ri-1447, 1! , DOCUMENT RESUME ;.. ED 314 893 EC 222 036
AUTHOR Stewart, David A.; And Others TITLE Consistent Linguistic Input in the Signing Behavior of Teachers: Modified Signed English. Occasional Paper. No. 127. INSTITUTION Michigan State Univ., East Lansing. Inst. for Research on Teaching. SPONS AGENCY Special Education Programs (ED/OSERS), Washington, DC. PUB DATE Jul 89 GRANT G008730145 NOTE 114p. AVAILABLE FROM Institute for Research on Teaching, College of Education, Michigan State University, 252 Erickson Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 ($11.00). PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052) - - Information Analyses (070) -- Reference Materials - Vocabularies/Classifications/Dictionaries (134)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *American Sign Language; *Communication Skills; *Deafness; Demonstration Programs; Elementary Secondary Education; Finger Spelling; Hearing Impairments; *Inservice Teacher Education; Lesson Plans; Special Classes; *Total Communication IDENTIFIERS *Signed English
ABSTRACT The paper addresses problems teachers of the severely hearing impaired have in being bimodal (speech plus signs) English role models as well as in using American Sign Language. Theproject described in this paper centers around inservice training and in-class demonstrations of the use of a modified form of Signed English to provide a visual presentation ol7 Engli5has the primary language of the classroom. The typical signing behavior of teachers in total communication programs is illustrated through examplesfrom a videotape. The major portion of the document consists of appendixes which serve as a manual for implementing a similar approach. Appendix A lists the 12 general goals of the Total Communication Project Appendix B presents eight inservice lesson plans concernedwith:(1) sign markers, affixes, and contractions;(2) facial (-p:pressions and body language; (3) body and gaze shifting; (4) fingetspellirig; (5) classifiers;(6) locatives; (7) indexic referencing and lo,'Jalization; and (8) directionality. Appendix C provides a glossaryof affixes and sign markers while Appendix D does the same with contractions.The final appendix lists 19 resources with descriptive abstracts. (DB)
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Occasional Paper No, 127
CONSISTENT LINGUISTIC INPUT IN THE SIGNING BEHAVIOR OF TEACHERS: MODIFIED SIGNED ENGLISH
David A. Stewart, C. Tane Akamatsu, Christopher Hunter, Francine Lauer, Kelli Krugh, and Wo-Tak Ng
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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCI INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." Urtiveri Occasional Paper No. 127
CONSISTENT LINGUISTIC INPUTIN THE SIGNING BEHAVIOR OFTEACHERS: MODIFIED SIGNED ENGLISH
David A. Stewart, C. TaneAkamatsu, Christopher Hunter, FrancineLauer, Kelli Krugh, and Wo-TakNg
Published by
The Institute for Researchon Teaching College of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan48824-1034
July 1989
This work is sponsored in part through Research Implementa,ionGrant No. G008730145 from the UnitedStates Department of Education,Office of Special Education Programs, and by theInstitute for Researchon Teaching, College of Education, Michigan State University. The Institute for Researchon Teaching is funded from a variety of federal, state, and private sources includingthe United States Department of Education and Michigan StateUniversity. The opinions expressed in this publicationdo not necessarily reflect the position, policy, or endorsementof the funding agencies. bat Ituittsmitisaiskaninsthut The Institute for Researchon Teaching was founded in 1976 at Michigan State University and has been the recipient of major federalgrants. Funding for IRT projects is currently received from the U.S. Department ofEducation, Michigan State University, and other agencies and foundations. IRT scholars have conductedmajor research projects aimed at improving classroom teaching, including studiesof classroom management strategies, student socialization, the diagnosis and remediationof reading difficulties, and school policies. IRT researchers have also been examiningthe teaching of specific school subjects such as reading, writing, general mathematics,and science and are seeking to understand how factors insideas well as outside the classroom affect teachers.In addition to curriculum and instructional specialistsin school subjects, researchers from such diverse disciplines as educationalpsychology, anthropology, sociology, history, economics, and philosophy cooperate in conductingIRT research. By focusing on how teachers respond to enduring problems of practiceand by collaborating with practitioners, IRT researchers strive to producenew understandings to improve teaching and teacher education. Currently, IRT researchers are engaged ina number of programmatic efforts in research on teaching that build on past work and extend the study ofteaching in new directions such as the teaching of subjectmatter disciplines in elementary school, teaching in developing countries, and teaching special populations.New modes of teacher collaboration with schools and teachers' organizationsare also being explored. The Center for the Learning and Teaching of Elementary Subjects,funded by the U.S. Department of Et "ication's Office of Educational Research and Improvementfrom 1987-92, is one of the IR'rs major endeavors and emphasizes higher levelthinking and problem solving in elementary teaching of mathematics, science, social studies,literature, and the arts. The focus is on what content should be taught, how teachersconcentrate their teaching to use their limited resources in the bestway, and in what ways good teaching is subject-matter specific,
The IRT publishes research reports, occasionalpapers, conference proceedings, the Elementary Subjects Center Series, a newsletter for practitioners(JRT Communication Quarterly), and lists and catalogs of IRT publications. Formore information, to receive a list or catalog, and/or to be placed on the IRT mailing list to receive the newsletter, please write to the Editor, Institute for Researchon Teaching, 252 Erickson Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1034.
Co-di-ectors: Jere E. Brophy and Penelope L. Peterson
Senior Researchers:Linda Alford,Tane Akamatsu, Charles Anderson, Linda Anderson, Aleemu Beeftu, Betsy Becker, Glenn Berkheimer, Margret Buchmann, Patricia Cianciolo, Gerald Duffy, Carol Sue Englert, Donald Freeman, James Gallagher, Magdalene Lampert, Perry Lanier, Wanda May, Richard Navarro, Annemarie Palinscar, Andrew Porter, Richard Prawat, Ralph Putnam, Taffy Raphael, Stephen Raudenbush, Laura Roehler, Cheryl Rosaen, Kathleen Roth, John Schwille, Michael Sedlak, David Stewart, M. Teresa Tatto, Mun Tsang, Christopher Wheeler
Editor: Sandra Gross Assistant Editor: Diane Smith Abstract
This paper addresses the problem that teachershave in being bimodal
(speech plus signs) Englishrole models as well as in using AmericanSign Language. The typical signing behavior of teachers in totalcommunication programs is illustrated through a number of utterancesdrawn from a videotape
of one of the teachersparticipating in a total communication project.Jlext, a project is described that centers around inservicetraining and in-class
demonstrations of theuse of a modified form of Signed English toprovide a visual presentation ofEnglish as the primary language of the classroom. The project servesas a demonstration to the field of a strategyfor implementing consistent linguistic input in classrooms inorder to impacton the language acquisition of deafchildren. Finally, several ofthe components of the inservice on modifiedSigned English are presented in the appendicesand include sample lessonplans, and a list of contractions, affixes,and sign markers Aopted for use by the Lansing SchoolDistrict. Table of Contents
Consistent Linguistic Input in the Signing Behaviorof Teachers: Modified Signed English 1 Appendix A--General Goals of the Total CommunicationProject 25 Appendix B--Inservice Lessons 29
Lesson 1: Sign Markers, Affixes, and Contractions 31 Lesson 2: Facial Expressions andBody Language 35 Lesson 3: Body and Gaze Shifting 43
Lesson 4: Fingerspelling 47 Lesson 5: Classifiers 55 Lesson 6: Locatives 69 Lesson 7: Indexic Referencing andLocalization 73 Lesson 8: Directionality 79 Appendix C--Affixes, Sign Markers 85 Appendix D--Contractions 109 Appendix E--Resources 115 CONSISTENT LINGUISTIC INPUT IN THESIGNING BEHAVIOR OF TEACHERS: MODIFIED SIGNED ENGLISH
David A. Stewart, C. TaneAkamatsu, Christopher Hunter, FrancineLauer, Kelli Krugh, and Wo-Tak Ngl
Since total communication became popular in the education of thedeaf during the 1970s, teachers have been wrestling with the two-prongedproblem of
efficient visual commtaication throughthe signed modality and modeling
grammatical English through a simultaneous bimodal presentation ofsign and speech. Researchers, on the other hand, have not taken up the challengethat this problem poses and much of their work has focused onlyon describing the signing behavior of teachers and assessing the amount of informationperceived by students through various unimodal and multimodalpresentations. Still others have debated the pedagogical value of usinga visual language such as
American Sign Language (ASL)versus a visual code suchas manually coded English (MCE). Meanwhile, in the classroomteachers continue to plytheir trade by combining elements of both ASL and English intoa pidgin that is
highly variable within theindividual teacher as wellas across teachers.
While it is imperative that theinformation students perceive through
signs be structured to optimize linguistic input, the nature ofteachers' signs must not only be examined, put researchers and teacher educatorshave
the responsibility of assistingteachers in their effortsto become effective linguisti role models. It cannot be ignored thatteachers are the primary
1David Stewart is coordinator ofthe Total CommunicationProject (Improving Consistent Linguistic Input in Total CommunicationClassrooms) and associate professor in the Department of Counseling,Educational Psychology and Special Education at Michigan State University. Tane Akamatsu is senior researcher with the project and associate professor inthe department. Christopher Hunter and Francine Lauer are inserviceinstructors with the project and part-time instructors in the department. Kelli Krugh and Wo-Tak 1g are research assistantsfor the project. English role atodfls for most deafstudents who rely on signingas their preferred mode of communication Over 90% of deaf childrenhave hearing parents, many of whora do not learnto sign or attain fluencyin signing. Therefore, these children are exposedto few, if any, signing Englishrole models outside of the classroom. Furthermore, the auditory modeprovides little, if any, comprehensiblelinguistic information for deafchildren and researcr indicates that a deafchild relying only on lipreadingreceives little structural information (O'Neill& Oyer, 1961), Additionally,teachers in total communicationprograms are inconsistent in their modelingof English through theuse of signs (Bernstein, Maxwell, & Matthews, 1985;Kiuwin, 2981; Marmor & Fettito; 1979; Reich &Bick, 1977; Stewart, Akamatsu,& Bonkowski, 1988), a problemthat has serious implications for the languagedevelopment of deaf children.
Likewise, few teachers serveas ASL role models to The scarcity of ASL role models isdue in pantto the f vLozessionals who work with deaf students (i.e.,less than 7% of all teachersand administrators are deaf, Johnson, 1986), a lack ofASL skills among all teachers(Woodward & Allen, 1987),too few training programs that instructtheir preservice teachers in the use of ASL (Akamatsu& Stewart, 1987a), a lack ofacceptance of the instructional valueof using ASLin the classroom, and an absenceot: communication policiesthat specifically endorse teachers'use of ASL. Ironically, insome states where deaf students ar. receive the benefits of ASL instruction. theirhearing peers are ab z:ake ASL for foreign languagecredits. Indeed, increasedpublic awareness of ,!,^L hasnot been translated into practiceand the push for ASL in theclassroom remains largely rhetorical.
2 What teachersare using in the classroom is a pidgin that drawson elements of both ASL and English (Kluwin, 1981; Marmor& Pettito, 1979; Stewart, Akamatsu, & Bonkowski, 1988; Woodward, Allen,& Schildroth, 1985),
Thus, deaf students whouse signs receive little consistent exposure toa visual-spatial representation of the dominant languageof society, English,or
to the language of the deafcommunity, ASL. Further, there is considerable variability within this pidgin (Woodward, 1973), and studentsmay encounter a
different variety from eachof their teachers. The resulting inconsistencyin the signing to which they are exposed poses unique problemsin the students'
acquisition of either Englishor ASL.
Therefore, the use of pidgin signing as the predominant formcf signing in the classroommust be questioned. There is extensive researchdocumenting the influential role of environmental languageconditions cn the language acquisition of hearing children (e.g., deVilliers & deVilliers,1978), second language acquisition (e.g., Gass & Madden, 1985), deafchildren acquiring ASL
(e.g., Collins-Ahlgren, 1974,1975; Hoffmeister &Wilbur, 1980; Siple &
Akamatsu, 1986), and deafchildren acquiring English(e.g,,, Babb, 1979; Brasel & Quigley, 1977; Crandall, 1978; Raffin, Davis, & Gilman, 1978), These studies all indicate that the nature of linguistic input impactson the
language acquisition of all children.
Thus, it seems logical that steps should be taken toensure that the
language environment inprograms for Aeaf students is conduciveto the
acquisition of both English and ASL. Although it may well be thatthe use of
a pidgin is an intermediary step in deafstudents' acquisition of English
(Stewart, 1987), justification for its continual application in theclassroom by teachers is difficult given the importance of linguisticinput and the lack of understanding of the relationship of pidgin signing to languagedevelopment
3 in deaf individuals. Further, pidgin signing shouldnot be preferred simply because it is thecommon form of signing used by teachers andparents. Professionals in the education of thedeaf have been woefully negligentin assuring that teachersare well trained in the use ofan MCE system or ASL prior to enteringthe work place (Maxwell, 1983)and in making teachers
accountable for excellencein their use of a particular type ofsign lan- guage/system. Apparently whenextensive sign instruction is lacking,pidgin signing may be the default signsystem thatcomes into use.
The purposes ofthis paper are to illustratediscrepancies between
linguistic informationpresented in tiva sign and speech modesof a typical total communication teacher and todescribe a total communication projectin which teachersare trained (a) to use a modified form ofSigned English consistently (cf.Bornstein, Saulnier, & Hamilton, 1983)as a visual represen-
tation of grammaticallycorrect English, (b) to synchronize theirsigns with spoken English, and (c) to incorporateASL signing characteristics whenusing a modified form ofSigned English. Also included inthe project, butnot described in thepresent paper, is a training program to helpteachers use ASL effectivelyas an intervention tool for enhancing communicationin':eractions betwcen studentsand teachers. The long-term goalof the projectis to serve as a demo r ration to teachersin other total communicationprograms of the benefits of consistentlinguistic input in the language acquisitionof deaf children,
Project Description Eultsiuntsacing
Participating teacherswere drawn from three total communicationprograms in the Lansing School District in the state ofMichigan. Because these
4 10 .4,
programs cover the range of deaf students enrolled in the schooldistrict, all
of its teachers (N 5) are involved in theproject.
A major intent of this project is to train teachersin a total communica- tion program to be consistent in their use ofa particular MCE system and ASL. Specifically, because English is the primary languageof instruction in the school district in which this project is located,an MCE system is used for most teacher-student interactions with ASL usedas an intervention tool. No effort was made to impose a particular MCE systemon the school district.
Rather, emphasiswas placed on how an MCE system could be used and theways in which ASL characteristics could be incorporatedinto it.
The communication policy of the Lansing School Districtendorsed the use of a modified form of Signed English (Stewart, 1988) whichwill hereafter be referred to as modified Signed English. Modifications involved theuse of the sign for PAST as the past-tense marker for regular andirregular verbs, the incorporation of several additional markers and affixes takenfrom the Signing Exact English system (Gustason, Pfetzing, & Zawolkow,1980), and the inclusion of ASL characteristics such as classifiers andbody shifting. (See Appendix A for the general goals of the project, AppendixB for examples of
inservice lessons, Appendix C for a listing of the affixes and signmarkers, and Appendix D for contractions that were incorporated intomodified Signed English). Once an agreement was reached on the necessary modificationsof Signed English, it was then expected that all teachers woulduse this system as the basis for their English signingbehaviors.
Overview
The four-year project began inthe Fall of 1987. During the first two years the focus was on gathering baseline data on teachers' signing skillsand student:. academic and language performances andthe training of teachersto
5 use modified Signed English andASL consistently when interactingwith their students. During the thirdyear skills learned in the first twoyears will be reviewed and allparticipating teachers will have theirclasses becomepart of a statewide demonstrationproject, open for inspection by educators,ad- ministrators, parents,preservice teachers, and others. In the fourthyear, the long-term impact oftraining teachers to become English rolemodels while using ASL as an interventiontool will be examined, and theclassrooms will continue to be usedas a demonstration project.
The project encompasses a broad range ofobjectives that include
collection of descriptivedata, creation of observational materials,develop- ment of inservicematerials, assessment of the impact ofconsistent linguistic input on student'sacademic and language performance, developmentof strateg- ies for using ASLas an intervention tool, and long-term monitoringof teachers' signing behaviors. The focus of thispaper is on (a) selected examples of typical communication behaviorsof teachers whouse pidgin signing, taken froma videotape of a teacher interacting with hetstudents prior to the start ofthe inservice program, and (b) the inserviceprogram and techniques used todemonstrate the use of modified SignedEnglish in the classroom.
Teacher Behavio Selected
This section illustrates some common communicationcharacteristics of teachers in total communication programs. This is accomplishedby citing examples of thecommunication behavior of one of the project'sparticipating teachers. No attempt is made to give a thorough analysisof this pai:ticular teacher's communication, as such an analysis will beaddressed ina later paper. Rather, the illustration presented here servesto (a) show that the signing used by teachers prior to the start of thisproject is best described
6 as being a type of pidgin signin. , ''k .rrespondence between signsand speech is most accurately descr.w.da )eing essentiallyequivalent in meaning but not grammatical form and (b) illustrate thetype of linguistic information deaf students receive from their teachers in totalcommunication programs.
A. Procedures. At the beginning of theproject all of th9 participating teachers were videotaped while they conductedtwo one-hour class sessions.
Ze camera remained focus.d on the teacher at all times and was allowedto run throughout each of the sessions. This procedure captureda wide range of
teacher-student interactions as well as interactions involvingthe teacher and other adults. Teachers were instructed to sign as they normally doduring
classroom interactions. All utteranceswere included in the linguistic
analyses with the only exceptions being those thatwere unintelligible.
Transcription procedures were similar to those used by Maxwelland Bernstein (1985) and Stewart et al. (1988) in that both thesign and speech channels were transcribed to allow comparisons of lexicaland morphological forms, grammatical structures and semantic content. Also included in the
transcriptions was a codingsystem which identifiederrors in the production of , sign. Following is an example of a transcribed sign and speechut- terance:
Utterance #810
sign: YOU HAVE (xh) WORD NORTH IN (xi) YOUR STREETAND SAME speech: You have the word north in your street the same sign: SCHOOL speech: as your school
In the foregoing transcription, (xh)indicates that theteacner used the wrong handshape and (xi) indicates thata particular sign was incompletely produced. A total of four transcriberswas used to complete all transcrip- tions. Interrater reliability was not takeninto account because wherethere
7 were disagreements the transcribers had to resolve their differencesby reviewing the tape together. In other words, thecompleted transcriptions reflected the information conveyed by the teachersas closely as possible.
In this paper onlyone transcription will beused to provide examples of how teachers typically sign in total communicationprograms. The teacher selected has taught in a total communication class for11 years, and, by her own admission, her signing is a pidgin. For the videotaping, sheinteracts
with four students agedseven tc nine years. Like most teachers in thefield, she has received very little instruction in signing andwas not formally
taught an MCE systemor ASL.
a e 1!.1 avor. The basic premise of nearly all total communication programs is that the informationpresented in the sign mode should match that presented in thespeech mode. Typically, teachers use one of several MCE systems to providea manual-visual representa- tion of English. In this respect,our subject did providesome instances where the information presented in the sign modedid match that presentedin
the speech mode. Two of these areas follows:
Utterance #6
sign: YOU KNOW BETTER YOUHAVE BETTER MANNER+S speech: You know betteryou have better manners
Utterance #100
sign: READ THAT NUMBER FORME PLEASE speech: Read that numberfor me please
However, a perfect sign-to-speechmatch was notcommon in our subject's communication. Indeed, it is our belief thatthe signing behavior ofour subje:' is representative of thesigning behavior of teA -s in most total commut tion programs. Several studies have shown that, ;n -to- speech correspondence is lacking in most teachers' communication behavior. Of
8 particular interest isa study by Woodward and Allen (1988) whichreported that 12.3% of teachers inotal communication programs accurately usea manually coded Englishsystem to provide a visual representation ofspoken English. Although it can be argued than givenWoodward and Allen's (1°88) data and criteria for determining accurateuse of a manually coded English
system this proportion might be low, the fact remains thatmost teachers do not provide an accurate visual-manual representation of English intheir signing. In other words, teachers tend to usea pidgin when signing and it
would be reasonableto expect that the communication behavior ofour teachers would also hea form of pidgin signing.2
Analyses of the teacher's transcriptions supportedour expectations. It is difficult to describe the exact nature of the teacher'ssigning because pidgin signing can include a range of characteristicsdrawn from both ASL and English. Hence, a number of utterances have been selectedto illustrate some communication characteristics. These utteranceswere not drawn at random
because of theoccurrences of one word utterances (e.g., OK, nope, yeah)and
phrases where the meaning ofthe sign part was not equivalent to that ofthe spoken part. Examples drawn from a list of 1051 utterances andsome comments about each are listed below.
-The proportion of teacherswho accurately usedan MCE system to represent English might have been higher if Woodward andAllen (1988) had accepted that rules for governing the use of an MCEsystem have undergone much change in the field sinco their introduction in theearly 1970s. For example, if teachers chose to fingerspell certein affixesinstead of using designated signs, these authors did not accept the teachers' signingbehavior as reflecting accurateuse of an MCE system. This is an unfortunateanalysis of signing behavior because it fails to account for the evolution ofsign systems. If visual representation of speech is a goal, thenconceivably a teacher should be able to sip or fingerspell a word andstill be using a particular MCE system. After all, if a person signing in ASL fingerspellsthe word "car" instead of using the ASL, sign for CAR, fewpeople wouldargue that this person had violatedan ASL signing principle.
9 Utterance #48 sign: AT TOP GIRL SHOW HOW speech: At the MAKE GROUP 0 -F top the girl is showing sign: ONE-HUNDRED how to make agroup of speech: one hundred
One major difference betweenthe speech and sign components ofbimodal communication is theomission of function words in themar, a1 mode. In the above utterance, theteacher omitted signing the infin1;;Ivt. 1r "to" and the articles "a" and"the,"Moreover, a single sign SHOW representsthe whole verb phrase"is showing." Possibly, signers whoare highly proficient in the use of English would be able eitherto speechread the information
contained in this phraseor to fill in the missing information by drawingfrom their own knowledge of the English language. However, the linguistic
information that individualsfluent in English are able to receive frompidgin signing might not bereadily applicable to deaf students in theprocess of acquiring English. For example, people assume that leaving outinformation pertaining to Englishgrammatical structures in the sign mode willnot be detrimental toa deaf student's acquisition of English. Since there isno basis for thisassumption, the information should be retained untilit is certain that language acquisition will not behindered 'by the omission.
Utterance #33
sign: REMEMBER THAT START YESTERDAY? speech: Do you rememberthat we started yesterday?
In this utterance,two pronouns are omitted and the auxiliary verb"do." These omissionsare typical in pidgin signing when a person isasking a question with "do." In the above example, thepronoun "you" might be inferred from the eyegaze of the signer and the pronoun "we" from the context ofthe discourse. Likewise, the teacher's facial expression couldindicate that a question was asked. This teacher has incorporated into her pidgin signingthe ASL grammatical features associated with askinga question and with pronominalization. She also assumes thatin the absence ofa complete English representation in signs that her students will stillunderstand the meaning
she is trying toconvey. But the fact remainsthat students donot see their
teachers using DOor more generally the do-support. Instead, if calledupon for such a task students must rely on theirown knowledge of language structures to make the translation to a grammatically correctEnglish sentence. Also missing from the sentence is the sign marker forpast tense in
the word "started."Again, the past tense might be inferred from thecontext of the discourse and/or from the presence ofthe word "yesterday." However, the low English proficiency level of many deafstudents suggests that they might not have the ability to infer correct Englishstructures from a pidgin.
Utterance 40181
sign. I WANT YOU-ALL READ NUMBERFOR ME speech: I want you to read the numbers forme.
The infinitive "to," the determiner "the," and thesign marker "s" for plural are omitted in the sign mode. Yet, this sentenceas well as the previous ones are essentially equivalent in meaningin the sign and speech
modes. Indeed, the equivalency in meaning becomes a rationalefor teachers not to attend to what are usually described as the nonessentialfeatures of English (e.g., articles, infinitives, past tense markers)when signing.
However, if students are not exposed to these features in the signmode, then the question arises as to whether they are picking themup in the speech mode either through audition or speechreading or whether they wouldbe able to insert them into the sentence based on their knowledge ofEnglish. The severity of the hearing loss of students in total communicationclassrooms, the low English proficiency level of the students, andthe difficulty of
11 speechreading suggest that theinformation contained by thenonessential English features might not bepicked up by the students if it isnot presented in the sign mode. This implies thatthese features might have to betaught rather than acquiredthrough conversations,
Utterance #796
sign: (gesture]EXCUSE(XH) YOU speech: BOB TALK NOW excuse me it is Bob I'mtalking to now In the foregoingutterance there is a lack of correspondencebetween signs and spoken words or morphemes. The manual part of this utteranceis telegraphic and thuspotentially ambiguous. Also, the abstractgrammatical "it" and the particle "to" inthe phrasal verb "talk to"are missing manually. A fully complex sentence has changedinto a structure that ismoss: commonly associated with "foreigner talk." Moreover, even if context is accountedfor and there is knowledge of thediscourse prior to this utterance,it may be unclear as to whether Bob is doing thetalking or the teacher is talkingto Bob. Finally, with respect to EXCUSEYOU, it is common in ASL to justsign EXCUSE for the English equivalentof excuse me, Thus, in thisutterance the sign 1:0U may been used for r. added emphasis inthe sense thatthe teacher is esking thestudent topay attention.
Utterance #951
sign: I(XH) WILLGIVE FEW MINUTE GET DRINK speech: I will give you a few minutesyou can get a drink of sign: WATER IF WANT speech: water ifyou want
Again, there isa lack of sign-to-speech correspondence, ut- terance. Because of the omissionof "a" and "of," students migh. the sign DRINKas a verb. That is, GET DRINKcould easily be taken as a 'erb construction, especiallyby students whoare not proficient in English, ith
12 the insertion of an article as in GET A DRINKthere is a better likelihood
that DRINK will be perceiv as a noun.
As mentioned earlier it isdifficult ifnot impossible to classify pidgin signing in a manner that clearly identifies a person'ssigning behavior. Given our current understanding of pidgin signing,the best that can be done is to make broad statements that capture certain linguisticcharacteristics
(e.g., in pidgin signing itis common to omitfunction words and affixes). Therefore, the utterer es presented above donot encompass all of the communication characteristics displayed by this teacher. However, they area sampling of some common characteristics. As such they should sufficeto illustrate the nature of pidgin signing that prevailsover all other forms of signing when teachers lack formal training in an MCE systemor ASL and in the absence of a firm communication and language policy thatstipulates thenature
of teachers' communicationbehavior in tbe. classroom.
Inservice: Modified Signed EngJ
The inservice program to train teachers' signingskills was divided into
two phases. The first phase centeredon the use of a modified form of Signed
English and began halfway through the firstyear. During the second phase teachers will be trained to use ASL as an intervention tool. Inservices were three hours long and were held on a weekly basisover a 20-week period. The main lessons used to guide the inservicesare in Appendix B, Following are objectives of the inservice on modified Signed English and specificcomments pertaining to each:
Tea hers w u e a mod edor of Si ned En lishconsi ten asa mungsfyilLEntligh. Teachers were expectedto use modified Signed English allof the time during the inserviceand are expected to do the same while teaching. Obviously, the transition froma signing style
13 that is predominantly a pidgin to one tia* requiresthe addition of sign markers and signs foraffixes, articles, and other Englishgrammatical
features to an individual'ssigning repertoire will take time. Moreover, not all teachers possessed the same level ofsigning skillsnor do they progress at the same rate. Therefore, teachers were allowed to set theirown goals for progressing towards completeEnglish signing behavior. For example inone particular Weak*one zeacher's goalwas to concentrate on the consistentuse of past tense markers, whereas anotherteacher's goalwas to use both past
tense markers and the markerfor regular plurals.
2. Teachers will use ASL characteristics whensigning in modifiedSigned English. To increase the effectiveness of modifiedSigned Englishas a communication tool, it is necessary to go beyond themere transliteration of spoken English tosigns. Teachers are shown how to use featurescharacteris- tic of ASL while signingmodified Signed English. These features includeverb directionality, facial expressions for questionsand if-then clauses,body shifting, eye gazing,sign-mime, and the use of indexic referencing ofnouns to indicate spatialrelationships. In addition, teachersare shown how touse locatives and classifiers to add clarity to theirmessages. Because the use of these ASL featuresin a sign often translates into more thanonce English word, their use in modified Signed English isseen as an adjunct rather thana component part of an English phrase. Typically, theyare included at the end of an English phrase which, in a sense, givesan ASL interpretation of what was said in English.
For example, in the sentence "There are treeson the side of the hill" both a classifier (forTREE) and a locative feature (for "HE-SIDE-OF [the hill]) can be incorporated at the end of the sentence.This Ls done bysigning
14 20 THERE ARE MANY TREE+S ON THE SIDE OF THE HILL--f(towed by the appropriate
use of an ASL classifier to indicatethat there are many trees locatedon the side of a hill.
Admittedly, this represents a deviation from straightSigned English, hence, the name modified Signed English. However, such deviationsare justified if they clarify the meaning ofa previous passage and if theyare used in such a manner that the teacher and thestudents are aware of the switch in language code.
3. Teachers will synchronize their speech with theirsigning. Because signing and speech involve mastery of two different sets ofarticulatory systems, it is not expected that all teachers will be ableto match their signing rate with that of their speech. Further, given that deafchildren's perceptual strengths lie in the visual channel,it was determined that each teacher's signing rate would be used to regulatethe speed of hisor her bimodal transmission of information. This guidelinerepresents a shift from the more common technique of allowing thu speechrate to dictate the speed of the signing, which, for many teachers, is accommodated byusing a form of pidgin signing, wherein signs are used for wordsor wcrphemes that are stressed and omitted for nonstressed words or morphemes. Given that signing is the modality in which signing deaf children receivemost of their informa- tion, then efforts to facilitate communication should be directedprimarily by principles stemming from thearticulation of signs andnot speech.
/1,Liffbirsjials:e2j21tctoedtotheuse ofmodified Signed English by hearing role The inserviceswere conducted by three deaf instructors and one hearing instructor. Each instructor is bilinguallyfluent in the use of English and ASL. In addition, in orderto observe in-class demonstrations of the consistent use of modified Signed English, two ofthe
15 instructors team-teachwith the teachersone -1:_od per week inthe teachers' classrooms. Some of the benefitsof this strat.ly are that theinstructors were more actively involvedin the teachers' learning; instructorswere better able to assess the adequaciesand inadequacies of using modifiedSigned English with different aged studentsand under various conditions(e.g., formal instructions,one-to-one interactions); materials taughtduring the inservices were reinforced in theclassroom; and students were exposedto other English rolemodels.
ion nst uctiona settingl. Field experiencesoccur every fifth inservice sessionand involve interactions between the teachersand all instructors in a settingoutside of the classroom. Restaurants, shoppingmalls, and recreational activitiessuch as bowling are used;:o create a relaxed atmosphere in whichteacherscan experiment with using modifiedSigned English to discuss a diverserange of topics at an adultlevel.
In additionto the above objectives it should be notedthat videotapes are used extensivelyto provide feedback to teachers of theirsigning behaviors during the inservicesessions. As stated earlier,two one-hour long videotapes of theteachers instructing in their classroomswere made to collect base linedata on their communication behaviors. These were then transcribed toprovide teacherswith sign and word texts of allof their communication. The videotapes and transcriptions wereanalyzed todetermine appropriateness of signsand speech used, as well as to critiquethe delivery of signs. A copy of the transcriptions and 17 of the videotapewere then given to the teachers to assist them inevalua d refining theirsigning styles. From the instructors' viewpoinc, examina_ the videotapesand
16 transcriptions was usefulin indicating some of thecommon errors teachers make and the discourse situations influencingsigning behaviors.
D121M111.211
If teachers of the deafare to be practical about their intentto assist deaf students in the development of English,then their own linguistic
behavior must be carefullymonitored. Where signsare used teachers needto know what type of signsthey are using and how to use them. When manually coded Englishsystems were introduced to deaf educationon a large scale in
the 1970s they didnot specifically address signing features thatwere characteristic of ASL. This may have occurred because MCE systemswere
designed to convey thegrammatical structures of English with littleemphasis placed on the valueof MCE systems as a communication tool. MCE systems have now been around long enoughfor educators to realize that theirproduction in the classroom entailsmore than simply having a copy of a particularMCE dictionary lyingon the shelf.
Furthermore, a comprehensive education program fordeaf childrenrequires that deaf culturaland linguistic heritage be incorporatedinto the cur- riculum. Over the past twodecades there has been plenty of rhetoricfocusing on the need for using ASL in the instruction ofdeaf student:. Our field is not short of models and strategies for implementingEnglish/ASL bilingual education programs. What deaf childrendesperately need isa conscientious effort by their teachersto go beyond paying lip service to a notionwhose time has come and whostart using ASL in a deliberate manner conduciveto facilitating more effective communication between teachersand students (e.g., Stewart & Hollifield, 1988). An inservice programon ASL has been designed for the teachersin this project and a future publication will detailthe nature of these inservices.
17 Finally, this projecthas the potential to change the educationof deaf children through several channels. First, it willimprove the signing
behavior of participatingteachers through the modified Signed Englishand ASL inserviceprograms. These programs are designed todemonstrate that (a) teachers have the capacity touse an MCE systemas a visual representation
of grammaticallycorrect English in a manner that is perceptuallyaccessible and visually appealing;(b) hearing teachers can learn to sign ASL; (c)a linguistic environment can be established thatcombines theuse of both English and ASL into a distinctive instructionalapproach derived from research evidenceon MCE and ASL related to language acquisition;(d) the current uncertainty surrounding teachers' use ofsigns can be removed;and (e) inservicesto improve teachers' signing skillscan be successful. For the participating teachers theproject will be a source of motivation forthem to become more consistontin their use of English and ASL and lessdependent on their use of pidginsigning.
Second, the projectwill provide indirect benefit to studentswhose teachers are direct partic:pants. By focusingon training teachers in
techniques of signinggrammatically correct English and ASL and maintaininga separation of the two linguistic inputs, thestudents are exposedto consis- tent language role models critical to their lquisition of language. Third, the project provides long-term benefits forteachers and deaf students above and beyond those participating inthe demonstrationproject. The signing skillslearned by the teachers can be used for as longas the teacher contin"esto teach in total communication clas ;kill which will benefit students infuture y following termination ::oject. Also, because four of theproject nel are also involvedin :emplary teacher trainingprogram that ,:uses on the bilingual/biculturaleducation
18 of deaf children (Akamatsu & Stewart, 1987b),the sites of the projectwill be a source, for field placement of preservice teachers. The project will be
open for inspection by parents, teachers,and other visitors.
Finally, it should be noted that the communication modelsuggested in this projectcan be adapted to accommodate the 'ommunication needs ofa variety of educational objectives. For some deaf students ASLmight be better
used as the primary language ofinstruction and Englishas the intervention
tool. Alternatively, ASL might be better used as the primary languagefor
certain subject matters and Englishfor other subjects. Regardless of the
language used, its representationthrough signs should be consistent.
Further Considerations,
Not surprisingly, the lexicon of ASL does not always lend itselfto a corresponding match in English and vice versa. In particular, this istrue
for vocabulary in theareas of technology, computingscience, the sciences,
geography, history, economics, and social studies.We have supplementedour inservices with several resource books on technical signs and havealso drawn upon the Technical Signs Project videotapes produced at the NationalTechnical
Institute for the Deaf (NTID). When signs cannot be foundfor an English word, we suggest fingerspelling rather than inventing signs. This allows teachers and students to use a vocabulary common to a widerange of people instead of only to those in a single school district. Still, there isa
critical need in the field for new signs if total communicationprograms wish to provide deaf students with a comprehensive education program unhinderedby the extent of a teacher'sknowledge of signs.
Thus far, the project has focusedon the teacher's signing behavior and general communication skills. In years three and four, the relationship between sign and print will be examined thatis, although the teachersmay
19 have an understandingof how their signing maps onto English, thisknowledge still needs to be made explicit in the graphicmode.
A Final Word
Teachers have long borne the responsibility for thelow achievement standards of deaf students. Yet, many are illequipped to handle the bilingual, bimodal situation they face in the classroom. Teacher education programs, while spending much time on language and speech development,have largely neglected to train their preservice teachersin the communication skills necessary to be effective teachers. Teachers need to havea metacogni- tive awareness of their own linguistic abilities; theymust know what their options are in terms of expressing any given ideaand why they chooseone particular formulation over another. They must be strategicin their use of MCE, incorporating features commonly found in signedlanguages where ap- propriate, and code switching into ASL whennecessary. If we are to become accountable for providing a quality education to deafchildren and youngsters, then action must be taken to assist teachers in theircommunication endeavors in the classroom.
20 f) References
Akamatsu, C.T., & Stewart D. (1987a). O ed (Program Evaluation Series No. 22). East Lansing, MichiganState University, Research and Evaluation inTeacher Education,
Akamatsu, C.T., & Stewart, D. (1987b). A modelprogram for training teachers of the deaf. American_Annals of the Deg,122., 366-371. Babb, R. (1979). A study of_ the academicachievement and language 1 v acquisi-, 4 1 0 1; e ed c 1!,4 '41 1 *IAA cation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University ofIllinois. Bernstein, M., Maxwell, M., & Matthews, K. (1985). Bimodal or bilingual communication. Sign language Studta, 47,127-140.
Bornstein, H., Saulnier, K., & Hamilton, L. (1983). The comprehensive Signed English dictionary. Washington, DC: Gallaudet UniversityPress. Brasel, K., & Quigley, S. (1977). The influence ofcertain language and communication environments in early clildhoodon the development of language in deaf individuals. Journal of Speech and 22, 95-107. Hearing Research,
Collins-Ahlgren, M. (1974). Teaching Englishas a second language toyoung deaf children: A casestudy. 22, 486-500. sarustJleechtlpAidegers,
Collins-Ahlgren, M. (1975). Language development oftwo deaf children. American Annals of theDeaf, 12g, 524-539.
Crandall, K. (1978). Inflectional morphemes inthe manual English ofyoung hearing impaired children and their moeters. Journal of Speech and Hearin&Researgh, 21, 372-386. deVilliers, J., & deVilliers,P. (1978). Language acquisi...ion. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Gass, S., & Madden, C. (Eds.). (1985). Input in second languageacquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Gustason, G., Pfetzing, D., & Zawolkow, E. (1980). Signing Exact English, Rossmoor, CA: Modern Signs.
Hoffmeister, R., & Wilbur, R. (1980). The acquisition of signlanguage. H. Lane & F. Grosjean In (Eds.), Recent perspectiveson American Sign Language (pp. 61-78). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Johnson, R. (1986, Winter) . How teachers communicate withdeaf students today. GallauciPt Researcl-Li....LJLiAagainILLI=,n P. 3-7.
21 Kluwin, T. (1981). The grammaticalityof manual in classroom settings. representations of English American Annals ofthe Deaf, la, 417-421. Marmor, G., & Pettito, L. (1979). Simultaneous room: communication in the class- How well is Englishgrammar represented? Z2, 99-136. lignidfingulaatmAitl,
Maxwell, M., & Bernstein, M. (1985). The synergy of communication. sign and speech insigned Applied Psycholinguistics, 63-82.
Maxwell, M. (1985). Sign language instruction and teacherpreparation. 51=LamsmissAWAIII, Al,173-180.
O'Neill, J., & Oyer, H. (1961). 1 sual communicator for the hardo£ hearing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Raffin, M., Davis, J., & Gilman, L. (1978). Comprehension of inflectional morphemes by deaf children exposed to visualEnglish sign Journal of Speech system. and Hearing Research,21, 387-400.
Reich, P., & Bick,M. (1977). How visible is visibleEnglish? Studies, 14, 59-72. Sign Language,
Siple, P., & Akamatsu,C.T. (1986, June). Language acquisition in fraternal twang of deaf a set of parents. Paper presentedat: the Theoretical Issues in Sign Language Research Conference,Rochester, NY. Stewart, D. (1988). A, model communisationand language policy munication for totalcom- East Lansing: (0c.:-Isional Paper No.125). Michigan StateUniversity, Instituu Teaching. for. Research in
Stewart, D. (1987). Linguistic input for the ASL/Ent, ACEHI Journal/La Revue Aceda,12, 58-70.
Stewart, D., Akamatsu,C.T., & Bonkowski, N. (1988). Factors influencing simultaneous communication behaviors in teachers. ACEHI Journal/La ACEDA, 14, 43-58. Revue
Stewart, D., & Hollifield, A. (1988, January/February). A model for team teaching using American Sign Language and English. Perspectives for Teachers of the HearingImpaired, fi, 15-18.
Woodward, J. (1973). Some characteristics ofPidgin Sign English. Sign LangmaggStudies,., 39-412.
Woodw:rttdiiJe.s:& Allen, T. (1987). Classroom use of ASL.Sign Language 511, 1-10.
Woodward, J., & Allen,T. (1988). Classroom use of artificial by teachers. sign systems aigna,Angulmlitzlill, 405-418.
22 Woodward, J., Allen, T., & Schildroth, A. (1985). Teachers and deaf students: An ethnography of classroomcommunication. In S. DeLancey & R. Tomling (Eds.), Proceedingsof the First AnnualMeetingsfthLiad= Linguistics Conference (pp. 479-493). Eugene: University of Oregon.
23 Appendix A
GENERAL GOALS OF THE TOTALCOMMUNICATION PROJECT
25 Appendix A
GENERAL GOALS OF THE TOTALCOMMUNICATION PROJECT
1. To provide hearing impairedstudents with linguistic input in Englishand American Sign Language thatcontains correct grammatical language. features of each
2. To enable teachers to provide linguisticinput to hearing impaired students consistently in a multimodal design that willinclude speech, speechreading, signs, fingerspelling, and audition,as appropriate. 3. To emphasize the importance of consistencyin the presentation of linguistic information during a simultaneous sign and speechdelivery. 4. To enhance the grammar of signed presentationsin the classrooms hearing impaired students so that should be better ableto generate language rules which leadto a full command ofEnglish.
5. To incorporate American Sign Language signingcharacteristics into modified form of Signed a English so as toenhance the visual-spatial representation of Englishlanguage symbols.
6. To use American SignLanguage as a language and communication toolinside and outside of theclassroom.
7. To foster optimal environments whichencourage hearing impaired to u:e strategically students a modified form of SignedEnglish, American Sign Language, speech, and speech-related skillsto maximize their communica- tion abilities.
8. To promote theuse of community-based signs, when necessary, thatwill increase the compatibilityof the signs used in the classrooms withthose used in the adult deafcommunity.
9. To encourage theuse of fingerspelling.
10. To use initialization of signs only when itcontributes to the under- standing and English meaningof a sign.
11. To recognize initialized signs for their educationalvalue while accepting their functional use outside of schools only afterbeing so determined by the deafcommunity.
12. To use the classrooms involved in the projectas part of a statewide model total communicationdemonstratiun site.
27 Appendix B
INSERVICE LESSONS
NOTE: All illustrations in the Appendix B section on Classifiers(pp. 47-59), are used with permission from T. J. Publishers, Inc., 817 SilverSpring Avenue 206, Silver Srring, MD 20910, and are taken from T. Humphries,C. Padden, & T. J. O'Rourke (illustrated byF.A. Paul). hbAgigQgg§e in American Lanvin.
29 3 2 Appendix B
INSERVICE LESSONS
LeusnalliszAstAffixes,and Contractions
A. Goals and Objectives god,:
Participants should be able to describe how sign markerschange the meaning of a word.
Lesson-Objectives:
Upon .ompletion of th .esson, the participant will
1.1 understand how sign markers change the meaning and functionof a word.
1.2 be able to demonstrate which sign markersare signed after the basic sign word, and whichare signed before.
1.3be able to recognize and demonstrate 12 SignedEnglish sign markers that have been borrowed fromSigned English.
1.4 be able to recognize and demonstrate the affixesthat have been borrowed from "igningExact English.
1.5be able to recognize and demonstrate the contractionsaccepted in modified Signed English.
1.6 consistently use the accepted sign markers, affixes, andcontrac- tions when signing in modifiedSigned English.
B. Introduction
Modified Signed English is an instructional tool that providesa manual representation of English. As the name suggests, it isa modified version of the Signed English system devfloped by Bornstein, Saulnier,& Hamilton (1983). In our system teachersare encouraged to use igns that are also used in American Sign Language (ASL) and to fingerspeli. words forwhich there may not be a sign equivalent. However, English containsmany morphemes that change the meaning of verbs,nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. To some extent, these changes are noted in modified Signed English by incorporatingthe use of ASL sign markers for the followingfour features
Comparative: -ER... STRONGER
IsamiLtin: -EST... SMALLEST,BRIGHTEST
Opposite of: IN, UN, DIS, IM . INABILITY, UNHAPPY, DISALLOW, IMPATIENT
31 Agent: To indicate person... WORKER, TEACHER, LIBRARIAN
To represent otherEnglish morphemes, affixes that modified Signed Englishuses some are used in Signed English(e.g., -LY, are commonly used in -Y) and many othersthat S4gning Exact English(e.g., -MENT, -SHIP). gives a complete listingof sign markers Appendix C and affixes usedin our modified Signed Englishsystem.
Signs are also usedto indicate contractions. produced by doing the For example, I'LLis sign for "I" followedby the sign for complete listing of the " 'LL." A contractions is shownin Appendix D.
Thus, one of the basiccomponents of modified of sign markers, Signed English isthe use affixes, and contractions. The general rule of Signed English isto use ASL signs, modified signs indicating fingerspelled words, andappropriate morphemes, in Englishword order. the signs used to In this lessonsome of indicate Englishmorphemes arepresented. C. Er22.90=
The most difficult part of learningto use sign markers, contractions lies in affixes, and their manualarticulation. that for people who The majorreason for this is typically relyon speech as their major munication, the speech means of com- rate tends to guide therate of signing. trying to providea manual representation Thus, while of spoken English,individuals find it cumbersometo maintain their may normal speechrate while includingall markers, affixes,contractions, articles, which is not and many other wordsthe omission of believed to hindercomprehension. signing the sentence For example,a common way of "After he goteverything working, candies" might be he ate all of the
AFTER HE GET EVERYTHING WORK HEEAT ALL CANDY. This type of signing is commonly referredto as pidgin signing part of Lansing School and is nota District's communicationand language policy. the properway of signing the Instead, foregoing sentence inmodified SignedEnglish is AFTER HE GET+PASTEVERYTHING WORK+ING HE EAT+PAST ALL OF THECANDY+S. It is recognized that at the earlystages of learning English the ability to sign modifiedSigned to maintain a normalspeech rate while possible. signing may not be Therefore, it isrecommended that when necessary, teachers talkat a slower rate in orderto focus on their simultaneous communicationexpres- sion. With practicethey will be able to sign and speak ata faster rate. Further, justificationfor this strategy comes from the students,many of whom rely more heavilyon signing than on speech for receptivecommunication. Although there isno single procedure that can best lead teachersto learn modified SignedEnglish, the following two suggestionsare helpful: 1. While practicing, concentrate on expressive signskills during the early stages oflearning to sign modified Signed English. This can best be done by mouthing wordsinstead of voicing them or by not using speechat all.
32 Withovt voice,an individual's monitoring of his importance. or her speech decreases in This is an interestingpoint--although proponents of to.:al communication it is generally agreed by that signing isthe all important tion modality, teachers communica- continue to allow speechnot only to dictate their signing behavior, but also to justify what itis that they do to overcome this tendency, not sign. Thus, consideration shouldbe given to learning Signed English without the modified overriding influenceof speech. As a teacher becomes more fluent insigning, the ability to combine the sign andspeech modalities should alsoimprove.
2. Target certain affixes, sign markers, andcontractions for incor- poratiJn into your signingbehavior. Some individuals get frustratedwhile signing in English becausethey are unable to sign it fluently and witha minimum of effort. What they fail to realize is that signingis a skill that requires much practice. It is advisable whenpracticing that you select progressive set of targets a such as the following: (a) in a 15-minute of signing you will sign stretch all past tensemarkers; (b) while signing you will sign the affixes "ment," a scory "tion," "ness," and"able" along with the past tense marker; and (c) in a 10-minute stretch of signingyou will ign "ing" along with theprevious targets. In this way, improve your self-monitoring you should be able to skills and getto the point whereyou are more spontaneous in your use of modifiedSigned English.
D. Practice Sentences
The following practice sentences are offered onlyas a means of getting started and provide an opportunity to practicesome sign markers, affixes, and contractions. Underlining indicateswords that are modified by sign marker or a sign adding a morpheme correspondingto an affix or a contraction. should be noted that It the past tense of regularand irregular verbs distinguished by different are not sign markers. Thus, LIKED, SWAM, andHIT are signed LIKE+PAST, SWIM+PAST, and HIT+PAST. It is also acceptableto finger- spell affixesas in the word HOME+L-E-S-S. For words that conf-ainmore than one affix and/or sign marker it might not be practicalto sign all of them, For example, THOUGHTFULLY can be signed without thepast tense markeras follows, THINK+FULLY, where ti-s sign for THOUGHT isa variation of. THINK and FULLY can be fingerspelled. - (in the other hand, MEANINGSshould be signed MEAN+ING+S because in the absence of either affixesthe intended English meaning of the sign alone could not be inferred. That is, MEAN+S will be understood as "means" andMEAN+ING as "meaning."
In addition to the following sentences it isrecommended thatpar- ticipants construct their own sentences and share them withothers.
1. HIS MOTHER HAS TOLD METHAT HE NEVER LIKED SLEEPING.
2. JANE'S DEAFNESS WAS CAUSEDBY MENINGITIS.
3. THE SUCCESSFUL DEVELOPMENT OF MOST PROGRAMS STARTS WITHTHE SELVTION OF CAPABLE PEOPLE.
4. I DISLIKE MOSTLX HIS INCAPABILITY TO HELP OTHERSTHOUGHTFULLY.
33 0 0 5. IF YOU SHOULD DISAGREEWITH HIM THEN PLEASE IT SHOULD BE on. PLAN A DEMONS'ATION OF HOW
6. IT hftY NOT HAVE BEEN THE BEST WAY TOSHOW LEADERSHIP OBVIOUSLY HER ONLY CHANCE SKILLS BUT IT'S OF GETTING THROUGHTHE SCHOOL YEAR. 7. 12.2 RATHER HAVE A CLASS THAT'S NOT MANAGEABLEBUT IS ENTHUSIASTIC THAN HAVE A WELL MANNERED CLASSTHAT ISN'T ENTHUSIASTIC.
8. IF IT'S SUNNY OUTSIDE THEN ilm QUITEWILLING TO START WORKING HARDESI JOB FIRST. ON THE
9. SPEAKINQ OF THE DEVIL, YOU'RE NOT EXACTLYA MODEL OF GOOD IT COMES, TO SHOWING BEHAVIOR WHEN mmul TO YOUR pLIDEgSISTER.
10, IF THINGS SEEM TO BE GETTING WORSE THENYOU'LL PROBABLY BE OUICKL'. CALLED TO COME
11. HE IS A TRUSTING, PERSON BUT NOT A SHARPTHINKER. 12. I CAUGHT 14 MICE YESTERDAY RUNNING, AROUNDMY ROOM AND DRESSED CLOTHES. IN MY
13, THEY ARE JOINING TABLES IN PREPARATION OF AFANCY CELEBRATION FOR TEACHER'S RETIREMENT. THEIR
14. FOR HOW MANY DAYS, WILLYOU BE YACIIIMINgIN PARIS?
15. REME!IER, PRACTICE SENTENCES ARE ONLY GIVEN TO YOUIN ORDER TO GET YOU Ingl L. THINK OF THEM AS THE WARM-UP EXERCISES TOASSIST YOUR LEARNING. A. Goals and Objectives
Q2 A1:
Participants should be ableto describe how theuse of facial expressions and body language enhancemodified SignedEnglish.
Lesson Objectives,:
Upon completion of thislesson, the participantwill
2.1 be able to incorporate theuse of facial expressions and body language into modifiedSigned English.
2.2 be able to demonstrate the difference between pantomimeand non- verbal communication.
2.3 be able to apply pantomime when necessary to enhanceexpressive signing behavior in modifiedSigned English.
2.4be able to demonstrate the use of the following five basicfacial expressions: happy, sad, surprised,angry, and fearful.
2.5 be able to demonstrate appropriate use of the followingfive facial movements: eyebrows, eyes, nose, cheeks,and lips.
2.6 be able to demonstrate the following four basic bodypositions referred to as
double-zero position rear inclination forward inclination side inclination
2.7 be able to demonstrate how different arm and hand positionsenhances the meaning of a phrase.
B. Introduction
Sign language depends on the articulatory dynamics of thevisual-spatial medium. Signs alone are insufficient inproviding all of the information needed to convey thoughts. More important, signs alonemay not provide enough information for others to understandthe messages we wishto express. Deaf individuals have limited access to the auditory information availablein speech. Therefore, the semantics of signedcommunications are enhanced by visual cues such as raised eyebrows, raised shoulders, andeye gazes rather than sounds related to pitch,tone, and loudness. Thus, the use of facial expressions and body language is a critical skill that all signersmust ha,.e.
When using modified Signed Englishand voice simultaneously, thevoice is often the dominant mode ofexpression for a hearingperson; that is, hearing persons will tendto overlook the fact that informationbeing conveyed
35 through voice characteristics are not necessarily beingtranslated in the visual medium. In this lesson, there are a series of exercisesinvolving the use of facial expressions and body language skills that shouldbe a part of every signer's communication behavior.
C. Er2gz11..tro.
1. Facial expressions
Prior to doing this exercise it would be helpfulto have au experienced signer demonstrate how some basic types of facialexpressions can enhan, and/or convey meaning in e singing. For example, thesentence "I want $5.00" can take on the following meanings depending on thetype of facial expressions used:
rhetorical question: I WANT $5.00? NO, I DO NOT. surprised question: I WANT $5.00? I NEVER SAID THAT request: I WANT $5.00. tongue-in-cheek: I WANT $5.00. COME ON, LET'S HAVE IT. It is recommended that outside of the classroomthe exercises in this lesson be practiced in front ofa mirror. This suggestion could actuallybe applied when learning any signingtechnique as it isa good way of breaking inhibi- tions that one might have aboutusing facial expressions.
The five basic emotions (adjectives) thatcan be used to cue facial expressions when signingare as follows:
a. HAPPY b. SAD
c. SURPRISED d. ANGRY
e. FEARFUL The main feature of the above illustrations is that theyclearly highlight the importance of the eyebrows and the shape of the mouth. When practicing it is helpful to remember the general position ofthe eyebrows and the shape of the mouth as theycorrespond to each emotion.
Exercise #1
In this exercise you are expected to show the appropriateemotion while signing each of the words associated with it. At this stage you should concentrate on projecting the emotionalintent of your signsas much as possible. It would be better to exaggerate a facial expressionthan to be void of one all together. For many people, learningto use facial expressions is a hard task made more difficult by social inhibitionsof using these expressions in conversation. It may help if the signerkeeps in mind that using facial expressions isnot similar to "making faces."
a. HAPPY (BEAUTIFUL, COOL,BRIGHT, LOVELY)
b. SAD (TIRED, HEAVY, SLEEPY, WEAK,BORED)
c. SURPRISED (STRONG, TALL,INTERESTING, SMART, CHANGE)
d. ANGRY (STUPID, MAD, HEAVY, UGLY,BAD, LIE, DIRTY)
e. FEARFUL (AWFUL, CONFUSED, CRAZY,SCARED, IMPOSSIBLE)
Exercise #2
1. Augmenting verbs
In this exercise you are to create a list of verbsigns and then sign them with appropriate facial expressions as demonstrated byyour instructor. For example,
IMPROVE--HAPPY I WAS THRILLED TO SEE THATYOU IMPROVED SO MUCH,
FAIL--SAD SHE FAILED TO GET ELECTED.
MARRY--SURPRISED I FLIPPED WHEN SHE SAID SHEWOULD MARRY HIM. DISAGREE--ANGRY YOU DISAGREE WITH HIM TOO MUCHFOR YOUR OWN GOOD.
MISUNDERSTAND--FEARFUL IF I MISUNDERSTAND HIM AGAINI WILL STOP COMING.
2. Detailed facial expressions
The precise meaning of a particular facial expression isdependent upon the context in which it is used. For example, the raisedeyebrow and round mouth movement shown in the figurebelow can mean thata person is expressing "fright" or "physical torture" or even a number of other feelingsdepending on the context of a dialogue. Nevertheless, it is helpful forsigners to learn some of the more common associations of facialexpressions with certain semantic categories. In this way, signers who havedifficulty manipulating
37
ti their facial featureswhile carryingon a dialogue, through practice. can acquire this skill In time, the appropriateuse of facial expressions occur more naturally. will
Examples of the role ofcertain facial movements in illustratinga meaning are shown in thefollowing examples:
2.1 Eyebrow Movement:
a. raised: prayer, joy, admiration, .,4cnie-i.on, shame,cowar- dice, astonishment, ignorance, lackc Lligence
b. raised higher: fright, physicaltorture, extreme joy, dumb- founded
c. one eye closed: there is danger ofsomething; or I something suspect
d. eyes half-closed,turned to one side without moving head: I pretend, I spyon, I betray, I am boredor not stimulated, shame, falseness, hypocrisy
2.2Nose Movement:
a. nostrils open: that smells bad, itis disgusting
2.3 Cheek Movement:
a. drawn in: skinny, aged
b. puffed out: fat, chubby, rich
c. raised toward cheekbones: I'm not- Lied, I hateyou, I am depressed, I am hurt
38 2.4Lip Movement:
a. closed, one cornerdepressed: I suspect, he lies,I blame, he wants to foolme
b. lips puckered (whistling, smiling): desire to please, affection
c. smiling with one side raised: I lied, I fooled him,I made fun of him
d. drawn in: controlled laughor anger
e. half open, corners drawn down: suspicion, disgust, oh, hurt
3. Body language
In addition to facial expressions, body languagecan play an important role in communicatingthoughts. Like facial expressions, body languageis something that allindividuals, deaf or hearing, tend to do naturallyto augment their preferred mode of communication. However, some individuals whom signing is acquired for after they have learnedto speak, may unintentionally inhibit their body language as they focus on the productionof signs. other words, they In may be so conscious of howthey are going to sign that they stifle something any attempt to use the bodyto enhance the in their signing. message contained
In contrast, there are soma individuals who morereadily use their bodieL. to communicatethoughts. Although this isa desirable trait fora signer, this type of person must be able to control theintensity of their body movements (and facial expressions) so as notto overdramatize their actions. Hence, a person desiring to express a mild degree ofaffection while signing "I REALLY APPRECIATED YOUR SUPPORT"must be careful notto use body language that would be more appropriate forsigning "I LOVE YOU." The key elements with respect to body languageare the positions of the body, Arms, and hands. Effective sign communicationrequires the ability attend to each of these to elements either in isolationor in combination. Examples of each of theseelements are as follows:
39 3.1Basic body positions
a. Double-zero position: standing erect, legsstraight, arms hanging from shoulders
Head tilt forward: modesty, timidity,humility, respect, sadness
b. Forward inclination: standing in the double-zeroposition with the chest tilted forwardand one foot out in front:
struggle, order, threaten, admire, desire, ask, wish,promise, persuade
c. Rear inclination: standing in the double-zeroposition with the chest tilted slightlybackward withone foot behind the other:
ignorance, anxiety, astonishment,fear, hesitation, doubt d. Side inclination: standing in the double-zeroposition and resting body onone leg, resting handson hips:
indifference, waiting
3.2 Basic position of thearms
a. Raised elbows, stickingout: affectation, mannerism
b. Thumbs in armhole.. ofvest: assurance, independence
3.3 Basic position of hands
a. Hands on hips: waiting, indifference
with forward inclinationof the head: arrogance, challenge
Exorcises #3
Clearly, body language andfacial expressionscan be incorporated into all verbal communication. The followingare some situations thatare commonly used by sign instructors to get their students to tune intheir expressive communication skills to the dynamics of a visual-spatial medium. It Should not be hard to think up more situations that are conduciveto this type of creative exercise. In the first two sections, theemphaLis ison pantomime which means thatno formal signs should be used.
40 1. Pantomime by group
a. tug-o-war
b. slow motion in bowling, pitching a baseball,swinging golf club, football
c. chopping wood withan axe
2. Pantomime by individual
q. traffic cop
b. elementary school teacher
c. tourist
3. Group interaction using signlanguage
a. dentist office
b. camping
c. teen-age party
D. kaatiaftUntftnati
In the following, attention should be given to theappropriate use of body language and facial expressions throughout theentire sentence. lined words indicate specific Under- instances thatare more readily accompanied by body language and facialexpressions.
1. I WAS SO =BIM TO LEARN THAT SHE mumHIM. THAT'S AWFUL! 2. MY FRIEND LOST HIS JOB LAST MONTH. po$ FAMILY, THEY ARESTARVED.
3. MY CAR WAS VERY DIRTY. I WASHED IT AND IT NOWLOOKS CLEAN.
4. MY FATHER WAS VERY ANGRYAT MY BROTHER FOR CRASHINGHIS Nu CAR. 5. THE UGLY DUCKLING IS THEHEN!
6. DO NOT um THIS PLATE, IT IS HQ'.
7. IF YOU LIE, YOU WILL BE Imm.
8. JOHN IS HEAVY, AND JANEIS LIGHT.
9. I SMELL GAS HERE. DO YOU?
10. DO NOT F. TOO MUCH. YOU WILL GET fa.
11. I DON'T -LIKE \OU BECAUSE YOUWON'T TELL ME WHO WON.
41 12, I suspm THAT MY BROTHER IS HIDINGSOMETHING. 13. MY MOTHER-IN-LAW ADMIRES YOUR =MELDRAWING, TALENT. YOU HAVE GREAT
14. AT THE AUTO SHOW LASTSATURDAY, I STRUGGLED CAR. TO um A HOOD ON ANEW
15. IT WAS MEX. I L4VGHED HARD WHEN SHE TOLDME HER STORY.
Lf 4
42 Lesson 3: Body and GazeShifting
A. gsal.LAulAbistatizu Goal
Participants should be able to describe how theuse of boa/ and gaze shifting enhances modifiedSigned English.
Lesson Objecttves:
Upon completion of this lesson, the participantwill be able to 3.1 describe the principles of body andgaze shifting. 3.2 describe how the horizontal plane isused to identify "who" talking. is
3.3 describe how the vertical plane isused to indicate therelative height or status ofa person.
3,4 demonstrate how body andgaze shifting are used subject of a to indicate the statement or "who issaying something."
3.5 demonstrate how body and gaze shifting are usedto indicate "what" a persondoes,
B. Introduction
The visualspatial nature of signing lendsitself to the language and facial use of body expressions to enhancea signer's verbal communication. Sometimes, the bodylanguage and facial expression usedare desirable but not essential componentsof a signed phrase. For example, in thephrase THAT MAN OWNS A HUGEFARM a signer could just sign the words withoutany change in facial expression or in body movements other than thosenecessary to produce the signs. contrast, an articulate signer In would tend touse a variation of the sign for LARGE to emphasize the meaning of hugeand would alsouse appropriate facial expressionsto further stress the largeness of the farm. In other cases, body language and facial expressions directlycontribute to the syntax and the semanticsof a phrase. In the phrase
I WANT FIFTEEN DOLLARS a signer could change the meaning dependingon the body language and expressions used. facial Thus, a skilled signercould produce a rhetorical question, a request, ur a sarcastic remark withoutchanging the signs in the phrase. used
43 `t.) In tats lesson, the techniques of body andgaze shifting will be discuss.i ead demonstrated. Body and gaze shiftingare particularly interesting techniques because they help indicate,among several things, "what was said," and "who said it" or "whatwas done" and "who did it." This ir, accomplished through movemc-at on the horizontalor vertical plane and the direction of a signer's gaze. The basic principleof this technique is that what a signor says or does isa direct reflection of what someone else has said or done. By shifting thebody into a particular position a signer becomes a certain person where theidentity of this person is derived from the context of the conversation. This can be demonstrated in the followingphrases:
WHEN I WAS A KID MY MOM WOULD SCOLD ME FOR WATCHING TOOMUCH T-V.
SHE WOULD SAY, "YOUR EYESWILL TURN TO MUSHIF YOU KEEP WATCHING IT."
I WOULD REFUSE TO LISTENTO HER.
While signing these phrases a person might turn the shouldersto the right and gaze slightly upward while signing "SCOLDME," turn the shoulders the left and to gaze slightly downward when sayingwhat the mother said, and then turn the head to the left when signingthe last phrase. If the signer continued to talk about his mother, then usuallyeach time he or she moved the shoulders to the left the listener would knowthat the signer is in position of the mother. the Baker and Cokely (1980)used the term "personal- ized" to describe a message that results whena signer assumes the role of another person and thenproceeds to signas if s/he were that person.
C. Procedure
Following are four basic techniques used in body andgaze shifting.
1. Horizontal plane: Movement to the rightor left along the horizontal plane typically identifies "who" is talking. This movementcan be made by (a) turning the shoulders and head to theright or left; (b) turning the head in either direction; (c) turning the wholebody to the right or left; or (d) gazing to the rightor left. In the phral.;e
THE WOMAN LOOKED UP ATTHE BUILDING AND SAID THATSHE FELT DIZZY BECAUSE IT WAS SO HIGH
a signer might turn the shoulder to the left and look upward whilesigning "LOOKED UP AT THE BUILDING"and then graduallyreturn to a natural pose while signing the rest ofthe sentence.
2. Vertical plane: Movement up and down illustratesthe different height or status of a person, and the different height ofan object. For example,
SHE TOLD HER LITTLE BROTHER, "DON'T EAT CANDIES IN THEBEDROOM." BUT HE RESPONDED BACK TO HER, "GO AWAY AND MIND YOUR OWNBUSINESS."
44 Here, a signer might look down and to the rightwhen signing what the said, and then look sister up and to the left when signingwhat the brother responded.
3. Pirectional positions: Directional movementsindicate the relative positions of the object or person being discussed. When signing a phrase that contains a directional verb a signer could turn hisor her body to correspond with the movement ofthe verb sign. In the sentence
HE ASKED HER TO HELP HIMMOVE
the person indicated bythe pronoun "HE" mightbe placed to the right signer and the of a person corresponding to "HER"might be placed to the left signer. of a Then, when signing thissentence the signer could (1) shoulders to the left and move his or her gaze to the left while signing"ASKED HER" and (2) move the shoulders to the right and gaze to the rightwhile signing "HELP HIM."
4. goluxima: The visual-spatial medium provides a convenientmeans of making comparisons. This is done by locatingobjects in the signing then using body and space and gaze shifting to establisha comparison. A signer in the process of comparing two dogs might place one of them inthe right side of the signing space and the other in the left side. Then, for example, by downward to the right and gazing smiling the signer isindicating some degree of affection or feelings towards that particular dog. A downward gaze to the left accompanied with a frown would make it obviousthat the signer isrot as pleased with that dogas with the other.
Exercise #1
One way of learning to incorporate body andgaze shifting into your signing behavior is to tell stories involvingtwo or more people. At the beginning of the story be sure to establish eachcharacter in your story in certain position in the a signing space. Keep in mind the relativeposition of each character toone another. When assumingone of these characters shift your body and/or move your eyes as if you are actually talkingto one of the other characters. Likewise, if describingan object (e.g., a car)or a thing (e.g., a mountain), then imagine it co be present andrefer to it accordingly.
D. Practice Sugglitiana
The following situations or others can be used to createa story that will lead to much use of body andgaze shifting.
1. interaction in a dental office between a dentist, aide,and patient 2. the adventures ofthree person& climbinga mountain 3. a debate betweentwo politicians 4. a teacher interacting with two pa,ents ata parent-teacher conference 5. a young child talking to Santa Claus while sittingon his lap 6. the adventures of fourpeople on a camping trip 7. the adventures oftwo boys picking out a puppy 8. an auto mechanicinteracting with a customer 9. two friends ata high school reunion
45 447 Lesson 4: Finger
A Goals And Objectivs
Goals:
Participants should be able to describethe importance of fingerspell- ing.
Participants should be ableto describe how fingerspellingis incor- porated into modified Signed English.
Lesson Objectives:
Upon completion of this lesson, the participant will be ableto 4.1 understand that expressive fingerspellingis easier to learn and produce than receptive fingerspelling.
4.2 demonstrate how finger, hand,and wrist movementscan help in reading and producing fingerspelledwords.
4.3 fingerspell loan words in ASL that are no longer realfingerspelled words, but are instead treatedas signs.
4.4 fingerspell highly practicedwords that deaf children learnas being fingerspelled words.
4.5 describe the importance ofintroducing new English wordsin both writing and fingerspelling.
4.6 understand that fingerspellingrequires much practice to attain fluency, and that carelessnessshould be avoided.
4.7 demonstrate hand configurationsand movements for numbers.
B. Introduction
An important point that must be stressed in this lesson isthat the pictures of fingerspelling that are often shown on fingerspelling cardsand charts are static letters. Fingerspelling is a fluid, dynamicsystem, and there is much information that is lost from the static shapes,but found in the movement of the whole hand. Several facts aboufluid fingerspelling must be noted:
1. It is important to recognize thealternative handshape forms of certain letters. These variations are found in fluentfingerspelling.
For example, g is often shown on fingerspelling charts with thefingertips pointed away from the signer. Yet, it is usually signed withthe fingertips pointed toward the centerline ofthe body. Also, at the ends of words, it sometimes looks like a sideways L ratherthan a Q, yet it still "reads"as a Q.
47 YS The letter H, like Q, is also oftendepicted with the signer, but the fingertipsaway from usually signed withthe fingertips centerline of thebody. pointing toward the
The letter K is sometimes signed withthe palm facing body, rather thanaway from the signer. the centerline ofthe
The letter X, infinal position (e.g. in words likeMary), is usually with the palm down,facing the floor. signed
The letters H andH are often signed with the fingerssticking straight instead of foldingover the thumb. out,
2. Reading fingerspelling involves being ableto read the hand movements, as wellas the hand shapes.
These hand movements sometimes includemovement of the whole example, from thecenterline outward hand, for to the ipsilateralside, muchas a right-handed signerwould write inthe air.1 Fingerspelling isnever done from the side to thecenter, in mirror form, to read. as you would expect thereceiver There is alsoa technique for fingerspelling general, if the fingertips double letters. In of the handproducing the letter each other (e.g., are not touching the index fingerand thumb in the letter L, and thethumb and fingertips inthe letter £),then the hand the right to indicate forming the letterglides to a double letter (e.g.,KEEP, YELLOW, COBBLER). fingertips are touching(e.g., 1:2 and,) If the then the handmay remain in the same place while thefingertips move out slightly and thencome together again to reform the letter(e.g., TOOK, SCISSORS). dependent on However, this ruleis often an individual's signingstyle and a general double letters rule is that all can be indicated by simplymoving the hand right-handed signers to the right for and to the left forleft-handed signers. 3. Fluent fingerspelling comes only after muchpractice. fingerspellersuse the whole hand to Skillful produce fingerspelledwords. In contrast, inexperiencedand careless fingerspellers tendto omit letters and misspell words. When learningto be a good fingerspeller that each letter it is important is carefully articulated. Some individuals hard to do because might find this they see others whoseem to be fast fingerspellers. However, speed is not an object infingerspelling and fast should not beequated with proficiency. fingerspelling
Four techniques that are helpful in becomingfluent in expressive receptive fingerspelling and are (a) practice, (b) usinga mirror to self-monitor fingerspelling skills, (c) more practice, and(d) int^racting who use signs. with deaf adults
Finally, a wordmust be said about students' fingerspelling. Teachers must ensure that theirstudents are articulate fingerspellers, Correct and intelligible fingerspellingmust be emphasized. Inaccurately spelledwords
1Left-handed signers would beginin the center andmove left.
48 as well as poorly articulated signs should becorrected. are in a position to be their After all, teachers students' primary rolemodel for signing and fingerspelling--the questionthat is all too seldom raised is whetheror not teachers can meet thischallenge.
4. Loan words (shown at theend of this lesson) that were introducedto ASL through fingerspellingare now truly signs. They have their ownpar- ticular productions andsemantics.
It is important for teachers to recognize loan wordsin signing. words are actually signs These and should not beproduced like fingerspelling, since that might change themeaning of the word.
5. Producing numbers is likefingerspelling in thatcertain hand movements are characteristic of producing certain numbers. Obviously, there can be no shortcuts in expressing a number. However, the same numbersare not always produced in the same manner. For example, the handmovements leading to the number 2, is different when theseven appears in the number 17, 67 and the signfor SEVENTH.
A pedagogical note: Students often fingerspellwords they reading, without understanding come across in what the wordmeans. Teachers must remember that reading is more than simply decoding print. When students fingerspell unfamiliar words, all they are doing is decoding letters,a skill they could have mastered by theage of three. Can the student trulyunderstand the text? Can the student use this fingerspelled word innovel situations? there is nu sign for If a particular word, besure the student can demonstrate productive use of fae word in other contexts. Never assumea student knows a fingerspelled word unless you have observed the studentusing it produc- tively, in signing andwriting.
C. Procedure
What It Is and What ItIs Not
Fingerspelling is based on the idea that youcan represent each letter of the alphabet by a particular hand configuration,oc hand configuration plus movement. Researchers in ASL linguistics,however, have shown that there is much repeatedly more to fingerspelling than thisidea. First, it is much easier to learn to produce the lettersthan to read fingerspelled words,even in context. In fact, young childrenseem to produce gestalts of the words years before they learn how to spellin English. Deaf children, who are unable to rely on the soundpatterns of English,go through some interesting hypotheses about fingerspelling,beginning at age or so, and moving through elementary two school on the wayto fluent, accurate fingerspelling.
Second, you can use movement information to helpyou read and produce fingerspelling. As your hand changes fromone letter to another,you can facilitate that change by changing the movement of the fingersto the broader movements of the hand, or by adding wrist movement. This wristmovement can be demonstrated in the fingerspelling of the following words. One type of fingerspelling (e.g., W-H-E-N-E-V-E-R; E-V-E-N; T-H-E-N)would have each
49 r 0 letter formed in the same manner as it is formed inisolation. Another fingerspelling relies type of on the initial letters inSOME words (e.g., #WHEN, #EVEN, *THEN) to be formedwith the palm facing line of the body. sideways towards thecenter-
Third, there are a number of words that, althoughthey can be finger- spelled, they can also beproduced in such a manner that theyappear to be a sign. These words, often refcl..sd to as loan signs inASL, are now articu- lated with ASL phonology,just like signs. They are not consideredto be real fingerspelled words any more. A list of thesewords appears on the following page.
Fourth, highly practiced words sometimes takeon the characteristics of loan words. These are words that teachers tend tofingerspell frequently their class and that their in students learn as fingerspelledwords. SameAuggittostafotEingaxiolling
1. When new English wordsare introduced and it is desirable learn how to spell these that students words, present them bothin writing and by finger- spelling letter by letter. Students must learn to both codes. recognize the same word in
2. Once students learn the target words, youmay "smooth out" the spelling, but do not resort to careless fingerspelling. The smoothing outprocess will ....ctually begin to happen of its own accord. Theprocess of smoothing out refers to the blending ofletters in a fluentmanner.
3. Loan words should be treated as signs; that is,they should be produced as signs, and used with the meanings that have naturallyevolved through sign language usage by the deafcommunity. auggstisnsims_kg
Numbers repzesent a unique part of "fingerspelling",in that a finite number of hand configurations are used to generate an infiniteset of numbers.
The instructor willdemonstrate the followingcardinal numbers: 1-5: palm in
6-9: palm out
10: shake
11-15: palm in
16 and above: pal.,out
Multiples of 11. im down, bounce to the side
50 4 Twenties, except for 22: use L havdshape torepresent the "20" part There is a pattern to thenext set:
67-69: begin with the palmup for 6
76: begin with palm downfor 7
78-79: movement like 67-69
86-87: movement like 76
V: movement like 67-69
96-98: movement like 76
The pattern for signing the above numbers is thatthe wrist twists to the left (for right-handed fingerspellers) when goingfrom a smaller number to larger number. a For example, from 6 to 7in the number 67. The wrist twists to the right when going from a larger number toa smaller number. For example, from 9 to 8 in thenumber 98.
Fingerspelled Words IncorwratedAg la:AUSigns in ASI44 OR TOY BACK EARLY OF DOG SURE TOAST OH FIX BUSY WOULD HA SEX CLUB BREAD SO OUT COOL YES O.K. OFF HURT WHAT K.O.(knockout) BUT BANK DO GO ASK EASY ALL IF JOB NO SOON EX N.G.(no good)
ABOUT FLY OIL THEN AT ALL FREE ON UNION BROWN GAME PAY UP BURN GHOST PINK WAIT BUS GRAY POT WELL CALL HALL RICH WHEN CHEAP HOT SALE WHO CITY LAW SAY WILL DAY NEWS WHY DID ODD SILLY WOW DOING [CAR] [STYLE] [CAB]
2Words in list taken from Battison, R. (1979). Lexical Borrowing in AwariaCaalvaLAngmigg. Silver Spring: Linstock (p. 118).
51 D. Practice Suggestions
1. Use your spelling list for theweek.
2. Practice spelling your name and address clearlyand fluently. Remember, this information includesboth letters and numbers,
3. Practice these letter ccmbinations:
FOG--FIG IS--IT GHOST--AGHAST--LAUGH PHONE--PHONY FOX--FIX SILLS--SILLY FILLS--FOLLY -ING -MENT -TION -LY -ILY -PH -IGH -GH -ER -OR -CK -AY
UN- RE- PH- GH- CH- SH- CHR- SHR-
-IGHT- -OUGH-
E. Prn; :ice Sentences
THE FIRST ACCOUNT OF THE EXISTENCE OF A DEAF PERSON WASBY HERODOTUS, A PERSIAN HISTORIAN, WHO LIVEDFROM ABOUT Yl% BC TO 425 BC,
2. IT IS WRITTEN IN LEVITICUS 19,14: "THOU L; 7 NOT CURSE THE
DEAF. , ."
3. JUAN PABLO BONET, WHO LIVED INSPAIN FROM 1597 TO 1620 WASAMONG THE FIRST TEACHERS OF THE DEAF.
52 4. THE FATHER OF GERMAN ORALISM, SAMUEL HEINICKE,LIVED FROM 1729 TO 1790. 5. THE MILAN CONFERENCE IN 1880 BROUGHT ABOUT1HE DOWNFALL OF MANUAL METHODS OF TEACHING DEAFPEOPLE.
6. THE COLUMBIA INSTITUTION FOR THE DEAF, DUMB,AND BLIND WAS INCORPORATED BY CONGRESS IN 1857.
7. PUBLIC LAWS 89-313 AND 94.142 MANDATE EDUCATION OF ALLHANDICAPPED CHILDREN.
8. I WAS BORN ON (MONTH), (DATE),(YEAR).
9. THIS INSERVICE RUNS FROM 6:30TO 8:30 P.M.
10. I WOKE UP AT 7:00, 8:00, AND 8:45 LAST SATURDAYMORNING. 11. THE TRAIN TO TORONTO LEAVES AT 4:02 IN THE SUMMERAND AT 2:45 IN THE WINTER.
12. MY EVENING CLASSES GOFROM 6 TO 9.
13. THIS TERM, I'M TEACHINGTHREE CLASSES.
14. PRESIDENT REAGAN SIGNED THECIVIL LIBERTIES ACTOF 1988 ON AUGUST 11TH. 15. THIS ACT PROVIDES FOR PAYMENTS OF $20,000 TO SURVIVORSOF THE JAPANESE- AMERICAN INTERNMENT CAW'SDURING WORLD WAR
16. CALL 1-800-228-8375 FOR MOREINFORMATION.
17. LANSING ZIP CODES START WITH489.
18. MY ZIP CODE IS
53 A. Goals and Objectives
gad:
Participants should be ableto describe how theuse of classifiers enhances modified SignedEnglish.
Lesson Objectives:
Upon completion of thislesson, the participa tll
7.1 understand the importance of using classifiers in modifiedSigned English.
7.2 be able to recognize and use classifiers torepresent and describe object's size, shape, an texture, location inspace, and movement. 7.3 understand the importance in signing the objectfirst and then using the classifier.
7.4 be able to demonstrate classifiers representingnouns. 7.5 be able to demonstrate classifiers representingverbs. 7.6 be able to demonstrate classifiers representingadjectives. 7.7 be able to demonstrate classifiers representingadverbs. 7.8 be able to demonstrate c'assifiers representingrelationship and movement.
7.9be able to demonstrate classifiers representingquantity. B. Intr,OugSian
Classifiers are a set of words used to describe thesize, shape, text;re, location, and movement ofobjects. These words are calledclassifiers endare represented in the "handshape"part of a sign.
Classifiers are not uniqueto ASL. Indeed, Navajo uses classifiersin ways almost identical to ASL. Japanese uses classifiersonly when cow people, objects, and events. Native speakers of Englishfind classifiers difficult because English hasno classifier system.
A related process for describing objects is outlining forshape and detail. In outlining, a single handshape is used (the pointinghand), and the fingertip draws shapes in theair. This is not a trueuse of the classifier system, but is discussed in this lesson, as part of theprocesses of "scu space." :ing
55 C. rigat2110
Unlike s2oken English, sign language usesspace. Well-articulated signs can he so graphic that you can clearly see "movies" in the air. Classifiers play an important role in picture-like communication. Classifiers are handshepas used to describe an object by representingits
a. size b. shape c. texture d. location in space e. movement
In modified Signed English a signer needs to first signan object before usinC the classifiers.
Example A: (size)
Signed English withoutclassifier:
I GAVE HER A BIG CHOCOLATECHIP COOKIE.
Signed English with classifier:
I GAVE HER A BIGCHOCOLATE CHIP COOKIE "LL, SIZE OF COOKIE."
Example B: (shape)
SHE BOUGHT A BEAUTIFUL (HEART-SHAPED) MIRROR "1, SHAPE OF HEART."
Example C: (texture)
MY HOUSE HAS A NEW SOFTTHICK CARPET "G, THICKNESS OF CARPET."
Example D: (location in space)
I S/VJ A BOX ON THE TOP OFTHE SHELF "A, PLACE ON SHELF."
Example E: (movement)
JOE COMES TO ME "1, TOWARDS SIGNER."
YOUR NOSE IS BLEEDING "4, DOWN FROM NOSE." Below is a list ofsome of the sign language classifiers and some of therouns, verbs, adjectives, andadverbs that theycan represent.
CLASSIFIER REPRESENTATION
1. "3" handshape horizontal car, van, bicycle, bus, boat
11111 2. handshape upright person
3. "1" handshape horizontal cigarette, pencil, log
4. "B" handshape horizontal piece of paper, leaf, kite,bed
57 5, double "X" handshapehorizontal chair,person, or animal seated fingertips pointeddownward
6. "V" handshapeinverted person standiag, walking
7. "F" handshapehorizontal small, flat andround objects, coin, button, watch
8. two "L" handshapes,forming larger flat andround objects large horizontalcircle such as a largeplate, steak, large hole 9. "C" handshape horizontal small container-likeobjects cup, glass, bottle, vase,can
10. ..To "C" handshapes parallel medium size container-like to each other, horizontal objects, bowl, largecan, thick cable
11. two "C" handshapes wia,r larger container-like objects, parallel to each other, horizontal to large bowl, hat box
12. two "B" handshapes, palm down objects with flat surfaces,top parallel to each other of a small tableor shelf
59 13. two "B" handshapes, calmdown, longer objectswith flat parallel to eachother, move surface, long shelf,long table farther in oppositedirections
14. "G" handshape small amount of liquid,solid, height of stack
15. "L" handshape, bendindex t inger medium amount of liquid,solid and height of stack
16. two "B" handshapes, one palm large amount of up and another palm down, liquid or solid and height of stack facing each other 17. "A" handshape any stationary objectsuch as a house, vase,statue, lamp, company business
18. two "5" handshapes, palms down, large quantity of people,cars, parallel, wriggling fingers animals, etc., moving forward toward a specific location
19. two "4" handshapes, upright in continuing stream of people line, repeated forward sr move animals filing past
20. two "4" handshapes, palms down continuing stream of objectF in line, repeated forward move filing along ason an assembly line
61
04. '14
21, '4' handshape, palm on side, flow of liquid move up and down repeatedly
B. Relationship and Movement
1, objects or vehiclesnext to each other
2, objects or vehiclesin front of each other
3, persons facing each other
62 4. flat object on top of mother
5. rN;ect on to a fia.c. surface
6. object under a flat surface
7. one vehicle passing another
63 8. two vehicles collidinghead-on
9. person diving offa platform
10. container falling offa flat surface
11. person turns away 12. person passes by quickly
13. person walks by
a 4r
14. person or animal goes up to another person or animal
15, two people or animals go up to another person or animal
65 '77
16. two people follow anotherperson or animal from behind
17. person approaches anotherperson, hesitates and walksaway
C. Quantity
1. many objects (boyfriends, shirts, books) "4line 4" (fingertl.psof 4 hands face each other thenone hand moves downward)
2. small pile of objects(dishes, food, homework) B hand shape ff)rmsan arc 3. large piln of objects (clothes, furniture,dishes) double "B"handshape with on hand formingan arc.
4. many objects in a row (rowof bicycles, houses) row "3" handshape repeatedin a
many objects all over (bicycles, houses) "A" hand.haperepeated in a row "B" handshape repeatedin a row
D. Exercises
Create sentences using classifiers from. NormanRockwell pictures, E. Practice Sentengu
In the following sentences, it might be necessaryto sign some of the sentence first in modified Signed English and thenuse classifiers to convey the meaning of these-tence.
1. THE PENCIL WAS LYING ON THE DESK.
2. THE CAR BACKED OUT OF THg GARAGE ANDWENT DOWN THE STREET.
3. WHILE WAITING FOR HIS DINVER, THE KITTEN SAT PATIENTLY BY THEREFRIGER- ATOR.
4. I SAW JENNY HURRIEDLY WALKINGINTO THE STORE.
5. THAT SHIRT HAS LARGE BUTTONS.
6. THE TABLE WAS SO LONG THAT ITCOULD SEAT 25 PEOPLE.
7. SHE HAD FEW REPORTS TO GRADE.
8. HIS BUSINESS IS ON THE CORNEROF MAIN AND LENNOX,
9. THE CROWD MOVED TOWARD THE SINGER.
10. THE BOXES CONTINUED ON THECONVEYOR BELT.
11. HIS NOSE WAS BLEEDING PROFUSELY.
12. SIX RED VW'S WERE PARKED IN AROW.
13. THE BOTTLE WAS ON TOP OF THE:__AZINE.
14. A GLASS BOWL FELL OFF THE COUNTER.
15. THE MAN CAME UP TO ME, THEN TURNEDAND WALKED AWAY.
16. AFTER HER TRIP, MY FRIEND HAD A LOTOF LAUNDRY TO WASH,
17. THE COWS FILED PAST THE FARMER ANDWENT INTO THE BARN.
18. EIGHT WHITE HOUSES LINED THE STREET.
67 Lesson 6: Locatives
A. Goalp and Objectives
Goal:
Participa is should be ableto explain the rationaleand principles for using the available signingspace.
Lesson Objectives:
Upon completion of this lesson, the participant will be ableto 5.1 describe the function oflocatives as theyare used in signing.
5.2 describe how directional verbs,classifiers, and indexingare used to specify locations.
5.3 demonstrate how directional verbscan be used to specify loca- tions.
5.4 demonstrate how classifierscan be used to specify locations.
5.5 demonstrate how indexingcan be used to specify locations.
5.6 identify various locativesigns.
B. Introduatign
The spatial relationship betweentwo or more things can be described in a variety of ways in signs. The words or signs usedto describe these spatial relationships are referred to as locatives because"they indicate the spatial location of something in relation tosomething else" (Baker & Cokely, 1980, p. 333). In English, locativesare, for the most part, prepositions such as in, on, at, underneath, over, and otherwords. In signing, locative signs (e.g.,IN-FRONT-OF, NEXT-TO)can be used to indicate spatial relationships. In modified Sigred English,sign locatives are commonly used.
Not so common among signers who use a manually coded En6...ish systemor pidgin sign are the American Sign Language techniques forindicating locations. These techniques include theuse of classifiers, directional verbs, and indexing. The incorporation of locativesinto these techniques is the main thrust of this lesson.
C. Erocedure
1. Classifiers: Many classifiers have much flexibilityand can be easily moved about withina signing space. The movement ofa classifier from one place to another or the placement of a classifier in relationto another sign are twoways of indicating a spatial relationship. The following sentences illustrai:e howclassifiers can be used to indicate spatial relationships.
69 THE BOY WAS STANDING BYTHE MOTORCYCLE.
Here, the classifier for person and motor vehicle(see lessonon Clas- sifiers) can be placedside by side to indicate theproximity of the boy the motorcycle. By having the to two classifiers touchit could then be shown that the boy was leaningagainst the motorcycle. Other manipulationsof the two classifierscan be used to show such boy was sitting spatial relationshipsas, "the on the motorcyclt." "the boywas standing in front of the motorcycle," and "the boy was lying behind themotorcycle.", In the sentence
THE GIRL WENT PAST THECAR
the "one-handshape" classifier person wouldmove in front of the classifier for motor vehicle. Thus, the movement ofa classifier indicates the relative action of a person as well as thespatial relationship of person to another thing. that
2. Directional verbs: The location ofa particular action or can be indicated by movement of event a directional verb (Baker& Cokely, 1980). Examples of how thiscan occur are as follows:
THE GIRL WALKED PASTTHE BUILDING
In this sentence the "V-handshape" for walkcan be moved in fxont of the classifier for building. This would indicatewhere the girlwas, in relation to the building. In
THE TWO PLANES FLEWTOGETHER FOR A LONG TIME both the right and lefthand wculduse the sign for plane two planes flew close to indicate that together over an extendedperiod of time.
3. Indexing: This is perhaps theeasiest means of indicating locations. It simply refers to the process of pointing with theindex finger, as a means of showing where something iseither in relationship another thing or by itself. to The thing being pointedout can either be present or not present. If present, a signer merelypoints to it. If not present then the signer would point to those places inthe signingspace where something has already been established. For example, ifa table had been set up in the signing space, then a signer could pointto some point around the table to indicate the relative spatialrelationship ofa something to the table. In
THE FLOWER WAS ABOUT THERE a signer could point toa spot in the front ofa table to indicate the relative location of the flower. Hence, to use indexingeffectively it is important that a signer first become familiar with all ofthe ASL prin- ciples that allow a parson to maximize the benefits ofincorporating clear representations locatives. 4. Sign locatives: Although, it has beenstated that ASL does tend to use sign locatives not as much as English usesprepositions (Baker & Cokely, 1980), ASL does have signs that can be usedto represent these prepositions. In modified Signed English the use ofsign locatives should tend to match the use of prepositions used inEnglish. The use of other forms of sign locatives should be used in an adjunctcapacity, that is, after an English phrase hasbeen signed. In
THE GIRL JUMPED OVER THE HOLE
a person might sign the sentence as it is and thenuse the appropriate classifiers to indicate themeaning of thissentence. Some sign locatives are represented in English withmore than one word. For example, IN-FRONT-OF, AHEAD-OF, SIDE-BY-SIDE, andNEXT-TO can all be expressed with just one sign or they can be expressedby using a sign-to-word correspondence. It is highly advisablethat you use whatever you do use consistently throughoutthe program.
Exercise #1
1, Create sentences in which each of the followingprepositions are used: IN ON TOP OF INSIDE ON AT OUTSIDE BY WITH ALONGSIDE NEXT TO CLOSE TO NEAR FAR FROM IN FRONT OF IN BACK OF BEHIND AGAINST ABOVE BELOW BENEATH UNDER AROUND BETWEEN AMONG
2. Create sentences in whichthe followingverbs are used to indicate location
GO WALK MOVE FLY BRING DRIVE COME PUT RUN ARRIVE GET TO
3. Describe various positions inwhich a child might belocated in relation to a table. For example,
ON TOP OF WALKING UNDERNEATH NEXT TO NEAR LEANING AGAINST BETWEEN TWO TABLES FAR FROM IT LYING UNDERNEATH
71 D. ?yactice Sentimces
1. THE MAN KNOWS MY BROTHER.
2. HE IS HIS TEACHER.
3. SHE IS HER MOTHER.
4. THE NEIGHBOR IS NEXT DOOR TOME.
5. HE FELL OVER THE FENCE.
6. SHE FELL DOWN THE HILL.
7. THERE ARE TREES ON THE SIDEOF THE HILLS, (UPWARD)
8. THE FENCES ARE ON THE SIDEOF THE HILLS. (DnWNWARD)
9. THE WATERFALLS ARE BEAUTIFUL.
10. I ARRIVED AT THE TOP OF THEMOUNTAIN.
11. IT TOOK 13 MINUTES TOGET THERE.
12. I LOOKED DOWN AND FOUNDTHE TREES BELOW ME.
13. I DROVE TO THE POST OFFICE AND SENT THE BOX, THENDROVE TO THE STORE TO BUY FOOD AND THEN IDROVE HOME.
14. THE BLUE CAR OVER THEREBELONGS TO A FRIEND OFMINE.
15. HE WAS HERE BY ME A WHILEAGO.
16. HIS MOTHER OFTEN TOLD METHAT HE NEVER LIKED SLEEPING.
17. HE IS A TOSTING PERSONBUT NOT A SHARP THINKER.
18. I CAUGHT 14 MICE YESTERDAYRUNNING AROUND MY ROOM. Less 7: Index c_Refer.encng and oval {zation
A. fasual_ansli Goal:
Participants should be ableto explain the rationalefor using references in modified Signed English.
liesson Objectives:
Upon completion of this lesson,the participantwill be able to 6.1 describe the rationale.for using references in signlanguage. 6.2 demonstrate how to keep thelocation ofnouns consistent within each storyor situation.
6.3 describe how verbs indicatingmotion can be used with prepositions, -nouns, andpronouns to describe actionsamong the different loci...ions established.
6.4 use verbs that can be localizedon the body or in space in order to show relationship tonouns.
6.5 demonstrate techniques ofeye gazing and body shifting whenusing references in situationswhere nouns andpronouns are not present.
6.6 establish situationsincorporating nouns andpronouns and when necessary in conjunction with locativesby fingerspelling, signing, using classifiers,or pointing dependingupon the situation or setting required.
B. Introductioq
The following examplesare practice sentences ingroups of two or three as that 1.:.; when these objectives become important. They are less important in isolated sentences. These numbered examplescoordinate with the same numbered objectives.
This story is about the ThreeBears:
6.2.1 PAPA BEAR (loc. 1), MAMA BEAR(loc. 2), AND BABY BEAR(loc. 3). PAPA BEAR'S CHAIR floc. 1) WASHARD, MAMA BEAR'S CHAIR (loc. 2) WAS SOFT, AND BALYBEAR'S CHAIR (loc. 3) WASJUST RIGHT.
73 In this example, and indeedthroughout this PAPA in one location, story, we want to setup MAMA in another location,and BABY ina third location. Then the bowls of porridge, chairs, anbeds can be associated with each location, keeping the characters' locatinsconstant. An example of how locationscan be established is shown in the followingdiagram.
X X X loc. 1. loc. 2 loc. 3
Signer
6.2.2 I (signer) WENT TO ThESTORE (loc. 1) TO BUYA BATTERY. WHEN I GOT HOME (loc. 2), I DISCOVERED IHAD BOUGHT THE WRONG KIND, SO I WENT BACK TO THE STORE (loc. 1)TO EXCHANGE IT.
In th example, if we "set up" the store in loc. 1, we mustreturn to loc. 1 to hange the battery.
6.3 FIRST I WENT TO THE RESTAURANT TO PLACE ATAKE-OUT ORDER. WHILi I WAS WAITING, I RAN TOTHE JEWELER'S TO DROPOFF MY BROKEN WATCH. I WENT BACK TO THE RESTAURANT,PICKED UP MY FOOD, AND DROVE TO MY MEETING. I ATE THERE. THEN I WENT TO THE JEWELER'S TO PICK UP MY WATCH, BUT IT WASN'T READYYET, SO I LEFT IT THERE AND WENT HOME.
In this example, we have a restaurant,a jeweler's place, a meeting place, home, and a person either running or drivingamong these locations. The first verb, WENT (TO) must move from (presumably)HOME (at loc. 1) to loc. 2, which is the RESTAURANT. Then the person RAN (TO)loc. 3, the JEWELER'S. From there, she WENT BACK(TO) the RESTAURANTat loc. 2. The MEETING was at loc. 4, from where she WENT(TO) loc.3 to PICK UP her watch (also at loc. 3) which wasn't ready so she LEFT(toward loc. 3) it THERE (loc. 3) and WENT hometo loc. 1.
6.4Not all verbs move among lo,!ations. Some verbs beginon the body and end at locations, or are signed at the locations, Some verbs are always signed on the body. Here is a list ofsome verbs that can take subjects and objects (loc. 1 and2); that is,move among locations:
GIVE JOHN GAVE ME A BOOK TOGIVE SUE. SHOW SHOW ME YOUR WORK. RUN RUN UP THE HILL. GO-ON-FOOT WALK FROM SCHOOL TO THESTORE. JUMP JUMP IN PLACE, THEN JUMP INA CIRCLE, WATCH WATCH HIM WATCH HER. ASK BILL ASKED MARY A QUESTION,
These verbs startonthe body, but end at theproper location:
TELL SHE TOLD HIM THE ANSWER. SEE I CAN SEE WHAT YOU'RE DOING,
74 'm These verbs stayon the body:
SAY WHAT DID YOU SAY? EAT DON'T EAT YOURVEGETABLES. UNDERSTAND I COULDN'T UNDERSTANDA WORD SHE SAID. PRINT THE BOOK IS BEINGPRINTED.
These verbs are signedat the location:
WRITE WRITE IT ON THE BOARD. READ READ DOWN FIRST,THEN ACROSS. FALL JACK AND JILL FELLDOWN THE HILL.
6.5 & Objectives 5 and 6 can be met by practicing fairytales 6.6 and children's stories. The signer is requiredto set up and retain everything consistently. Direct discourse is another place where eye gaze and body shifting isimportant. For example:
MOTHER SAID, "DON'T STOPAND TALK WITH STRANGERS." "OK," REPLIED LITTLERED RIDING HOOD.
The first quote should be signed gazingdown and to the side as if talking to a child. (loc. 1) For the reply, thesigner should take the of the child and role gaze up as if speaking toan adult.
C. aocedure
In the prior section, we talked about locatives,or the spatial relationships among the nouns in a sentence. Next, we will be exploring the expression of spatial relationst.ips in variousways.
Expressing oneseU clearlyin the visual modality to keep the locations of means that you have all of youinouns consistent. This section explores the use of referencing nouns in complexutterances. You will practice the use of verbs and pronouns in thecontext of simple stories that require youto refer back to characters and places alreadymentioned.
Pronouns (also calledIndexic Reference): A Review
There are several ways for signing pronouns. We can use signs that specify thirdperson gender (HE/SHE/IT;HIM/HER;HIS/HER(S1), as well as other personal pronouns (I/YOU/WE/YOU-PL./THEY/THEM). These signscan be used in conjunction witha general point (PT) to localize space. the character in You must keep these locationsconsistent.
For example. SHE WON THE SPELLING BEE. I GAVE MY BOOK TO HIM. WHEN HE WAS DONE, HEGAVE IT BACK TO ME. These sentences are simple; by themselves theyare insufficient to meet all of your communication needs. You can use verbsflexibly among the locations established byyou for your nouns.
Consider the following verbs oflocomotion:
RUN DRIVE CHASE WALK FLY JUMP SWIM (fish) SKID FALL SWIM (people) CLIMB
These verbs can be used with prepositions to indicate wherean action is taking place, for example
HE WALKED UNDER THE BRIDGE.
These verbs can also be used with other nouns andpronouns to show Khg or what is doing the action:
HE FELL WHEN HE HIT THE TELEPHONEPOLE.
Other verbs can be used (localized) inspace or on your body to correspond to where thenouns are:
PUT WASH FEED WRITE (on paper) READ (a book) HURT (headache;sore throat) WRITE (on board) READ (road sign)
Most verbs are more complicated and use the full directionalitysystem to keep all the relationships among the nouns straight. We will explore the directionalitysystem at a later date.
D. trzgkctike_antences
1. THE CAT RAN UP THE TREE ANDGOT STUCK THERE.
2. DADDY WALKED AROUND THE TABLE.
3. OUR DOG JUMPED OVER THE BUSHAND RAN UNDER THE FENCE,
4. MY JO)IS TO WASH THE CAR; MY BROTHERBATHES THE DOG,
5, WHEN THE GIRL FEU OFF HERBIKE, SHE HURT HER LEG,
6. AT THE LAKE, WE WATCHED THEFISH SWIM IN THE WATER,
7. MY CAR SKIDDED OFF THE ROAD ANDALONG A FENCE.
76 E. fmtioarawaluaa
ONCE THERE WAS A BIG, BEAUTIFUL CALICO CAT NAMEDAGATHA, WHO LIVED IN
A HOUSE WITH A HUGE OAKTREE IN THE BACK YARD. ONE DAY, AGATHA WASWALKING AROUND THE YARD, PLAYINGAMONG THE COLORFUL LEAVES WHEN SHE SPOTTEDA NI-E
PLUMP SQUIRREL UNDER THETREE, EATING AN ACORN. AGATHA KNEW IT WAS FUNTO
CHASE SQUIRRELS AND WANTEDTO CHASE THAT SQUIRREL.
SO SHE WALKED VERY CAREFULLY AND VERY QUIETLYUP TO THE SQUIRREL, AND
JUMPED AT HIM. THE SQUIRREL WAS QUITE FRIGHTENED AND DASHED UPA TREE. rXCITEDLY, AGATHA RAN UP THE TREE, TOO, AND GOTSTUCK HALFWAY UV IN THE TREE. SHE LOOKED OVER HER SHOULDER DOWN TO TT,GROUND. AGATHA FELT SAD
AND WISHED SHE HAD BEEN MORECAREFUL.
***
ONCE UPON A TIME, THEREWAS A FOX WHO WAS HUNGRY FOR SOMETHING TOEAT. HIS STOMACH WAS GROWLING AND MAKING ALL KINDS OFFUNNY NOISES. AS HE WAS WALKING ALONG, HE SPOTTED A BUNCH OF JUICY REDGRAPES HANGING FROM A TREE.
HE WANTED TO EAT THOSEGRAPES.
SO, HE JUMPED UP TO GET THE GRAPES, BUT HE MISSEDBY AN INCH. HE JUMPED AGAIN, AND AGAIN HE MISSED THE GRAPE. HE JUMPED r')R THIRD TIME, AND MISSED AGAIN.
HE GOT ANGRY, AND OFF IN A HUFF. HE THOUGHT, "I DON'T WANTTHOSE
GRAPES. THEY WERE PROBABLY SOURANYWAY."
***
ONCE THERE WAS A GIRL WHO HAD A FROG NAMED MORRIS. MORRIS LIVED IN A BIG JAk AND ATE FLIES. ONE DAY, MORRIS CLIMBED OUTOF HIS JAR AND HOPPED OUT THE WINDOW AND RAN AWAY. THE LITTLE GIRL COULD NOTFIND MORRIS.
SO, SHE WENT TO THE WOODS TO LOOKFOR MORRIS. SHE LOOKED FOR MORRIS
77 ALL DAY. SHE CALLED AND CALLED HIS NAME, BUT MORRISDID NOT ANSWER. SADLY, THE LITTLE GIRLWENT HOME.
WHEN SHE GOT HOME, SHE SAW LITTLE WETFOOTPRINTS. SHE FOLLOWED THE FOOTPRINTS, AND GUESS WHAT? MORRIS WAS IN HISJAR, WITH ANOTHER FROG! THE LITTLE GIRL WAS HAPPY BECAUSE NOW SHEHAD TWO FROGS. r'
Lesson 8: Directionality
A. GoalsAmiathultiom
g.5211:
Participants should be able to explain the rationale and principlesfor using directionality in modifiedSigned English.
Lesson Objectives:
Upon completion of this lesson,the participant will
8.1. understand the rationale and principles for usingdirectionality. 8.2 be able to incorporate directionality in verbs that inflect,or agent, source, object,or goal.
8.3 recognize and demonstrate verbsthat indicate agent,source, object, or goal.
8.4 recognize and demonstrate reciprocalverbs by appropriately attending to each hand's location, movementdirection, and orientation.
8.5 recognize and demonstrate verbsthat indicate movement froma source to a goal.
8.6 recognize and demonstrate verbsindicating action, locationon a person's body, or in thesigning space.
B. introduction
In a previous lesson theconcept of locativesor words that indicate location was introduced. Briefly, locatives referto the notion of nouns being located in certain positions in real space as well as in the signingspace. For example, in the sentence "The boy is standing next to the car"the classifiers for person and r!ar would be used to indicate the spatial relationshipof the boy and the car that the signer istrying to describe.
In this section, directionality,a common characteristic of verbs, is described. The underlying principle ofdirectionality is the semanticrelation- ships among nouns and the signer, that certain verbscan demonstrate. They are shown through the movement of the verbsign. In modified Signed Englishwe can use both word order and directionality to express semantic relationships; that is, in the three dimensions of thesigning space, nounscan be set up in directional verbs. For example, in the sentence "THEYGAVE THE BOOKS TO THEM," the sign for GAVE would move from the position of THEY to theposition of THEM. Typically, the position for THEYand THEM would be setup according to how these two groups had previously been establishedin the signing space.
11
79 t1
Another example of how directionalverbs are used of those verbs is illustrated in in which theorientation and the use critical. In the sentence movement of thehand(s) are
HE VAS PICKINGON ME
the nondominant hand for thesign PICK(-0N) the palm orientation is placednear the signer's body, of the dominanthand is towards is from the the body, and the spatial positionfor HE towards movement the nondominanthand (ME). In this lessonyou will be introduced to a list of verbs agent, source, object,or goal. that inflectfor The agent isthe doer of the by the verb. The source is action described the beginninglocation of the the recipient ofthe action. verb. The object is The goal isthe end location the precedingsentence it is of the verb. Using seen that theagent is the the iource is theposition in the person representingHE; signing spacein which HE has lished; the objectis the been estab- person representingME (that is, the gel is the positionof the nondominant signer); and the hand which is located near thesigner. C. Procedure
1. Verbs that indicate agent/sourceand object/goal.
The use ofdirectional verbs in modifiedSigned English their use inASL. However, in modified is similarto sign those English Signed Englishit is also words that inASL have already necessary to verb. This difference been incorporatedinto the between thetwo signing methods sente'lce: is shown in thefollowing
I BAWLED HIM OUT.
In ASL one signis used to express this sentence. In modified the signer would(a) sign I; Signed English ( ) sign BAWL-OUT the signer's body in a directionthat moves from (agent/sourc ) to the spacerepresenting HIM (c) sign the markerfor past (object/goal); tense; (d) signHIM; and (e) fingerspell OUT. In HE RIDICULEDME.
The signer signs(a) HE; (b) RIDICULE--moving fromthe position source) towardshim/herself; (c) the HE (agent/ marker for pasttense; and (d) ME. Following is a listof verbs (taken be used to from Baker andCokely, 1980) that indicate theagent and source of can of that action. an action and theobject and goal
ADVISE PICK ON ANNOUNCE GIVE PITY APPROACH HATE ARREST PREACH HELP ASK HIT PVT THUMB bOWN BAWL-OUT QUIT HONOR BEAT RESPECT INFLUENCE NO
80 BEAT-UP INFORM BLAME YES INSULT OK BORROW INTERROGATE BOTHER SCOLD INVITE SELL BRIBE JOIN SEND CHALLENGE KICK COLLIDE SHOOT KILL SHOW CONFRONT KISS STEAL COPY LOOK SUMMON CRITICIZE CONTACT SUPPORT DECEIVE/FOOL RIDICULE SUPPRESS DENIGRATE/PUT DOWN MESH-WITH TAKE-TURNS FINGERSPELL MOOCH-FROM TEACH FLATTER ORDER/COMMAND TEASE FORCE OVERCOME/DEFEAT TELL GET-EVEN-WITH PARTICIPATE/JOIN TOUCH REVENGE PAY TOW PAY ATTENTION PICK
2. Reciprocal verbs.
Some verbs are reciprocal in that they are ableto indicate that a particular action is performed by two people,two things, or two each of the hands representing groups with one person, thing orgroup. When using these signs it is important to attend to the locationof the hands, the direction which they are moving, in and the orientation ofeach hand relative to the Semanti- Lly, the following body. list of verbs inflectfor both agent/source and object/ 11.
AGREE-* CONFLICT INSULT APPRC' CONFRONT PITY CORRESPOND QUARREL CHANGE PLACES DISAGREE STRUGGLE CLASH INFORM TEACH COLLIDE
3. Verbs indicating movementfrom a source toa goal. In the sentence
SHE ARRIVED AT THE TOP OF THEMOUNTAIN
the sign ARRIVED will start in front of the signer'schest and thenmove up to a position that is in front of the signer and slightlyabove the signer's head. Other examples of thistype of verb are as follows:
ARRIVE PATRONIZE ENTER/GO ASSEMBLE GO FLY BRING ATTEND RUN CARRY TO JUMP (RIDE IN)-VEHICLE COME /GO MOVE (RIDE ON)-ANIMAL COMMUTE-BETWEEN PLANE-CRASH BACK-AND-FOkTH PLANE-LAND DROVE PLANE-TAKE-OFF
81 so 4. Verbs indicating the location of actionson the body or in signing space.
There are also some verbs that, althoughthey do not indicate of an action, they the direction do indicate the relativelocation of are used by moving them about an action. These verbs to the location ofthe action either signer's body or in the on the signing space. For example,in
SHE SCRATCHED HER LEFTARM
the signer would producethe sign SCRATCH on his or her left arm. Likewise, in HE WAS BLEEDING FROMHIS SHOULDER
the sign for BLEED would be done from theshoulder.
BANG -(ON) HIT(ON) BITE-(0N) HURT BLEED-(FROM) KICK(ON) BRUISE-(0N) KNOCK(ON) CUT-(AT) WITH-KNIFE PERSPIRE CUT-(AT) WITH-SCISSORS PUSH GRAB READ HAVE-FRECKLES-ON SCRATCH OPERATION SHAVE RASH TAP WASH WRAP-BANDAGE-ON
D. Practice Sentences
1. JOHN GAVE MARY HIS BOOKABOUT PLANTS.
2. MARY BORROWED $5.00FROM ME.
3. I LOANED MARY $5.00 EVEN THOUGH SHE OWESME $2.00 ALREADY.
4. WE PLANTED ROWS OF BULBS IN THE FALL FORBEAUTIFUL SPRING FLOWERS. 5. DID YOU CALL THE POLICE OR DID YOU CALL THEAMBULANCE? 6. THE PROBLEM IS THAT I THINK JERRY PUSHED TIMMYFIRST, BUT ANDREA SAW TIMMY PUSH JERRY. SAID SHE
7. WILL YOU HELP ME TEACHMATH TO HER?
8. I THINK PAT COPIED FROM JO, BUT MAYBE JOSHOWED PAT HER PAPER. 9. THE MALL HAD A SIDEWALK SALE, SO I BOUGHT ASWEATER AT PENNEY'S ANDMY DAUGHTER BOUGHT SOMESHOES FROM KINNEY'S.
10. THE CITY PLOWED THE STREET, THEN SPRINKLED SALTON THE ROAD.
11. I FLEW FROM CHICAGO TO DETROIT, THEN DROVE HER FROMDETROIT.
82 12. I WILL WRITE IT ON THE BOARD. YOU WRITE IT INYOUR BOOK.
13. GATHER UP THE PENCILS, AND LEAVETHEM IN THAT BOX.
14. I SAW KATHY TEASING HER SISTER.
15. JIMMY INVITED KENNY TO HIS PARTY. HE DID NOT INVITE JOEY. JOEY TOLD KENNY THAT HE (JOEY) IS MADAT JIMMY.
16. MY DAD WATCHES 2 FOOTBALL GAMES ON 2 TV'S ATTHE SAME TIME. YOU SHOULD SEE HIM DO THAT!
17. LET'S WALK AROUND THE ROOM.
18. WHEN ALAN ARRIVED, EVERYONELEFT.
19. ARE YOU JOINING US, OR JOININGTHEM?
20. THE GOVERNMENT FORCED HERTO PAY HER TAXES.
21. YOU CAN'T DEPEND ON ME ALLTHE TIME; YOU HAVE TODEPEND ON YOURSELF!
22. TAMIKO WILL ASK MELISSAA QUESTION. MELISSA WILL ANSWER, THENSHE WILL ASK SOMEONE ELSE A QUESTION. LOOK AT TAMIKO FIRST.
23. FEED THE DOG THIS FOOD, AND FEED THE CAT THIS(DIFFERENT) FOOD. 24. YOU HAVE A CHOICE OFAPPLES OR ORANGES. PICK ONE OR THE OTHER.
25. WE ENTERED FROM THE RIGHT. THEY ENTERED FROM THELEFT.
83 Appendix C
AFFIXES, SIGN MARKERS
NOTE: All illustrations in Appendix C marked witha single asterisk (*) are used with permission from Modern Signs Press,Inc., P. O. Box 1181, Alamitos, CA 90720 and Los are taken from G. Gustason,D. Pfetzing, & E. Zawolkow (illAstratedby C. Norris). (1980). ligningzip.4h. All illustrations in Appendix C marked withdouble asterisks (**) used with permission are from Gallaudet UniversityPress, Kendall Green, Washington, DC 20002, and arc taken from H. Bornstein,K. L. Saulnier, & B. Hamilton (illustrated L. by R. R. Miller, Sr.). (1983). The Comprehensive Signed English Dictionary.
The illustration 4.n Appendix C marked with threeasterisks (***) is taken from: Standardization of Signs Committee for the Schoolsfor the Deaf in Texas. (1978). Preferred Signs. Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.
The illustration in Appendix C marked with foul.asterisks (****) is used with th permission of the T. J.Publishers, Inc., 817 Silver Avenue 206, Silver Spring, Spring MD 20910 and is taken fromT. Humphries, C. Padden, & T. J. O'Rourke (illustrated by F. A. Paul), (1980). A BAsi. Cou se in American SignLang ge.
85 Appendix C
AFFIXES, SIGN MARKERS
1111... SIM D FINITIONI___ WORDS
able to readable
worthy of being lovable
capable of being drinkable workable teachable educable -AhLE, -IBLE cleanable destructible "A" handshapes, both palms reducible down, drop slightly* divisible rev's:reale
having qualities of
tending or inclinedto changeable (adjectives)
pertaining to
that which belongsor marriage relates to the act of: coverage (amount of) postage (cost of) (place of)
that which belongsor parentage relates to the stateor breakage condition of: -AGE (collection of) (place for) Side of "G" handshape (nouns) "slides down left fingers and palm"*
NOTg: The signs for the affixes shown in this sectim selecced by the teachers and administrators vi the Lans.L.; School di,,trict. In modified Signed English it is acceptableto fingerspell all ^f the affixes.
87 JHUMBIDN5 WORDS
like, suitable for judgmental (adjectives) ceremonial educational theatrical
the act orprocess of dismissal (nouns)
-AL
"Palm-out 'L' bandshape at end of preceding sign"'h
.djectives L'eaning -ing defiant
person or thing that dependent (nouns) defendant absorbent
-ANT,-ENT
"Fide of 'T' handshapeslides down left fingers andpaim'* WOR DS
against, hostileto antilabor opposite of antireligion opposed antisocial in oppositionto anticlimax rival opposite to reverse of not un placed opposite moving in reverse direction ANTI- corrective "A" hanAshape, "thumbs touch; preventative separate hands"* curative antibody -ATE to become maturate Fingerspell: A-T-E to cause to become invalidate
to form or produce salivate
to provide or treat with refrigerate
to put in the form,or form triangulate
by means of substantiate
to arrange for wthestrate
to combine, infuse or medicate treat with
of or characteristic of collegiate
having or filled with passionate
equivalflit to the past dete-,minate participleawl tng-ed
( adj ec t ives , verbs,
an office, 'unction, agent, diectorde official, or giuup of officials
a person ) thing that Is Legate the object of (an action) (nouns)
N.) C. 9 LA V 0.1MINE WORDS
away, apart
deprive of, expelfrom disbar
cause to be the opposite of disable
fail, cease, refuseto, or dissatisfy do the opposite of disjoin (verbs) disallow disintegrate
not, un-, the opposite of dishonest (adjectives) displeasing DIS-** opposite of, lack of disunion (nouns)
the rank of, position of, kingdom -DOM domain of, dominion of
Fingerspell: D-O-M the fact of being,state wisdom of being
a total of all who are officialdom (nouns)
forms the past tenseor waited past participle of weak verbshad crossed
forms participle adjectives inflated
indicating a conditionor en' quality resulting from the action of a verb
forms adjectives fromnouns bearded swam began PAST TENSE became regular/irregular verbs of hand flips back toward shoulder* SIGNS DEFINITIONS WQgDS
one who is the object ofa appointee specified action,or under- goes, or receives something
1'1 person in specified conditionemployee absentee
person or thing associated in some way with another -EE (nouns)
"Move 'E' handshape slightly to the right"*
to become or cause to be lighten darken
to come to have, cause to weaken have strengthen
made of wooden
to form the past participle written (nouns, verbs, adjectives) risen -EN harden soften "For regular past participle (-en) add 'N' at completion of sign"*
ence: act, fact, quality, dependence state, result, or degree (nouns)
corresponding to the suffix -ent for adjectives
ance: the quality or state of resemblance being avo'idance appearance -ENCE, -ANCE observance
"Side of 'C' handshape slides down left fingers and palm"*
91 er, ar, or: denoting persons villager concerned or connected with something(nouns)
person living in(certain Southerner place)
a person that baker (verbs, nouns) teacher educator agent (person): beggar liar (sign made near thebody)**
er: to form the comparative harder degree (adjectives,adverbs) smeller faster comparative; -er** slower
superlative degree of fastest most adjectives andadvcrbs greatest of 1 or 2 syllables smallest surest '4. k sleepiest superlative: -est** busiest tallest
-ery: denoting occupation, bakery business, callingor robbery condition, placeor jewelery establishment, goods slavery or products, things fishery collectively, qualities, foolery actions. etc. (nouns) trickery
-ory: having the functionor advisory effect of sensory a place or thing for observatory -ERY, -ORY, -ARY (nouns)
"Palm-out -ary: Also fingerspell R-r* pertaining to voluntary connected with functionary person connected withor engaged in (something) indicate a locationor repository (nouns, adjectives) DEEEMOL WORDS
referring to locality, motherese nationality, language, Japanese lit---s*,Y style,etc. (no ... adjectives)
-ESE
"'E' handshapemoves down in a wavy motion"*
having (a specifiednumber of) threefold parts; (a specif'ed numberof) tenfold times as many,as much, as large
Fingerspell:
before (inspace, cime, condition) forenoon foretold foreclose
front forefront foreman FORE-
"Bent right hand behindbent left; rightmoves back"* SIGNS 12,FFUILLIONs
full of, characterized thoughtful by, having; joyful painful prayerful tasteful
having the qualitiesof successful; -FUL having the abilityor helpful tendency to, aptto "Palm-down hand brushes forgetful inward across top of the quantity thatfills left 'S'" handshape* spoonful or would fill handful (nouns) roomful Also fingerspell:F-U-L
herdsman foran cowherd -HERD animal (nouns) Fingerspell: H-E-R-D
state, quality, condition widowhood motherhood -HOOD childhood the wholegroup of Fingerspell: H-O-O-D priesthood (a specified class, personhood profession, etc.)
of, having to do with geographic historic poetic photographic
like, havinghe nature alcoholic of, characteristic of angelic
produced by, caused by -IC
made up of, consistingof, metallic "Palm-out 'C'" handshape* containing (adjectives) DEFIRIESYS WORDS
condition, state service or quality of
to mark nouns having feminine agents
Fingerspell I-C-E
to do, make, shape solidify (verbs) classify testify -IFY the stateor result glorify of an actionor process intensify Fingerspell: I-F-Y (nouns)
in, into, within, invaluable on, toward
no, not, without, non- illiterate irresponsible impossible irregular IL-, IM-, IR-, IN-** imbalance immature
IN 0 expressing capability, ,`% % il infantile susceptibility, percentile IA% If : liability, aptitude,etc. contractile %. o o 4 $ (adjectives)
1 i \ 1
-ILE "'L' handshape drops straight down"*
95
WA; 10'
WORDS
forms thepresent participle sailing of it hearing (verbs)
pertaining toor resembling drinking (adjectives) printing I I
I I the, act or instanceof sleeping (a specified verb) -ING talking dancing "Palm-in, 'I' handshape something produced by the twists in slight downward painting arc action of (a specified verb) to right, ending palm-out"* building something that does the covering action of (a specified verb) roofing
material used for (a carpeting specified thing) (nouns)
between intermix amoag interchange in the midst of interdepend mutually interconnect reciprocelly intermarry together interlock during used in the formation of, compound words
INTER-
"Little finger of 'I' handshape weavesamong fingers of left hand"*
96 SIGNS DEFINITIONS WORDS_
within intradepart- mental
used in forming compound words
INTRA-
"Little finger of 'I' handshape bounces between fingers of lefthand"*
Also fingerspell: I-N-T-R-A
act; quality, relation condition of,or correction result of translation discussion confusion
the state of being starvation elation
-ION, -TION, -SION
Side of "I" handshape slides the thing that is creation down fingers and palm of the hand***
of or belonging to
characteristic of girlish or like, typical of boyish childish
inclined or tending bookish
somewhat rather bluish reddish
approximately, about sixish -ISH addicted to threeish (adjectives) "'I' handshape points forward and draws a wavy downward line "*
97 WORDS act, practice or resultof terrorism journalism condition of being -ISM pauperism
action conductor qualities Fingerspell: I-S-M patriotism characteristic of industrialism devotion to nationalism
abnormal conditioncaused by alcoholism
instance, exampleor witticism peculiarity of (nouns)
one skilled in or occupied violinist with; an expert pianist
an adherent of, believer -IST in Buddhist (nouns) moralist Fingerspell: I-S-T
a native, inhabitant, or Israelite citizen of; a descendentfrom or offspring of -ITE
an adherent of, believerin, unionite Fingerspell: I-T-E or member of socialite (nouns)
used variously toform adjectives, verbs, andnouns
state, character,or electricity condition
-ITY, -ICITY
"Thumbtip of 'Y' handshape :1,ides down leftfingers an, palm"*
98 WADS
of, or relatingto, corrective belonging to, havingthe educative nature of, or quality of, preventi'm tending to, givento supportive (adjectives)
-IVE
"Palm-out 'V' handshape shakes downward"*
to cause to be or become; materialize conform with or resemble Americanize democratize -IZE industrialize dramatize Fingerspell: I-Z-E to become like, or change crystalize into civilize
to engage in; act toward theorize or upon in a specifiedway economize some line of action, practice or policy
(verbs)
without, lacking timeless homeless childless priceless -LESS that does not tireless Fingerspell: L-E-S-S that cannot be countless
(adjectives)
99 like, characteristicof school-like suitable for,similar to animal-like homelike
(adjectives)
-LIKE****
like, characteristicof, motherly suitable to manly
happening (onceevery yearly specified period of time) hourly (adjectives)
in (a specified)manner cheaply softly quietly loudly -LY tiredly
to (a specified) extentor direction, in or at (a "Palm-out, simultaneous specified) timeor place 'I-L' handshapo siakes downward"* in the (specified)order thirdly or sequence secondly Also, fingerspell: L-Y (adverbs)
100 SIG 1S DEFINITIONS WORDS
a result or product of improvement improving
a means, agencyor instrument for improving
the art, fact,process or measurement art of improving movement
the state, condition,facts development or degree of being improved -MENT (nouns) "Side of 'M' handshape slides down left fingers andpalm"*
wrong, wrongly, bad misbehave badly misinterpret misprint misinform
no, not mistrust misfit MIS-
Twist "Y" handshapeon chin*
below underneath under
-NEATH
"N circles below left palm"*
101 NGNS __DEFINITIQUE WORDS
condition, quality,or happiness state of being;a single weakness instance of sucha greatness condition, quality togetherness or state emptiness sadness
-NESS
"Side of 'N' - dshape slides down left fingL.s and palm"*
not (gives a negative nonbeliever force and is lessemphatic nonbreakablo 7 than in- and un-) nondrinker ...... nonmember nonspeaking
NON-**
full of abounding in dangerous given to; characterizedby continuous having; like joyous (adjectives) glorious
ay- -OUS
Fingerspell: O-U-S SIGNS DEFINITIONS ..,..1.- WORDS
above in position,outer overhead upper, superior OVER- overhand oversee Fingerspell: O-V-E-R passing acrossor beyond overdue overshoot overrun overlook
denoting a movementdownward overflow from above
excessive, too much, beyond overeat the normal oversleep overdress
behind, later than, postgraduate following, in time postwar postgame
subsequent to, posteriorto
used freely in theformation of compound words
POST-
"P" handshape moves back of left hand straightforward*
before, earlier than,or pregame prior to, in advance of, preschool preliminary to, in prewar preparation for preheat
PRE-
"'P' handshape moves inward from left palm"*
103 100 IONS WORDS
substituting for pronoun PRO- defending, supporting prolabor favor forsome party Fingerspell: P -R -O pro-American system or idea etc, prosocial having anti-as its opposite
again, anew,or again recharge and again to indicate retype repetition reintroduce reinvent refreeze rebuild reappear repay RE-
back, backwardto indicate "'R' handshape hit recall left palm"* withdrawl or backwardmotion Also fingerpell: R-E
inflectional ending usedto socks make plurals of mostnouns pencils
inflectional ending usedto walks form the third-person shows singular of verbs in the present tense
suffix used to formsome needs adverbs
-S
"Palm-out 'S'" handshape* *
SIGNS DEFINITIONS WORD_
the quality, conditionor friendship state of
the rank or office of,a kingship person having the rank lordship or status of
all individuals (ofa readership specified class) collective- ly
-SHIP***
used in forming compound somebody words meaning 'a certain' something
like, apt, tendingto be fearlom tiresome
(a specified) number threelon foursome -SOME, SOME-
"Side of right hrnd draws small arc across left palm"*
Also fingerspell: S-O-M-E (especially when in final position)
a location, place, farmstead or locality homestead (nouns)
-STEAD
"Side of 'S' handshape hits heel of left hand"*
1.02 105 WORDS
under, beneath, below subconscious subsoil
lower in rankor position subcommittee than, inferioror subordin- subplot ate to
to a lesser degree than, subcolumnar somewhat, slightly
SUB- so as to form a division subtitle into smalleror less subgroup "'S' handshape circles important parts under palm"* subdivide
Also fingerspell: S-U-B
over, above, on top of superstruc- ture SUPER- higher in rankor position superpower than, superiorto, greater supernatural in quality,amount, supercycle or degree than, surpassing; superman greater than others of its kind
extra, additional superimpose Fingerspell: S-U-P-E-R supercharge
the act of; thestate wealth or quality of being -TH stealth or having width warmth- Fingerspell: T-H
used in forming ordinal fifth numbers eightieth
not, la..k of, opposite (*).' uncooked undefeated unhappy unlike
back, the reverseor removal unchain of untie undress
UN-** (nouns, verbs)
106 Y
DEFINITIQ5_ WORDS IIMEMOIMMIRM
act or result of an action exposure agent, or instrument of procedure action, state of being
(novas)
-URE
"Side of 'U' handshape slides down left fingers and palm"*
VICE- one who acts in the place vice president of; deputy Fingerspell: V-I-C-E
-WARD in a specified direction northward or course.; indicating afterward Fingerspell: W-A-R-D spatial or temporal seaward direction backward
having, full of, dirty characterized by greasy sleepy healthy
rather, somewhat orangey yellowy
inclined, tending to sticky
suggestive of, somewhat like (adjectives)
quality or condition of jealousy being -Y (nouns)
"Palm-out 'Y'" handshape*
107 `t)
Appendix D
CONTRACTIONS
NOTE: All illustrations in AppendixD are used withper - fission from Modern Signs Press, Inc., P. O. Box 1181, Los Alamitos,CA '720 and are taken from G. Gustason, D. Pfetzing, & E. Zawolkow(illustrated by C. Norris). (1980). liznincsictng:ELlabE).
109 105 fr.
Appendix D
CONTRACTIONS
SIGNS DEFINITIONS
contraction of had they'd contraction of did where'd contraction of should he'd or would
'0 Palm-out D twists inward
contraction of will what'll informal contraction wa--.111 of till
'LL Palm-out L twists inward
contraction of am I'm informal contraction show'm of him
Palm-out M twists inward 1 DEFINITIONS WORDS
adverbial combiningform ht.ven't of not isn't
N'T Palm-out N twists inward
contraction ofare how're you're they're
'RE Palm-out R twistsinward
contraction of is he's
contraction of has she's
informal contraction of what's does
contraction of us let's
'S Palm-out S twists inward
112 .,11MIFI.M.O.1swvalmbi=13 DFdE=LONS WORDS
contraction of have I've we've they've you've
'yE Palm-out V twists inward Appendix E
RESC _ICES Appendix E
RESOURCES
Anthony, D. (Ed.). (1971). Anaheim, CA: Anaheim Union High Schoo...,afeingant, District.
One of the first books published about manually coded English. It contains illustrated vocabulmry wordsused in Seeing EssentialEnglish. Baker, C., & Cokely, D. (1980). American Sign Language: A Teacher's Resourcq Text on Grammar and Culture, Silver Spring, MD: T.J.Publishers. This is a textbook designed for teachers and students ofAmerican Sign Language. It has 14 chapters, some of which talk about lansuagesand/or the deaf Community. The remaining chapterscover structural features of ASL: Selected Sign Types, SentenceTypes, Time, Pronominalization, Subjects and Objects, Classifiers,Locatives, Pluralization, Temporal Aspect, and Distributional Aspect. There is also an introductionand a section of transcription symbolsused in the text.
Battison, R. (1978). Lexical Borrowing inAmerican Sign Language. Silver Spring, MD: Linstok.
This book explains the linguistics of American SignLanguage with respect to fingerspelling and is intended for use by linguists,educators, and sign language instructors. There are some illustrationswhich help to explain or provide examples for the related text. The book is divided intothe following five chapters: Analyzing Signs, Signs in Action,Social Issues, Loan Signs From Fingerspelled Words, and Analysis andDiscussion. Also included are a list of figures and tables used inthe text as wellas two appendices: illustrations of handshapescited in the text, anda table of symbols.
Bornstein, H., & Saulnier, K. (1984). ItiglizatdrngLishatasses. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.
This book illustrates basic, functional vocabulary in SignedEnglish and is divided into chapters according to the following generalcategories: People and Pronouns; Things; Special Verbs and FunctionWords; The Body; Actions-1; Actions-2; LeisureTime; Nature and Animals;Descriptions; Food; Travel; Time, Money,Shapes, and Adverbs. Each chapter discusses unique features of an English manual sign system, followedby vocabulary and practice sentences. Other sections included in thisbook are: Sign Markers, American Manual Alphabet,Name Signs, Numbers, Keysto Word Descriptions and Arrows used in thetext, and a Glossary ofterms. It is designed to be used as a tool for teachers, parents, children,and students who are learning Signed English.
117110 Bornstein, H., Saulnier, K., & Hamilton, L. (1983). The Comprehensive Signed English Dictionary. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.
This is an extensive Signed English dictionarycontaining over 3,100 illustrated words designed to fulfill thelanguage needs of students from preschool through high school and beyond. This book is divided intotwo sections. The first section, the Elements ofSigned English, contains the following: Introduction to Signed English, SignMarkers, The American Manual Alphabet, Numbers, Contractions,Compounds, Key to Word Descriptions and Arrows. The second section, The Signs of Signed English,alphabeti- cally lists all of the 3,100 sign words. Following the words are three appendices explaining: why and how the Signed English seriesdeveloped, name signs, and models for the visual representation of speech.
Doughten, S., Minkin, M., & Rosen, L. (1978). 040119L1=111/IY. Seattle, WA: Planned Parenthood.
This is an American Sign Languageresource manual designed for use b hearing and deaf people who are concernedwith deafness and hums,- c- ity. It contains illustrated signs of commonlyused words in al vocabulary. The words are alphabetically listed indictionar at with English terms and definitions. Also included in this manual following sections: Introduction; Research, Methodology, al .ormat; and three Appendices--one each on Illustrationsof Male and Female Reproductive Systems, Cross-References, and a Bibliographyof Additional Resources including books, articles, curriculums,education materials and national organizations.
Gustason, G. (1983). Teaching and Learning Signing ExactEngliel. Los Alamitos, CA: Modern Signs.
This is a book filled with ideas, activities,and beginning curricula for instructors to use when teaching SigningExact English classes. It is a resource manual for instructors, rather thanan illustrated textbook for students. The manual is divided into fiveparts: Background; Ideas, Rules, Activities; Sample Curricula; WordGroups by Topics; and Sign Families and Practice Sentences. The contents in this manualcan be used by a number of teachers ina variety of situations, including classes for adults, classes for training teachers, and classesfor children.
Gustason, G., Pfetzing, D., & Zawolkow, E. (1980). agninggmatEngliah. Rossmoor, CA: Modern Signs.
This is an illustrated Signing Exact Englishvocabulary book that can be used by hearing and deaf individuals. Many signs included are borrowed from American Sign Language while othersare unique to the SEE signing system. Each word .ts listed alphabetically with notesexplaining the accompanying illustration. Other sections in this textare Introduction, Explanation of the Text, Pledge of Allegiance, CreativeSigning, Alphabet, Hand Shapes, Numbers, Contractions, Affixes, anda list of Signp Grouped by Families.
118
Ii 1 Hoemann, H. (1986), Introductione. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green Press.
This book was designed to help studentsunderstand American Sign Language structural features and is dividedinto eight chapters. The first chapter generally covers American SignLanguage, which is related insubsequent chapters specifically to usage ofsentences, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives. The last chapter talksabout deafness and American Sign Language. There are some illustrationsin each chapter that help explain the related text.
Hoffman, C. (1980). Comprehensive preters. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
This book was written for experiencedor serious signers/interpreters and contains over 7,000 entries,some of which include vocabulary, idioms, cross references, and sign descriptions. There are no illustrations, instead, the manual alphabeticallylists each word with its signing description. Prior to the listing isan extensive key explaining all of the abbreviations used in thetext.
Humphries, T., Padden, C., & O'Rourke,T. (1980). A Basic Course in American Sign Language. Silver Spring, MD: T.J. Publishers.
This is a textbook designed for studentswho are learning American Sign Language. Each of the 22 lessons covers basiclanguage structures with explanations, examples, and illustrations. There are also exercises in each lesson to provide students withpractice in using the language structures learned. Following each lessonare some illustrated vocabulary words that were used in that particularlesson. This book also contains seven dialogues containing languagestructures learned in previous lessons. Finally, at the end of this bookare short sections on the manual alphabet and numbers. It also provides ananswer key to the exercises given in each lesson.
Jamison, S. (1983). Ltintlargontsnnoloy. Silver Spring, MD: National Association of the Deaf.
This resource manual containsan illustrated listing of computer-related terms heavily emphasizing those associated withcomputer programming and systems analysis. For each entry, there is a statementexplaining its usage, as well as possible additional informationto relate the sign to other words not listed in thetext or to clarify the drawing. Also included in this manual are the followingsections: Introduction, Fingerspelling, American Manual Alphabet, Prefixesand Suffixes, and an Appendix with Additional Vocabulary. It is designed to be used for deaf students and deaf employees preparing foror working in a computing field, teachers and instructors, interpreters, andmanagers or coworkers of deaf employees.
119 112 Riekehof, L. (1980). The Joy of Signing. Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House.
This book contains signs used in American Sign Languageand can be usedas a reference manual by anyone wanting to communicate with deafpeople. The words are divided into 25categories and for eachword there is an accompanying illustration andexplanation as wellas a note on the origin and usage of the word. Other sections in thisbook are Introduction, History of Sign Language and Fingerspelling, Terminology,the Art of Signing, the Language Patterns of Signs, Fingerspelling,Manual Alphabet Chart, and Organizations Servingthe Deaf.
Shroyer, E. (1982). ligns_aLIIIII/m1A. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.
This is a classroom textbook designed for use with hearingstudents who are learning sign language. It emphasizes understanding ofand becoming skilled in Pidgin Sign English and Manually Coded English. This text consists of 41 lessons, each of which illustrates vocabularywords, lists practice sentencns, givesmnemonics to aid in rememberingthe signs, and lists the vocabulary used in each particular lesson. Other sections in this text are Introduction, Notes for the Reader, SuggestedFeeding, Fingerspelling and Numbers, SpecialNotes on inflections and adapted signs, and a Multi-sign WordAppendix.
Shroyer, F., & Shroyer, S. (1984). Signs Across America. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.
This balk contains 130 alphabetically listed words whoseconcepts are each represented by at least three different signs. The concepts are signedIn American Sign Language and represent 25 of the 50 U.S.states. The authors note that signs not only vary from state to state but also withineach state; therefore, the signs given are the general signs used in eachstate. This book also has a preface, introduction, anda format section. Its intended use is mainly for funby any group or individualwho has any interest in sign language: students, interpreters, teachers,deaf persons, researchers, and linguists.
Smith, C., Lentz, E., & Mikos, K. (1988). Signing Naturally. Berkeley, CA: Dawn Sign Press.
This curriculum guideuses a functional-notional approachto teaching American Sign Language. That is, it incorporates examplesfrom everyday interactions in the teaching and learning of ASL. The goal of the guideis to make students comfortable in conversing in a variety ofsituations within the deaf community. At present, only the first offour language levels is available. Level 1 is organized around 12instructional units and includes a teacher's curriculumguide, a student workbook,a student videotext, and a teacher'scumulative review videotape. Its intended audience is anyone desiringto learn ASL. Sternberg, M. (1981). American SigntangnAgeDictionary. New York: Harper & Row.
This dictionary contains 3,300 wordsillustrated in AmericanSign Language and alphabetically listed. Its format is consistentwith standard dictionaries in that it lists entry titles, pronunciation,parts of speech, rationale description, andcross references with other entries. Also included is a key to abbreviations used in the book,a pronunciation guide, explanatory notes, and the AmericanManual Alphabet. It is an excellent language training tool for deaf readers with language problemsas well as for hearing readers learning signlanguage.
The Statewide Project for the Deaf.(1978). Preferred Signs for Instructional Purposes. Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.
This book was developed for deaf schools in Texas and is intendedfor instructional use. It contains illustratedwords that are grouped categorically into 41 sections. Along with the 'nglish wordsequivalent to each sign, the text also includes the Spanish word or words. There are no practice sentences or exercisesincluded. It is strictly a vocabulary sign language book. Before the sections begin,there are a fewpages explaining how the text is organizedand how the illustrationsare used. Woodward, J. (1980). Signs of Drug Use. Silver Spring, MD: T.J. Publishers. This is an illustrated resource book containing vocabulary inAmerican Sign Language related to drugsand alcohol. It was written foruse by interpreters and others whomay need to know drug-related signs for instances such as court trialsand counseling. This book is divided into chapters according to the followinggeneral categories: Alcohol Use and Effects, Caffeine- Related Drugs,Drugs Uglally in Pill Form,General Drug Effects, Marijuana Use and Affects, Tobacco Use, and Other Signs. Other secticnc. ale an introductionand a fingerspelled vocabulary.
121 114