particle Characteristics of Office of the Architect of the Capitol, Washing to historic architectural The Prussian Blue in an Historical Oil Paint." paints. goal ton, D.C.; Joseph G. Barabe, McCrone Associ the American Institute (and dividends) of such an effort would ates, Inc., Westmont, 111.;Maria Luisa Crawford, Journal of for Conservation 27 (1988): 55-63. be to the information available professor emeritus, Department of Geology, Bryn expand Mawr Pete of Frank S. and in references College; J. Dunn, Department Welsh, "Investigation, Analysis, paint-pigment by including, Mineral Sciences, Smithsonian Institution; Authentication of Historic Wallpaper in future publications, the pigments used Frederick C. Monson, technical director, CMIRT, Fragments." Journal of the American 43 in paints for engineered and architec Department of Geology, West Chester University, Institute for Conservation (2004): West Chester, Penn.; Dill Pasteris, professor, 91-110. tural structures (including wallpaper), as Jill of Earth and Sciences, as and maritime Department Planetary Welsh, Frank S. "Microchemical Analysis of well for industrial St. Louis, Mo.; and Washington University, Old Housepaints with a Case Study of As it is now, funded research Historic Preservation Officer, Office equipment. Kelley Steele, Monticello." The Microscope 38 (1990): of the Senate D.C. Thanks and publications focus mainly on infor Curator, Washington, 247-257. also to the United States Capitol Historical mation concerning artists' pigments. Society for the fellowship that supported addi the available information on Thus, readily tional investigation, analysis, and research this Notes at is limited. project. present 1. Susan Brizzolara "Thomas U. Walter In addition to the of the Wojcik, analyses and Iron in the United States Capitol: An this research uncov Alliance of and pigments, project Bibliography Architecture, Engineering, ered the details of the history and in Industry" (PhD diss., University of Delaware, 149-150. Caroline. a 19th Cen 1998), triguing connections between the mines, Alderson, "Re-creating Paint Palette." Bulletin the Associa the minerals, and the individuals who tury of 2. Ibid., 309. The primary contact for architect tion Preservation 8, no. 4 at Beebe and Com made it all The of the for Technology Thomas U. Walter Janes, happen. history (1976): 47-56. was Charles from area pany Fowler, originally Franklin and Sterling Hill mines Connecticut. Allen, William C. History of the United States as as the fields of and the zinc, well A Chronicle of Design, Construc Capitol: 3. In the summer of 2006, following the discov economic and the tion, and Politics. Washington, D.C.: U.S. mineralogy, geology, ery of the brown zinc prime paint at the U.S. Government 2001. history of New Jersey, are inextricably Printing Office, IDENTIFICATION OF 1850s BROWN ZINC PAINT MADE WITH FRANKLINITE AND ZINCITE 29

of Earth and 169-186. Gettens and Stout was Capitol, the identical brownish gray, zinc-based 10. Jill Dill Pasteris, Department say sphalerite St. used in the American but do not paint was identified on the exterior wood trim Planetary Sciences, Washington University, process say ma with the what was used in the French Does this at Glen Alpin, an 1847 Gothic Revival Louis, Missouri, email communication process. that were not aware of the mines sonry house in Harding Township, New Jersey. author, April 4, 2007. suggest they The house is located about 20 miles from at Franklin and the early use of zincite and 11. Several colored and one transparent pig Newark and 30 miles from Franklin and was franklinite and willemite from the New Jersey ment particles were isolated and analyzed with a roof restoration that included Zinc Company to make the zinc metal and zinc undergoing Raman McCrone Associates. spectrometer by Or were to zinc and zinc repair and repainting of the cornice. As part of oxide? they referring Jill Pasteris, whose specialties and interests the cornice the historic were oxide production at other mines in more recent repair, paints include Raman and the minerals and to determine the spectroscopy times? sampled analyzed layers at contributed to the of and colors. The results of the Franklin, interpretation Because of the focus on zinc white as an original investiga McCrone Associates' Raman of the spectra one must turn to less tion and microanalysis of the paints from the artists' pigment, other particles that Joseph G. Barabe isolated from cornice and disclosed that the readily available sources for an accurate history bargeboards the of the brown 1847 finish was a medium preparation grayish paint of the minerals and mines which were the original paint from the Dr. Pasteris identified layer Capitol. sources brown, sand-finish paint. The sand was thrown for American-made zinc white relating the colorless mineral particle as tephroite and onto and adhered to the before it dried to to architectural paints in the mid- to late paint reference of also prepared spectra franklinite, sources produce an appearance that imitated red nineteenth century. These include zincite, and tephroite. brown sandstone, the type and color of stone Arthur Channing Downs Jr. "The Introduction of American Zinc ca. Bulletin that surrounds the windows of the house. The 12. Dunn, Franklin and Sterling Hill, New Paints, 1850," of to the Association Preservation second finish paint, dating about 10 years Jersey, 1: 112, 185. for Technology 6, no. after the initial paint layer, i.e., late 1850s, was 2 (1974): 36-37; Arthur Channing Downs 13. Ibid., 185. another sand-finish paint layer but of a differ Jr., "Zinc for Paint and Architectural Use in the ? ent color a brownish gray paint with large 14. 67. 19th Century," 80-99; Pete J. Dunn, Franklin - Ibid., (0.1 0.25) grains of yellow, orange, red, and and Sterling Hill, New jersey, 2 vols.; Pete J. 15. Arthur Downs "Zinc for black pigment particles. Subsequent compari Channing Jr., Dunn, Mine Hill in Franklin and Sterling Hill Paint and Architectural Use in the 19th Cen son of this paint layer to those from the U.S. in Ogdensburg, Sussex County, New Jersey: Bulletin the Association Preserva Capitol revealed that the Glen Alpin paint was tury," of for Mining History, 1765-1900. Final Report: Part tion no. 4 81. identical in color and composition to that used Technology 8, (1976): One, (Alexandria, Va.: Pete J. Dunn, 2003), as the on the late 1850s cast-iron vols. 2 and 3; Pete J. Dunn, Prospectuses of shop prime 16. Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed. online enframements made Beebe and Mining at Franklin by Janes, via JRank, s.v. "Calamine," http://encyclopedia 19th-century Companies and Hill, New Jersey (Alexandria, Va.: Company. .jrank.org/BUN_CAL/CALAMINE.html Sterling Pete New Zinc Com Febr. J. Dunn, 2004); Jersey 4. The analysis of historic architectural paints (accessed 2, 2007). pany, The First Hundred Years New on of Jersey generally focuses layers and colors but 17. Gettens and 177. Stout, Zinc Company: A History of the Founding and seldom on pigments used to make the paint. On Development of a Company and an Industry, the other the of the used 18. Downs, "Zinc for Paint and Architectural hand, analysis paints 1848-1948 York: New Zinc Use in the 19th 83. (New Jersey by artists almost always includes the study and Century," Company, 1948), 15; Maximilian Toch, The identification of the pigments used. Hence, 19. Dunn, Franklin and Hill, New and Paints (New there are numerous authoritative references Sterling Chemistry Technology of Jersey, 1:186-187. Dunn cites G. C. Stone, York: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1925), devoted to artists' pigments that typically serve "Early History of the N.J. Zinc Company," 36-40; Theodore Zuk Penn, "Decorative and as the principal sources of readily available Zinc [magazine of the New Jersey Zinc Com Protective Finishes, 1750-1850: Materials, information for those studying architectural pany] 1 (1916): 36-39; 99-105. W R. Yates, Process and Craft," Bulletin of the Association paint pigments. Not all architectural paint "Samuel Wetherill, Joseph Wharton, and the for Preservation Technology 16, no.l (1984): pigments, however, are included in the artists' Founding of the American Zinc Industry," 3-46. pigment references. Two of these are franklinite Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biogra In addition, in the more recently published and zincite (and other associated minerals) that phy 98, no. 4, (1974): 469-514. W. R. Yates, references on artist materials and pigments, the were used to make what was marketed in this ? ? Joseph Wharton, Quaker Industrial Pioneer zinc ores franklinite and zincite are not country in the 1850s as brown zinc paint. (Bethlehem, Pa.: Lehigh Univ. Press, 1987), mentioned as the original minerals used for 413. P. "The Mine 5. Carole L. Perrault, "Techniques Employed at J. Wetherill, Hill Ore De American-made zinc oxide. Instead, only the North Atlantic Historic Preservation Center posits in New Jersey and the Wetherill Concen sphalerite is identified as the source. For exam for the Sampling and Analysis of Historic trating Plant," Engineering and Mining Journal ple, Gettens and Stout on p. 177 in Painting Architectural Paints and Finishes," Bulletin of 64 (1897): 65-66, 98-100. G. W. Baker, Materials say that "in the American or direct on the Association for Preservation Technology Geological Report the Mineral Belt of process, zinc ores, principally sphalerite (zinc 10, no. 3 (1978): 24. Sussex County, N.J., Sterling Hill-Mine Hill blend, ZnS), are mixed with coal coke and (Philadelphia: Manganese Iron Ore Company, burned, and the white smoke of zinc oxide is 6. Emile Monnin Chamot and Walter Clyde 1881). collected in suitable chambers." Ball on Handbook Chemical Philip Mason, of Microscopy, 152 in Earth summarizes that "this 20. p. Bright vol. 2, 2nd ed. (New York: John Wiley and Almost all of the modern published refer 'direct' or American process uses the zinc ore Sons, 1940), 31-33. ences concerning zinc white pigment concern itself (sphalerite) as the raw material." Only the use of zinc white as an artists' pigment 7. Walter C. B. and Hermann Kuhn on page 176 in his McCrone, Lucy McCrone, rather than as an architectural or industrial chapter Gustav Polarized "Zinc White" in Artists' John Delly, Light Microscopy Such sources include the follow Pigments correctly paint pigment. mentions or (Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, that "the American direct process ing: Philip Ball, Bright Earth: Art and the 1979), 169. involves the heating of zinc ores, usually Invention of Color (New York: Farrar, Straus various combinations of franklinite, zincite, 8. Pete Franklin and Giroux, Rutherford J. Dunn, and Sterling Hill, 2002), 152-153; J. and willemite." Gettens and L. Materi New jersey: The World's Most Magnificent George Stout, Painting als: A Short York: Dover 21. Mineral Deposits (Alexandria, Va.: Pete J. Encyclopedia (New Despite these problems with body and Dunn, 2004), 1:285. Publications, 1966), 177; R. D. Harley, Artists' brittleness, early French zinc paints were c. Pigments: 1600-1835, A Study in English imported to America from Dunn, 9. at Belgium. Joseph G. Barabe McCrone Associates, 2nd ed. Documentary Sources, (London: Mine Hill in Franklin and Sterling Hill, 2: 246. Westmont, did the initial SEM-EDS 111., analy Butterworth Scientific, 1982), 176-180; Her ses. Additional and more extensive SEM-EDS mann 22. Ibid., 2: 248. Dunn references G. B. Heckel, Kuhn, "Zinc White," in Artist's Pig were done at West Chester "The Story of the New Jersey Zinc analyses University, ments: A Handbook of their History and Company," with technical Frederick C. Drugs, Oils and Paints 49 and 50 (1934). CMIRT, director, Characteristics, vol. 1, Robert L. Feller, ed. Monson. (Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1986), 30 APT BULLETIN: JOURNAL OF PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY / 39:1 , 2008

I left the business on account of its Franklin and 23. Pete J. Dunn, Prospectuses, 80. The pent sufficiently long. 29. Dunn, Mine Hill in Sterling unhealthiness. About a year and a half ago, since I have up need for an alternative to white lead pig Hill, 2: 173. Dunn quotes from the "testimony been in the manufacture of white oxide of zinc, ment was immense. Few who worked in the engaged for Alexander Farrington, mining engineer of men hands were under having many employed, twenty and lead pigment factories avoided lead poisoning, the Sussex Zinc and Copper Mining my own immediate charge, I have never known a man and few who lead-based avoided Manufacturing Company on November 10, applied paint sick from zinc, even for a day or hour. My own health what was known as colic. Dunn 1858." It was painter's has been improved since my engagement, and I have says: [Accordingly,] "application to New references the Consolidated Franklinite Com every reason to believe that it is from the tonic effect of made the Legislature of Jersey during its session and a was pany, "Superiority of Zinc Paints over White the zinc. of 1852, supplement to the Lead, with testimony relating thereto: History The white of zinc is collected in bags after being obtained the charter of New-Jersey the of and Documentary Evidence Relating to the sublimed in the furnaces from the ore. It flies about the Exploring and Mining Company, changing works as as flour in a mill. If zinc were name the to that of the New Property of the Consolidated Franklinite freely flouring of company Jersey itwould be to make it in this This that the date Company," and quotes Samuel Wetherill, unhealthy, impossible Zinc Company...." implies way. Ifwhite lead flow about (as dust) in the same way, holder and manufacturer: for the advertisement, which Dunn reproduced patent itwould kill man to it in three weeks. every exposed on is no later than 1852. I have been engaged in the manufacture and sale of page 172, probably for after On 175 is the for the white lead fourteen years. Laboring men, being 24. Dunn, Mine Hill in Franklin and Sterling page transcription merger in the manufacture of white engaged three months lead, Hill, 2: 300. of the companies dated September 1851. to an lose their color, grow very pale, and, experienced Therefore, itmay be that the ad is 1851 or eye, men engaged at this occupation can be picked out 25. Kuhn, 176. earlier. of a crowd, by their extreme pallor. The first difficulty is - 26. the American Association great costiveness, which is followed by loss of appetite Proceedings of 30. Advertisement for zinc white paint by S. T. blueness around the next the and excru the Advancement Science, Fourth Meet gums teeth, for of Jones and Company, Agents, J. J. Exploring ciating pains (spasmodic) in the stomach; besides this ing, Held at New Haven, Conn., August, 1850 in - - and Mining Company (undated), reproduced disease lead colic are to S. F. Baird and New York: they subject paralysis, (Washington City: Mine Hill in Franklin and Hill, of the chronic rheumatism. Dunn, Sterling swelling joints, resembling G.P. Putnam, 1851), 335-337. 2: 172. The health of the men is always more or less impaired after three months' some, 27. Boston of Natural Proceed employment; however, escape Society History, 31. Advertisement for zinc paints manufactured violent diseases of lead for a time. These diseases the Boston Natural long ings of Society of History, the New Zinc (undated), arise from white lead and from no other cause. The by Jersey Company 1848 to 1851, vol. 3 (Cambridge: Bolles and in Mine Hill in Franklin and either inwater or reproduced Dunn, grinding and handling of white lead, 321. Houghton, 1851), Hill, 2: 250. oil, produces paralysis of the hands, fingers, and arms. Sterling as it is or the white from "Screening" called, separating 28. Edward Sandford, "Reports of the New 32. New Zinc 12. the blue means of is the most Jersey Company, scraps, by dry sifting, Jersey Zinc Company: Report of the Special of the business. The men are to Franklin and New dangerous part obliged Commission in Relation to Zinc Paint," repro 33. Dunn, Sterling Hill, take turns at this occupation; and, after screening their 1: 99. duced in Prospectuses of 19th-century Mining Jersey, turn, are almost invariably obliged to take medicine. I - Companies at Franklin and Sterling Hill, New have suffered severely from lead colic the pains are 34. Ibid., 1:67. Pete Dunn Va.: excruciating, and the business, closely followed, invari Jersey, comp. by J. (Alexandria, 24-25. ably breaks down the constitution, if continued in P.J.Dunn, 2004),

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