University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Graduate Studies The Vault: Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2021-01-11 Thebe ya Sechaba: A History of the Botswana Defence Force, c. 1977-2007 Mocheregwa, Bafumiki Mocheregwa, B. (2021). Thebe ya Sechaba: A History of the Botswana Defence Force, c. 1977-2007 (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/112986 doctoral thesis University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Thebe ya Sechaba: A History of the Botswana Defence Force, c. 1977 – 2007 by Bafumiki Mocheregwa A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN HISTORY CALGARY, ALBERTA JANUARY, 2021 © Bafumiki Mocheregwa 2021 Abstract The protracted liberation struggles of Southern Africa that began in the 1960s, particularly in Rhodesia (Zimbabwe today) eventually prompted the Botswana government to establish its own defence force in 1977. Due to budgetary constraints and relative internal political stability, Botswana had relied on a small paramilitary force called the Police Mobile Unit (PMU) since the early 1960s for all defence – related issues. By the late 1970s, the sharp escalation of the struggle for Zimbabwe resulted in cross – border incursions by Rhodesian security forces who were pursuing armed freedom fighters. In these numerous violations of Botswana’s territorial integrity, many Batswana who lived in towns and villages adjacent to the Rhodesian border lost their lives while other were abducted, women raped, children maimed, and houses set ablaze by Rhodesian forces. This study explores the circumstances around the establishment of the Botswana Defence Force (BDF) in April 1977 in reaction to the Rhodesian war. This study also traces the development of the defence force into a professional military between the time it was established and the early 2000s taking into account internal and external factors that determined this evolution. Internally, the lack of funds during the BDF’s formative years meant that the government could only acquire limited equipment and manpower but the discovery of diamonds and economic stabilization beginning in the 1980s resulted in more expansive budgets and the acquisition of lethal hardware. Externally, it was regional contentions in the 1980s, mainly aggression from apartheid South Africa, that largely shaped the development of the BDF. After the end of apartheid, the BDF adopted a more aggressive expansion policy that was supported by the strong diamond – based economy of Botswana. It was in this period that the BDF started to participate in international peacekeeping operations which not only taught valuable lessons to it personnel but highlighted Botswana as a democratic country that helped restore peace 2 and stability in fellow African nations. The decisions to professionalise its officer corps in the late 1990s and early 2000s as well as the recruitment of women into the force were important indicators of growth. These represented necessary steps that the leaders of the BDF took to mould it into a professional apolitical military. 3 Table of Contents ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................... 5 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................................................ 7 DEFINITION OF TERMS .......................................................................................................................... 10 INTRODUCTION: THE UNIQUE STORY OF THE BOTSWANA DEFENCE FORCE IN AFRICA .. 12 CHAPTER 1: OUR BOYS AT THE BORDER; THE PARAMILITARY FORERUNNER OF THE BOTSWANA DEFENCE FORCE .............................................................................................................. 43 CHAPTER 2: OUR BOYS IN THE BUSH: A NEW MILITARY VERSUS AN OLD FOE .................... 72 CHAPTER 3: OUR BOYS FLOUNDER: THE BDF AND THE GROWING REGIONAL CONTENTIONS OF THE 1980S ............................................................................................................. 123 CHAPTER 4: OUR BOYS REGROUP: THE BDF’S MILITARY BUILD-UP AND APARTHEID AGGRESSION .......................................................................................................................................... 161 CHAPTER 5: OUR BOYS COME OF AGE: THE BDF IN THE POST – COLD WAR ERA .............. 186 CHAPTER 6: OUR BOYS RESTORE HOPE: THE BDF IN PEACEKEEPING MISSIONS ACROSS AFRICA IN THE 1990S ........................................................................................................................... 219 CHAPTER 7: A TRANSFORMATION COMPLETE? BDF EXPANSIONS IN THE 2000S................ 262 CHAPTER 8: THE BDF AND THE SOCIETY OF BOTSWANA ......................................................... 296 CONCLUSION: FROM POLICEMEN TO SOLDIERS .......................................................................... 323 BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................................................... 335 4 Acknowledgements This research would not have been possible without funding from the Department of History and the Faculty of Graduate Studies (FGS) at the University of Calgary. The International Research Excellence Award which I received in 2018 funded my trip to Botswana to conduct critical field work for this study. Throughout my doctoral studies, including the time spent home in Botswana conducting the field research as well as writing, I have come across a lot of incredible people who have helped me shape this study in one way or another. First among them is Dr. Tim Stapleton whose tireless efforts cannot go unnoticed. Not only did he spend endless hours reading and advising me on the chapters presented in this work, he has also shaped my academic and professional development over the years. As a supervisor and mentor, Dr. Stapleton has always believed in me and demonstrated great enthusiasm for this study which would have been completely lost had it not been for his vision and expertise on the history of Africa. The members of my dissertation committee beginning with my secondary field supervisor Dr. Paul Chastko, Dr. Rowland Apentiik and Dr. Alexander Hill provided critical feedback and assistance whenever needed. There was never a time they were unavailable to answer questions or give me advice, and for that I appreciate their efforts. I also owe a lot of gratitude to Lori Somner who also helped me a million times throughout my doctoral studies at the University of Calgary. I owe yet another debt of gratitude to the staff at the Botswana National Archives and Records Services (BNARS) for the excellent service they rendered to me while I was in Botswana fishing through archival material. I am also grateful for the men and women of the Botswana Defence Force, current and retired, who found the time in their busy schedules to speak to me about their experiences in the military. Their stories helped shape this research. In particular, I am 5 grateful for the assistance I received from Colonel Christopher Mbaakanyi, Brigadier Mukani Mokobi, Lieutenant Colonel Fana Maswabi and Captain Losika “Six” Keatlholwetse (Rtd.) while I was running around Botswana conducting oral interviews. I would also like to thank the members of the Department of History at the University of Botswana who welcomed me while I was conducting my field research. They offered me invaluable and critical input that helped mould the early stages of this research. I am also eternally grateful to my family members who despite the distance between us, have always found a way to show me love and unwavering support. Lastly, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my fellow graduate student colleagues as well as personal friends whose humour, advice, support and counsel kept me grounded throughout my doctoral studies. Simon Bayani, Gorata Sello, We- Bathu Kwele, Samuel Plaatjie, my good friend Nathan Gardiner, his mother Sue Hutchison and Katelyn Morishita all deserve a special mention. 6 List of Abbreviations AAPC – African Auxiliary Pioneer Corps AFZ – Air Force of Zimbabwe ANC – African National Congress APC – Armoured Personnel Carrier APLA – Azanian People’s Liberation Army BAe – British Aerospace engineering BDF – Botswana Defence Force BDF XI FC– Botswana Defence Force XI Football Club BFA – Botswana Football Association BNARS – Botswana National Archives and Records Services BNFA – Botswana National Football Association BNF – Botswana National Front BOLEAS – Botswana Lesotho and South Africa (peacekeeping operation) BPP – Botswana People’s Party BSAC – British South Africa Company BSAP – British South Africa Police CAF – Central African Federation CARS – Central African Relay Station CENTCOM – United States Central Command CISM – International Military Sports Council