“I MUST DO WHAT THEIR HEARTS SAY”: REASSESSING THE 73 ROLE OF CAPTAIN JACK IN THE MODOC WAR

Julian Quiñones and when the Modoc voted, Captain Jack did not advocate for war, but for peace. It was the Modoc shaman Cho-ocks, called Curley Headed Doctor by the US Government, who rallied the Modoc warriors to war using the discur- Between 1872 and 1873, the U.S. Government fought a war with sive power of the Ghost Dance to buttress the morale of the Modoc warriors a tribe of Native Americans in Northern known as the Modoc. and assure them victory. This paper will begin by outlining the historiographic The Modoc War was the only Native American war where an army general narrative, contextualizing the rhetorical power of the Ghost Dance, and fi- was killed and is considered the most costly war America ever fought com- nally, by using eyewitness accounts to help illuminate Captain Jack’s actions pared to the number of people involved.1 On July 1, 1873, Chief Kientpoos, both before and during the war, allowing us to see that his testimony was true. named Captain Jack by the Americans, was on trial for his role in the Mo- doc War. He claimed, “They [Modoc warriors] wanted to fight. I told them The Modocs’ ancestral homeland was on the shores of and not to fight. I wanted to talk and make peace and live right, but mymen , but American settlers wanted that land for grazing and fishing. would not listen to me…”2 While the historiography has barely been updat- The American Government ordered the Modoc to move to a reservation ed since the 1960’s, historians such as Keith Murray, whose book The Modoc in . They were forced to share the reservation with an enemy tribe, and their War is the most comprehensive history of the Modoc War, claim the Klamath. After continual harassment at the hands of the Klamath, and that Captain Jack’s declaration was insincere. Murray compared Captain Jack being forced to live in indigent conditions on the reservation, Captain Jack to a child who, during his trial, was simply trying to redirect the blame from made the decision to return home, and moved back to his ancestral home- himself.3 By depicting the Modoc chief as a war-hungry leader, American land. Many Modoc decided to follow him. The settlers who now occupied colonizers were able to present themselves as victims of the savage Mo- the Modoc’s ancestral land were not happy about their return and asked the doc, creating a narrative that justified the genocidal acts of the Indian Wars. army to force the Modoc back to the reservation. Several peace talks took place between Captain Jack and various U.S. government officials. During all The majority of historians have relied too heavily upon government of the peace negotiations, Captain Jack was adamant about not using violence sources when researching the Modoc war. The U.S. Government did not under- and not leaving Tule Lake. The U.S. government decided to arrest Captain stand how Modoc leadership functioned and envisioned Captain Jack’s position Jack and the other Modoc leaders such as Hooker Jim, Schonchin John, and of chief functioned similar to that of a king, where he made all the decisions Curley Headed Doctor, assuming that the Modoc would accept relocation for the tribe, rather than as a part of a democratic system. However, upon close more readily if separated from their leadership. However, during the process examination of the primary sources of Wi-Ne-Ma and Wigwam and War-Path-- the army murdered an infant child and burned a sick mother alive in what is Modoc eyewitness accounts of the war—it appears that Captain Jack’s desire known as the massacre at Tule Lake.4 Instead of returning to the reservation, for peace may have been sincere. The Modoc made decisions democratically, the Modoc retreated to nearby lava beds that provided protection against the incoming American forces due to their natural trench-like formations. The 1 : US Department of the Interior, “A Brief History of the Modoc U.S. government came to the lava beds and asked the Modoc to surrender, War,” National Monument California: Lava Beds, accessed March 26, 2014. http://www.nps. but the Modoc refused, and a firefight ensued. The Modoc War had begun. gov/labe/planyourvisit/upload/MODOC%20WAR.pdf (accessed October 4, 2014) 2 US House of Representatives. “Trials of the Modoc Prisoners.” Official Copies of Correspondent Related to the War with the Modoc Indians in 1872-74. Washington, DC: 43rd During the war, a new ritual, the Ghost Dance was performed as Congress, First Session, 1874. 177-178. 3 Keith A. Murray, The Modoc and Their War (Norman: University of Oaklahoma Press, 1959), 4 Alfred B. Meachem. Wi-Ne-Ma (The Woman Chief) and Her People (Hartford: American 283-284. Publishing Company, 1876), 152. 74 Julian Quiñones “I MUST DO WHAT THEIR HEARTS SAY” 75 a source of spiritual empowerment for the Modoc. The Ghost Dance was ing. However, this simple narrative, repeated throughout the historiography, believed to raise the ancestors, and with their guidance and empowerment neglects to fully recognize that the power that the Ghost Dance that inspired the Modoc could drive the “white man” out of the Americas. Once com- the Modoc warriors to battle was not wielded by Captain Jack, but by their pleted, life in the Americas would return to a state similar to that of the shaman. In order to assess the sincerity of Captain Jack’s testimony, a re-exam- Pre-Columbian Era. The empowering message of the Ghost Dance made ination of the Ghost Dance’s role in creating a pro-war sentiment is required. the Modoc warriors free of fear, and when battle began with the Amer- ican Army, the warriors believed they could not be defeated. The Ghost The primary advocate for war, Curly Headed Doctor, used to put on Dance was done around a large fire, with drumming, dancing, and, most elaborate shows to convince his fellow Modoc to believe in the power of the importantly, a large medicine flag hoisted up in order to channel the power Ghost Dance. He told them he cast his magic over them to protect them, of the ancestors. Curley Headed Doctor was the ceremonial leader of the and that no one in the lava beds would die.8 According to a Modoc who wit- Ghost Dance and preached the message that the Modoc had a divine right nessed the shaman’s power, he gave convincing performances when he cast to drive out the “white man”, which resonated with the beleaguered Mo- his magic; he twitched, and jerked about, and bled from his mouth. 9 He even doc people, who wanted nothing more than to get rid of the Americans.5 cast a spell, telling his warriors, “I want war. I am not tired. The white men cannot fight; they shoot in the air. I will make a medicine that will turn the During their time in the lava beds, sixty Modoc warriors fought ap- white man’s bullets away from the Modoc. We will not give up. We can kill proximately six-hundred U.S. soldiers. The U.S. Army suffered heavy casualties all that come.”10 To prove the legitimacy of his power, he shot a Modoc while the Modoc suffered none.6 This humiliated the US Government, who warrior who appeared untouched by the bullet.11 This display reinforced the decided to send a commission led by General Canby, to negotiate peace and people’s belief in the Ghost Dance and Curley Headed Doctor, and, most put an end to the US Army’s humiliation. During the peace negotiations, Cap- importantly, their divine right to their ancestral homelands. He told them they tain Jack requested the rights to their ancestral homeland, which Gen. Can- were empowered by his magic and as far as the Modoc knew, it was working. by refused. In retaliation, the Modoc ambushed the peace commission and No one had died during the initial skirmishes with the US Army. Curley Head- killed Gen. Canby. The American Government retaliated by cutting off the ed Doctor encouraged the Modoc belief that they were unstoppable and had Modoc’s water supply to the lava beds in an attempt to force them to a less no reason to fear war, because his magic gave them courage to stand up to an strategically advantaged position, and, ultimately, back to the reservation. The enemy that outnumbered them over ten to one. Protected in their lava beds tactic was successful, and soon after that, the medicine flag was abandoned, by the magic of the Ghost Dance and their shaman Curley Headed Doctor, and the Modoc fled the lava beds where they had been residing for over a the Modoc had proven themselves more than a match for the U.S. military. year. Shortly after, Captain Jack gave himself up, too tired from the fighting and running. The U.S. Army took him and the other Modoc leaders prisoner.7 Every assault came with the inherent risk of the shaman’s magic fail- Captain Jack was court-martialed and hanged on October 3, 1873 after fighting ing the Modoc, and as the war raged on, the promise of a casualty-free war four major battles and several small skirmishes over thirteen months of fight- came to naught. Not long after the US Army cut off the water supply to the lava beds, the first Modoc death occurred. A mortar shell fired into the 5 Alfred B. Wigwam and War-Path; or, the Royal Chief in Chains (Boston: John P. Dale and Company, 1875), 375-376. 6 Oakland Museum of California. ““Federal Indian Policy & the Modoc War.”.” Oakland 8 Meachem, Wigwam and War-Path, 375-376. Museum of California, accessed October 4, 2014. http://www.museumca.org/picturethis/ 9 Meachem, Wi-Ne-Ma, 129-132; Alfred B. Meachem, Wigwam and War-Path, 399. timeline/early-statehood-1850-1880s/modoc-war/info 10 Meachem, Wigwam and Warpath, 397. 7 Merrill L. Ream. “The Modoc Indian War.” Journal of the West 1 (Janary 2000): 46-47. 11 Meachem, Wi-Ne-Ma, 129-132. 76 Julian Quiñones “I MUST DO WHAT THEIR HEARTS SAY” 77 lava bed stronghold took the life of a single Modoc warrior. The Modoc’s tain Jack remained adamant that peace was more important than revenge.16 faith that they would be protected by the Ghost Dance’s magic was no longer Captain Jack repeatedly encouraged the young warriors towards passive re- absolute. The protection promised by the Ghost Dance was the source of sistance.17 However, his warriors did not want to adapt to the presence of all Curley Headed Doctor’s legitimacy and momentum. His control over the the settlers. As they became increasingly consumed by the charisma of Cur- Modoc’s hearts was lost and with it the certainty that war was a better option ley Headed Doctor and the promises inherent in the power of the Ghost than the peace that Captain Jack’s had argued for so often. This uncertainty Dance, they were convinced that not only could they could fight back to regarding how to proceed with the war, now that they realized they were no gain retribution, but that their success in driving the settlers out was guar- longer invincible, yet still outnumbered ten to one, caused the Modoc to de- anteed. The Modoc had no fear. Without Captain Jack’s permission, Hooker bate whether they really had a divine right to reclaim their homeland.12 The Jim and some other warriors defied their chief and attacked the settlers. The Modoc began to quarrel with each other about how to proceed with the war. young warriors’ desire for retribution outweighed the wishes of their chief. They split up into several small groups and fled the lava beds.13 The Modoc War ended shortly after that. When Captain Jack surrendered he was sur- Captain Jack’s desire for peace was further demonstrated when his rounded by young warriors who were no longer consumed by the charisma of wishes were ignored and the tribe decided to kill General Canby. The Modoc Curley Headed Doctor and the Ghost Dance which fed their passion for war. believed that once the General Canby was killed the rest of the U.S. Army would cease to fight. When the tribe met to discuss and vote on the mur- Evidence of Captain Jack’s desire for a peaceful resolution began be- der of General Canby, Captain Jack warned against killing him.18 However, fore the vote to go to war was taken. He encouraged the tribe to use pas- his fellow warriors responded by calling Captain Jack a woman and placed sive resistance in order to obtain their ancestral homeland.14 He believed they a woman’s hat and shawl on him, accusing him of having his heart stolen had to accept that the settlers were there to stay and that they must learn by the white man.19 Aware that he was losing control of his tribe, Captain to live with them. The Modoc tribe decided to vote on whether or not to Jack declared “I am a Modoc. I am your chief. It shall be done if it costs ev- go to war. A Modoc described the tension that took place during the vote: ery drop of blood in my heart. But hear me, all my people, this day’s work Hold your breath while each man elects for him- will cost the life of every Modoc brave; we will not live to see it ended.” 20 self. The chief, Captain Jack, walks boldly out on the side of peace, but O my god, few dare fol- Captain Jack’s warning meant nothing to his warriors, who were low him. The majority vote for blood and gather now under the protection of the Ghost Dance, and were promised by around Schonchin John and Curley Headed Doctor.15 Curly Headed Doctor that none of the consequences Captain Jack had Captain Jack’s call for peace was falling on deaf ears; Curley Headed Doctor put forth for consideration would come to pass. Once again, Captain Jack held his people’s hearts. found himself in the minority, going along with the aspirations of the tribe, albeit with a reluctant heart and trepidation over the outcome an at- When members of the tribe began to agitate for retribution for the tempt on Gen. Canby’s life would provoke. His fears were not unfound- woman and child who were killed during the attempt to arrest him, Cap- 16 Alfred. B. Meachem Wi-Ne-Ma, 152. 12 Murray, The Modoc and Their War, 214-216. 17 Meachem Wi-Ne-Ma, 80-82. 13 National Park Service, “A Brief History of the Modoc War.” 18 Ream, “The Modoc Indian War,” 35. 14 Murray, The Modoc and Their War, 58-59; Meachem, Wigwam and Warpath, 396. 19 Murray, The Modoc and Their War, 178. 15 Meachem, Wigwam and Warpath, 376. 20 Alfred B. Meachem, Wigwam and War-Path, 462-466. 78 Julian Quiñones “I MUST DO WHAT THEIR HEARTS SAY” 79 ed, and soon Captain Jack found himself once again in opposition with his Julian Quiñones is an undergraduate student who is double majoring in history tribe, whose success in assassinating Gen, Canby had come with a price. and anthropology with a focus on early U.S. History. His research interests are in anthropological theories of violence, colonialism, and Native American Captain Jack was not a war-hungry leader that forced his people to war, history and religion with a majority of his research focused on the Modoc Tribe. he was a democratic leader whose words and position regarding peace in the Modoc War have been omitted in the historiography. Captain Jack explained his position, “this is the last of my people; I must do what their hearts say; I am Modoc, and I am not afraid to die.” On the other hand, Curley Headed Doctor and his advocating for war have also been omitted in the historiog- raphy. This is because historians have relied on the depictions of the Modoc found within the government reports more heavily than those of the . Modoc sources grant historians the ability to better understand the motives and reactions of a people who are under-represented in accounts of their own history. The prioritization of Government sources has resulted in an advocate of war to be forgotten and the blame shifted over to an advocate of peace, turning a man challenged with balancing the wishes of his peo- ple and his own, into an aggressor. Captain Jack’s testimony of being against the war is true, as is the fact that he led his people to war. One does not negate the other, but without contextualizing the narrative with eye witness accounts from the Modoc as well as the US Army, we cannot understand why. 80

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Meacham, Alfred B. Wigwam and War-Path: Royal Chief in Chains. Boston: John P. Dale and Company, 1875. —. Wi-Ne-Ma (The Woman Chief) and Her People. Hartford: American Publishing Company, 1876.

Murray, Keith A. The Modoc and Their War. Norman: University of Oaklahoma Press, 1959.

National Park Service: US Department of the Interior. “A Brief History of the Modoc War.” National Monument California: Lava Beds. March 26, 2014. http://www.nps.gov/labe/planyourvisit/upload/ MODOC%20WAR.pdf (accessed October 4, 2014).

Oakland Museum of California. “Federal Indian Policy & the Modoc War.” Oakland Museum of California. 2014. http://www.museumca.org/pic turethis/timeline/early-statehood-1850-1880s/modoc-war/ info (accessed October 4, 2014).

Ream, Merrill L. “The Modoc Indian War.” Journal of the West 1 (Janary 2000): 35-48.

US House of Representatives. “Trials of the Modoc Prisoners.” Official Copies of Correspondent Related to the War with the Modoc Indians in 1872- 74. Washington, DC: 43rd Congress, First Session, 1874. 177-178.