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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-66099-1 - The Cambridge History of Russia: Volume III: The Twentieth Century Edited by Ronald Grigor Suny Index More information

Index

Abalkin, Leonid 334 agit-trains 586 Abkhazia 512, 515, 702 agitation, Bolshevik 585–6 abortion see also propaganda illegal 481, 485 Agrarian Party of Russia 366, 372, 438 legalised 473, 476 agriculture re-criminalised 209, 481 backwardness of 177, 308, 420 re-legalised (1955) 486, 490 corn (maize) 278 Abramov, Fedor 613 importance of private plots 424–5, 429, 436, Abuladze, Tengiz 623 478 Academic Union (1905) 550 inﬂated statistics on 683 Academy of Art 581 innovation in communes 414, 421 Academy of Sciences 550, 572 livestock 423, 477 1936 conference 558 loss of cultivated land (civil war) 167 Commission for the Study of Natural and Lysenkoism 558–9, 569 Productive Resources (1915) 551 and market privatisations 434 political control over 556–7 and markets 389 reforms 567 migration from 88, 303, 399, 402, 431 research post-Soviet 407, 437 applied 556 and privatisation of collectives 435, 436–7 post-Soviet 576 productivity and research institutes (ISKAN) 687, criticism of central planning (1990s) 433 696 effect of collectivisation 196–7, 422, 424 reserved seats in Congress (1989) 327 failure of policies (1962–3) 288 status under Bolshevik government 554 post-war 429, 432 in Union republics 572 under War Communism 419 Acmeists 588 prospects for 438–9 Adamov, Arkadii, novelist 627 reforms Adenauer, Konrad, West German chancellor Gorbachev’s 433–4 286 Khrushchev’s 278–9, 428 aestheticism 79 tsarist experiments 388–90 Afanas’ev, Iurii 328 relaxation of controls 205 Afghanistan subsidies 300, 302 decision-making on 684, 691–4 Virgin Lands campaign (Khrushchev) 275, Khrushchev’s visit 285, 681 279, 296, 402, 429 national liberation movement (1920) 638 see also collective farms; collectivisation; Soviet invasion of (1979) 54, 311–12, 319 grain withdrawal of troops (1989) 339–40, 698 Aitmatov, Chingiz 322 Africa 690 Executioner’s Block 633 Aganbegyan, Abel, economist 404 Akademgorodok, science city 566

793

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-66099-1 - The Cambridge History of Russia: Volume III: The Twentieth Century Edited by Ronald Grigor Suny Index More information

Index

Akhmadulina, Bella 615 American Committee for the Defense of Akhmatova, Anna 588, 589, 606, 663, Leon Trotsky 17 725 American Relief Association (ARA) 11, 172, 391 Requiem (poem) 324, 589 Amin, Hafizullah, Afghan Khalq faction 311, Akhromeev, Sergei 693 692, 693 Aksel’rod, Pavel 711 Amori, Count (Ippolit Rapgof) 583 Aksenov, Vasilii 289, 615, 628 Andreev, Andrei, and membership of alcohol, state monopoly and ‘moonshine’ 303, Politburo 249 332 Andreeva, Nina, letter in Sovetskaia Rossiia 326 alcoholism 83, 85, 310, 404 Andropov, Iurii 314, 685 and anti-alcohol policy (1985) 332, and Afghanistan 692, 693–4 462 as ambassador to Hungary 678 Aleksandr Nevsky (film) 208 and KGB 299, 307, 684 Aleksandrinsky Theatre 590 promotion of Gorbachev 317, 688 Aleksandrov, A.V.,composer 597 and researchers 688 Aleksandrov, General Aleksandr, ‘Holy War’ as successor to Brezhnev 314, 316–17 anthem 602 Angola 308, 698 Aleksandrov, Grigorii Annales school, Paris 37 Happy-Go-Lucky Fellows (film) 597 Anpilov, Viktor, Working Russia party 368 Meeting on the Elbe 608 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972) 307 Radiant Path 599 Anti-Fascist Committee Affair (1952) 668, Volga-Volga (film) 599 671 Alekseev, General Mikhail, Chief of Staff anti-Semitism 92, 101 (1915) 97 and 1952–3 Doctors’ Plot 264, 507–8 and democratisation of army command in films 608 120 and ‘pogroms’ 90 Alekseeva, Ludmilla 291 under Brezhnev 310 Alexandra, Empress 100 and Western view of Bolshevism 9 Aliev, Heidar, president of Azerbaijan 305 see also Jews All-Russian Conference of Working Women Arctic expedition (1938) 724 (1918) 474 Arendt, Hannah (1906–75) 23 All-Russian Congress of Students (May 1917) Argumenty i Fakty, reformist periodical 695 131 Aristov, Boris, ambassador to Poland 686 All-Russian Muslim Congress 151, 496 armaments see defence industry; nuclear All-Russian Peasant Union 87 weapons All-Russian Soviet of Peasant Deputies 416 Armand, Inessa, Zhenotdel director 474 and Central Committee of the Soviets Armenia 95, 102 (VTsIK) 137 ambiguous (democratic) regime 354 All-Russian Theatrical Society 629 and Commonwealth of Independent States All-Russian Union for the Relief of Sick and 516 Wounded Soldiers 105 Dashnak regime 150, 497 All-Soviet (All-Russian) Institute for Public dispute with Azerbaijan 345, 515 Opinion (VTsIOM) 328 independence 349, 355 All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers (1934) and Nagorno-Karabakh 515 594 nationalism in 91, 102, 513 All-Union Congress of Soviets (1924) 176 relationship to RSFSR 174 Alma Ata (Almaty), Kazakhstan, riots (1986) and Transcaucasian Republic (1922) 175 345, 513 Armenians, refugees from Turkish massacres Almond, Gabriel 29 (1915) 103 The Civic Culture (with Verba) 29 Armstrong, John 31 Alov, Aleksandr and Naumov, Vladimir, Pavel army, imperial Korchagin 614 and abdication of Nicholas II 115 Amanullah, King of Afghanistan 638 desertions 97, 125

794

Index

execution of officers by Provisional dispute with Armenia 345, 515 Government 109 hegemonic electoral authoritarian regime and February uprising 114, 120 354 and formation of volunteer army 143 Hummet party 497 and imposition of martial law 97–100 Musavat regime 150 Jewish conscripts 101 and Nagorno-Karabakh 515 and Kerensky’s offensive (1917) 125 relationship to RSFSR 174 loss of influence (1917) 109–10 and Transcaucasian Republic (1922) 175 national units (First World War) 102, 109 Azeri Turks 103 officers recruited into Red Army 144 at outbreak of First World War 95, 96 Babaevskii, Semen, Cavalier of the Golden Star role of parastatals in military supply 610 administration 106 Babel’, Isaak 598 shortage of rifles 96 Red Cavalry 587 Volynskii regiment 114 Bahuseviˇ c,ˇ Francisak,ˇ Belorussian poet 528 women’s ‘death battalions’ (1917) 122 Baikal–Amur Railway (BAM) project 305 see also Red Army Bailes, Kendall E. 53 art Bakhtin, Mikhail 57 avant-garde exhibition (1962) 289, 682 Baklanov, Georgii 622 modern 79, 586–7 Baklanov, Oleg 348 socialist realism in 207 Bakst, Leon, artist 616 art schools 581 Baku, Azerbaijan, Armenian refugees in 103 artisan culture, revival of 206 Balabanov, Aleksei, Brother 632 artists 581, 582 Balanchine, George 615 and Bolshevik policies 584 Balkan Wars (1912–13) 70 defections 620 Balkar people and purges 598–9, 600 allowed to return 282 and socialist realism 595 deportation of 502, 503 trade unions for 594, 596, 600 Balter, Boris 614 Asanova, Dinara 625 Baltic States 130, 342, 532, 545 Asia, financial crisis (1998) 373 and anniversary of Molotov–Ribbentrop Askoldov, Aleksandr, The Commissar 630 Pact 541, 543, 545 Astaf’ev, Viktor, Sad Detective 633 authoritarian regimes 532–3 Astrakhan, Dmitrii, Everything will be OK economies 408, 540, 545 632 and European Union 518, 547 Austria 285, 676 German nobility 524, 526, 532 Nazi control over (1938) 724 German occupation 538 Austria-Hungary and Hungarian uprising 679 capitulation and fall of monarchy (1918) 111, inter-war independence 515, 516, 638 495 neutrality 533 First World War 95, 97 Popular Fronts 514–15 Western Ukraine and 529, 530 post-Soviet independence 349, 355 Austrian State Treaty (1955) 285 Russian minorities in 506, 547 autocracy Soviet annexation and occupation 222, 537, legacy of 153 658 political ideology of 70–2 Stalin’s ambitions for 655, 656 and political liberties 711 see also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania Western view of 8 Balts, nationalism among 91 autonomous regions 343, 498 bandits, in rural areas 205 see also republics banks Azerbaijan 95, 103, 305, 510 and August 1998 crisis 372, 374 and Commonwealth of Independent States scandal 374 516 baptism 477

795

Index

Baptist churches 81 Belyi, Andrei 82 Baranskaia, Natalia, ‘A Week Like Any Other’ Petersburg (novel) 580 (story) 457 Benua (Benois), Aleksandr 581 Barber, Benjamin R. 26 World of Art movement 81 Barghoorn, Frederick 42 Berezovsky, Boris 371 Barnaul, Siberia Berggolts, Ol’ga 610 lack of facilities 204 Beria, Lavrentii 242, 261, 263 population growth 201 and deportations 503 barter fall and execution (1953) 274–5, 276, 509, in post-Soviet economy 372, 407–8, 435 725–7 to compensate for shortages 198, 390 and foreign policy 283 see also blat and formation of GKO 255, 257 Basaev, Shamil, Chechen commander, head of NKVD 215, 240, 252 invasion of Dagestan 376, 520 membership of Politburo 252 Bashkiria 393 and Molotov 259 Basmachestvo movement 497 and scientists 564 Bauer, Evgenii 55, 583 and succession to Stalin 508 Bauman, Karl 558 Berklavs,¯ Eduards, Latvia 540, 541 Bauman, K.Ia. 420 Berlin, Red Army entry into (1945) 504 Bauman, Zygmunt 59 Berlin, Isaiah (1909–97) 36 Beatty, Bessie, San Francisco Bulletin 8 Berlin Ultimatum, by Khrushchev (1958) Bednyi, Demian, libretto to Ancient Heroes 598 286–7, 296 Belaev, Vasilii, Mannerheim Line 601 Berlin wall Belarus (from 1991) 528–9 construction of 287 and Commonwealth of Independent States demolition 341 516 Berliner, Joseph (1921–2001) 31 as competitive authoritarian regime 354 Berlinguer, Enrico 683 independence (1991) 547 Bernes, Mark, singer 602 post-Soviet transition 548 Bessarabia (Eastern Romania) 505, 531 relations with Russian Federation 703–4 Soviet occupation (1940) 222, 658 see also Belorussia see also Moldavia (Moldova from 1991) Belarusian Peasant and Workers’ Union 534 Bichevskaia, Zhanna, singer 626 Belarusian Popular Front (1988–9) 543 Birmingham, University of, Centre for Belarusian Socialist Soviet 535 Russian and East European Studies 36 Belgium, German invasion 657 Birobidzhan, Jewish Autonomous Region Belorussia 507 and 1990 elections 546 Bitov, Andrei 615, 628 Belarusianisation policy of Soviet Union Black Book of Communism 63 536 black markets 198, 399 ceded by treaty of Brest-Litovsk 136, and 1990s inﬂation 435 528 exploitative 310 cultural revival (from 1890s) 528 peasants’ 418 dissent 542 tolerated under Brezhnev 302–3 First World War 95, 528 see also commodities German occupation 528, 538 Blanter, Matvei, composer 597 independence 517 blat (informal distribution practices) 400, 403 national education 499, 510 see also barter nationalism in 102, 150, 528, 543 Blok, Aleksandr, modernist 580, 587 relationship to RSFSR 174 The Field of Kulikovo 588 reuniﬁcation (1939) 537 Retribution 588 western (within Poland) 533–4 The Twelve (poem) 580 see also Belarus (from 1991) Bobrinskii, Georgii, military governor of Belovezhskaya Accord (1991) 357 L’viv 99

796

Index

Bogdanov, Aleksandr urban base of 497 and ‘God-Building’ 82 use of terror in civil war 145–6 and Proletkul’t 585 view of peasants 160–1, 417, 718, 719 Bohlen, Charles ‘Chip’, American diplomat 13 war administration (1917–18) 110–11 Bolshevik government (dictatorship) workers’ support for 84, 121, 129 (1917–22) 135–9, 166–7 see also Bolshevik government alienation of peasants 159–60 (dictatorship); Bolshevism attempts to establish ‘peaceful Bolshevisation 644 reconstruction’ 165 Bolshevism authoritarianism of 139 aspirations and failures of 44–5 Central Control Commission 245, 248 marginalisation of women 472 collegial nature of 245 Western views of 8–9, 33–7 and corruption 154–5 Bol’shoi theatre, Moscow 581, 603 Council of People’s Commissars (October Bondarchuk, Sergei, Fate of a Man 281, 1917) (Sovnarkom) 137 614 cultural policies 155–7, 583–5 Bondarev, Iurii 622 economic policy see War Communism border guard forces 215 effect of power on concept of class 714–16 Bordiga, Amadeo, Italian communist 644 Land decree 136–7 Bosyi, D. F., machine operator 455 and Orthodox Church 148 Bourdieu, Pierre 57 and Party-State 151–5, 166 ‘bourgeois specialists’ 459 peace decree 135–6 Stalin’s attack on 189, 451, 460 policies towards women 472–7 bourgeoisie political control over Academy of Sciences fear of 714 556–7 and Social Democracy 710 popular revolts against 147–8 tolerated under NEP 719–20 relations with borderlands and see also middle classes nationalities 148–51, 497–8 ‘brain-washing’ 24 relations with workers 163–6 Brandt, Willy, West German chancellor 306 and scientiﬁc education 553–4 Brazauskas, Algirdas-Mikolas, Lithuania 346 socialist opposition to 147 Brest-Litovsk, fall of 97 suppression of women’s movement 472 Brest-Litovsk, Peace of 9, 110, 111, 636 Zhenotdel (Women’s Bureau) 474–5 as compromise of principles 640 see also Communist party; War Russian territorial losses 136, 144, 527 Communism ‘Brethren’ (brattsy) movement 81 Bolsheviks 68, 125 ‘Brezhnev Doctrine’ (orthodoxy) 300 appeal of Stalin’s group to rank and ﬁle 247 Brezhnev, Galina (daughter), corruption attempts to inspire revolution among allies scandals 314 636–43 Brezhnev, Leonid 290, 305–6 and class narrative 713–18 control over Politburo 300–1 concerns about NEP 180–1 and cultural stagnation (zastoi) 298–9, economic ambitions 383 617–29 as embodiment of revolutionary Social death 314, 316 Democracy 707, 713, 714 decline of administration 308–15 and February Revolution 114, 123, 125 economy 302–3, 310, 403–4 as heirs of intelligentsia tradition 579 and family law reforms 488–90 Kerensky’s suppression of (July 1917) 126 foreign policy and detente´ 305–8 and notion of ‘capitalist encirclement’ 113 historiography 292–5 opposition to war 104, 138 ill health 309, 312, 314 peasants’ support for 417 and invasion of Afghanistan 311–12 renamed Communists (1918) 143 My Little Homeland memoir 619 seizure of power 133–5 and path to communism 729 support for self-determination 149 Peace Programme (1969) 306

797

Index

Brezhnev, Leonid (cont.) in Communist systems 41 personality cult 309, 314 for Five-Year Plan 395 and rejection of Khrushchevism 296–300 Burliuk, David (and others), A Slap in the Face repression under 618, 682 of Public Taste 588 and response to Polish Solidarity Burma, Khrushchev’s visit 285, 681 movement 312–13 Bush, George, US President 341 and science 571 and Gorbachev 700 social contract 300–5, 310 Bykov, Vasilii 622 stability under 294 ‘trust in cadres’ policy 297, 298, 302, 305, capitalism 309, 511 critique of 12, 14 visit to USA 307 and modernity 29, 58 Brodsky, Joseph, trial 617 optimism about 6 Brotherhood of Nations, concept of 500, 501, see also socialism; West, the 505, 510, 512 Carnegie Corporation 22 Baltic states’ exclusion from 506 Carpatho-Ukraine, Republic of (1939) 535 Broun, Heywood 18 Carr, E.H. (1892–1982), historian 22, 33–4, 36 Brown, Archie 42 Carter, Jimmy, US President 54, 312 Brumberg, Abraham 21, 374 cartoons, anti-German 602 Brusilov, General Aleksei, 1916 offensive 97 Castro, Fidel 271, 285 Bryant, Louise, radical 8 casualties Brzezinski, Zbigniew 1921–3 famine 148, 166 deﬁnition of totalitarianism 22, 27, 31, 52, 55 1932–3 famine 196 as US national security adviser 54 civil war 166, 475 Budennyi, Simeon 257 during deportations 502 Buford, USS (the ‘Red Ark’) 9 First World War 416 Bukhara, captured by Bolsheviks 151 German in Second World War 224 Bukharin, Nikolai 144, 191, 246, 719 Soviet civilian deaths under German and Academy of Sciences 556 occupation 226 and Comintern 645 Soviet deaths in Second World War 225–7 and London science conference 561 see also death rate and prospect of Italian revolution 638 Catholic Church Road to Socialism 706 in Lithuania 541 and Stalin 185, 186 in Poland 312, 686 support for NEP 185–7, 194, 247, 421 Caucasus see Armenia; Azerbaijan; Georgia; trial (1938) 723 Transcaucasia view of class revolution 716, 720 Caucasus, North Bukovina, Northern, Soviet invasion 658 ethnic conﬂict in 503 Bukovina province, Ukraine 530 see also Chechnya; Dagestan to Romania 530, 534 Ceaus¸escu, Nicolae 341 Bulgakov, Mikhail 620 censorship 208–9 Master and Margarita 598 abolished (1990) 632 Bulganin, Nikolai 242, 263 inconsistencies 620 as deputy to Stalin 265 relaxation of (pre-revolution) 581 and Khrushchev 277, 285 relaxation under Khrushchev 612 and Politburo 260 Second World War 603 and Suez 285 State Security (MGB) control over 668 Bullitt, William, US ambassador to USSR 13 under Brezhnev 618 Bunin, Ivan 620 under martial law (First World War) 99 ‘Bureau for Sociopolitical Enlightenment’ censuses (Provisional Government) 111 1926–37 200 bureaucracy 1937 203 as basis of Stalinist state 17, 51 Russia (2002) 409

798

Index

Central Asia Cheka, terror commission 146, 214 anti-European uprisings (1916) 151 Cheliabinsk, Siberia, population growth 201 and civil war 497 Cheremukhin, N. A., armed repression in ﬁlm-making 625 Saratov province (1919) 161 industrialisation 401 Cherenkov, P. A., physicist 559 labour camps 202 Chernenko, Konstantin 309, 688 nationalisms in 343 as General Secretary 317–19 policies towards women 56, 174 and succession to Brezhnev 314 post-independence states 518 Cherniaev, Anatolii, foreign policy adviser to Soviet Union as vanguard in 675, 681 Gorbachev 338, 347 Central Committee Chernobyl’ nuclear disaster (1986) 323, 542, and 1928 ‘emergency measures’ 247 574–5 ageing (1970s) 309 Chernomyrdin, Viktor 359, 368 economic departments abolished (1988) 329 as prime minister 371, 374 expansion under Brezhnev 301, 618 Chernov, Viktor Gorbachev and 697 centrist SR leader 124 Central Committee International as chair of Constituent Assembly 138 Department (CCID) 683, 695 Chiang Kai-shek, Chinese nationalist 642, 643, relations with MFA 685–7 652, 655 Central Control Commission 245, 248 captured 653–4 see also State Control Commission USSR support for 667 Central Executive Committee of the Soviets Chicago, University of 22 (VTsIK) 126, 246 Chicherin, Georgii, commissar for foreign and All-Russian Soviet of Peasant Deputies affairs 640, 646 137 child support laws 209 Lenin and 134 childcare Central Industrial region centres 480, 488, 489, 492 peasant out-migration 443 collective 172, 180 workers’ ‘symbiosis’ with village life 444 mothers’ role in 209 Chadaev, Iakov 254 children, destitute and orphaned 475 Chaianov, Aleksandr Vasilevich (1888–c.1938) from mass deportations 203 421 police control over 214 Chaliapin, Fedor 582 street 172 Chamberlain, Neville, British prime minister from Volga famine 172 655, 657 China 641–3 Chamberlin, William Henry (1897–1969), arms supplies to 654 Christian Science Monitor border clashes (1969) 306, 691 correspondent 15 civil war (1945–7) 667 Chambers, Whittaker 35 Communist party (CCP) 652 Chancellery for Civilian Administration 98 destruction of communist movement Chapaev (ﬁlm) 208, 587, 597 (1927) 199, 246, 643 Chardynin, Piotr 583 and end of Cold War 698 charivari (vozhdenie) rituals 86 Hundred Flowers campaign 681 Chase, Stuart, economist 14 identity relations with 688–90, 691 Chechens Khrushchev and 284, 680–1 allowed to return 282 market reforms 698 deportations of 502, 503 and Stalin 274, 667, 671–2 to Central Asia 202, 226, 401 Stalinist model 682, 689 Chechnya 346, 519 as surrogate vanguard 672, 690 declaration of secession (1992–4) 364–6 treaty of alliance (1950) 672 invasion (1999) 376–7, 378, 520 and Vietnam 673 Putin’s policy on 378 war with Japan 653 Russian invasion (1994–6) 365, 519–20 Chior, Pavel, Moldova 537

799

Index

chrezvychaishchina (government based on Marxist narrative of 706–7 mass terror) 153 and nationalism 131 Chubais, Anatolii 361, 369, 370 and revolutionary consciousness 48, 49 Chubar, Vlas 249, 251 and victory of socialism 205, 211, 214, Chukhrai, Grigorii 723 Ballad of a Soldier 281, 614 women and 482 The Forty-first 614 see also class leadership; proletariat; Churbanov, Yuri 314 workers church class conflict 159, 160, 418 separation from state 156 exacerbated (1917) 128–30 see also Orthodox Church and Stalin’s attack on kulaks and Nepmen Churchill, Winston 9, 657 189, 195, 721–2 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) 21 class consciousness funding for CENIS 30 development of 444 cinema see film industry; films of industrial workers (1917) 121, 451 Cinematographers’ Union 630 class leadership cities Bolshevik concept of 720 ‘closed’ 241, 303, 401 Khrushchev’s redefinition of 728 nuclear 572 and ‘Who-Whom?’ (kto-kogo) scenario ‘open’ 303 718–19, 720, 721–2 science 572 Clem, Ralph S., The Soviet West 522 see also towns and urban areas coal production 194, 386 civic education 11, 24 coalminers civil rights, as goal of liberals 73 militancy (1990s) 464–5 civil society strike (1989) 463 changes in pre-revolutionary Russia coercion 77–80 Bolshevik justification of 158, 159, 720 emergence under Khrushchev 291 Gorbachev’s refusal to use 349 and parastatal organisation in First World Stalin’s use of 243 War 105–7 to force peasants to sell grain (1928) 188 repression of 167 see also repression; violence, state civil war (1918–22) 143–51, 497 Cohen, Stephen F. 50 de-urbanisation 163, 167, 170 Cold War 682–91 devastation of 166–7 and collapse of USSR 61–2 effect on development of Bolshevik and concept of totalitarianism 23 party-state 153, 167 end of 336–42, 697 historiography 140–2 factors in end of 336–7 labour discipline 449 Khrushchev’s attempts to reduce tensions loss of industrial workers 445–6 285 and nationalities 496 professional Sovietology 20–2 origins of 143 and revisionist historiography 43–4 role of international intervention 112, 145, and US policy 43 638 and Western assumption of Soviet see also War Communism expansionist ambitions 20–1, 25 class see also detente;´ foreign policy as basis of privileges and repression 211 collective farms (kolkhozy) 195, 303, 398, 420 Bolshevik application to transformation of less formal structure 430 countryside 159, 160, 418, 718–22 low productivity of 302 in Bolshevik ideology 157, 164, model 179, 186 713–18 and privatisations 435 and fear of bourgeoisie 714 collectivisation 192, 194–8, 398–400, 420–6, and food rationing 158 721 and identity 129 concession on private plots 424

800

Index

costs of 197 criticism of (under Gorbachev) 325 extent of 196 decline of 379 and nationalities 501, 539 and social democracy 694 relaxation of rules 196 Western interpretations of Soviet 33–7 social effects of 197, 446 Communist Academy 554, 556 women’s resistance to 423–4, 477–9 Communist International see Comintern see also agriculture communist parties Columbia University, Russian Institute 21, 22 and change of Comintern strategy 640, 645 COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic in decolonising countries 690 Assistance) trade bloc 306, 403 emergence from Western Social comedy Democracy 8, 706 cartoons 602 and world research movement 687 estrada (revue) 626 Communist Party Cominform (1947) 666, 669 banned (1991) 356 abolition (1956) 675 and Comintern 637, 644 and Tito 670 control over NKVD and police 215 Comintern (Communist International) ‘Cultural Revolution’ 593–4 and China 653 declining support for 199 and communism in China 643 economic intervention 391 move to Left 644–5 fear of peasant autonomy 420 relations with Narkomindel 639–40 hierarchical control within 297, 327 relationship to Communist Party 644 intolerance of rival socialists 144, 165 role and purpose of 636–7 Khrushchev’s division into agriculture and Sixth Congress (1928) 645 industry branches 279, 280, 288 Commissariat of Enlightenment loss of monopoly power 328, 344 (Narkompros) 584, 589 membership of 153–4 and education under Bolsheviks 586 merger with RCs (1920) 144 Commissariat of Food Supply (Narkomprod) Nineteenth Party Conference (1988) 321, 158 325, 326, 340–1 Commissariat for Foreign Affairs patronage in 310 (Narkomindel), relations with perception of threats 213–14, 258 Comintern 639–40 and problem of accounting for Stalinism Commissariat of Local Affairs 152 725–7 Commissariat of Nationalities (Narkomnats) proportion of nationalities in 176 149, 151 purges (1920–1) 154 Committee to Save the Constituent Assembly and resistance to break-up of Union 347–8 (Komuch), in Samara 144 Russian national domination of 211 commodities see also Central Committee; Communist consumer goods 456, 488, 489 Party Congresses; Communist Party shortages 198, 249, 302, 310, 400, 455 of the Russian Federation; Politburo; stores for Soviet elite 302–4 Stalinism subsidised 302 Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine see also black markets (CP(b)U) 535 Commonwealth of Independent States 349, Communist Party Congresses 406, 516, 703–4 Eighth (1919) 152 commune (obshchina) organisation (in Tenth (1921) 168 villages) 86, 389, 412–13 Eleventh (1922) 181 reforms (1906) 88, 388, 415–16 Twelfth (1923) 182 return to 416, 417 Seventeenth (1934) 205, 650 ‘commune state’, Lenin’s vision of 134 Eighteenth (1939) 252, 266 communications 192 Nineteenth (1951) 263 see also information; media Twentieth (1956) 268–9 communism Twenty-Second (1961) 281, 284, 728

801

Index

Communist Party Congresses (cont.) Council of Defence (Bolsheviks’) 111 Twenty-Third (1966) 298 Council of Europe 704 Twenty-Fourth (1971) 301 Council of Ministers (Sovmin) 260–1 Twenty-Fifth (1976) 308 Buro of the Presidium 263 Twenty-Sixth (1981) 314, 321 Council of People’s Commissars (October Twenty-Seventh (1986) 321 1917) (Sovnarkom) 137 Twenty-Eighth (last) (1990) 330 armed opposition to 143 Communist Party of the Russian Federation Stalin as head of 240 366, 367, 702 Council for Security and Cooperation in and premiership of Primakov 375, 377 Europe (CSCE) 704 revival of 368 Counts, George (1889–1974) 14 Communist Youth League (Komsomol) 455, The Country of the Blind (with Lodge) 24 593 Crimea, transferred to Ukraine 283, 509 women’s section 174 Crimean Tatars computers, technological lag in 572 allowed to return 282, 502 ‘comrade’, as form of address 129 demonstration in Moscow (1987) 345 Congo, Khrushchev and 285 deported to Central Asia 202, 401, 502 Congress of People’s Deputies 327, 344 Jadidist 151 communists within 362 petition (1968) 512 elections (1989) 327–8, 544 Cripps, Sir Stafford 658, 660–1 and opposition to economic reforms 359, Crossman, Richard, (ed.) The God that Failed 360, 361, 362 35 Yeltsin and 356, 361–3 Cuba Conquest, Robert 39–40, 52, 500 Bay of Pigs (1961) 287 conscription Khrushchev and 285 First World War 95 military support for Angola 308 Second World War 238 missile crisis (1962) 287–8, 296 Constituent Assembly 109, 137 ‘cultural turn’ 57 closure of 139, 144 culture elections 122, 146 adaptations 590 Constitutional Democratic Party see Kadets amateur arts 599–600 consumer culture American inﬂuence (1920s) 171, 590 among peasants 88 artists’ trade unions 594, 596, 600 development of 79, 400, 403, 468 Bolshevik policies on 155–7, 583–5 in early years of NEP 171 and capitalist ‘decadence’ 187 women and 469 counter-culture 626–7 contraception 476, 481, 489 dominance of Russian 211, 304, 495 ‘convergence thesis’ 20, 32 European inﬂuence on 281, 579, 590 Coolidge, Archibald Cary (1866–1928), glasnost’and629–34 historian 10 historical themes 613–14, 622 co-operative farms (kolhozy) 195, 303 individualism and private morality 615 co-operatives intelligentsia and 579–80 co-optation of (1919) 158 Khrushchev’s policies on 280–2, 675 Law on (1988) 333 kolkhoz prose, rural sentimental 609, 613 rural 178, 186, 389 mass entertainment 79 corporal punishment, abolished (1904) and morality 206–10, 607 88 national 210 corruption 153 political critics 596 Bolshevik government and 154–5 popular 582–3, 596, 603–4, 609 in state economy 199 post-war repression 605–10, 682 under Brezhnev 310, 314 proletarian 592–4 in Yeltsin’s economic reforms 371 Proletkul’t 155, 585 Cossacks, in White Army 143 reversal of thaw (under Brezhnev) 298–9

802

Index

science as alien to 549 death rate 170 and Second World War 600–3 among urban industrial workers 83 socialist realism 207–8, 594–600 Deborin, A. M., dialectician 555, 557 stagnation (1967–85)(zastoi) 617–29 ‘decadence’, in pre-revolutionary culture 79 Stalinist xenophobia 211, 605–10 defeatism, punishment of 231 state control over 207, 208–9, 604, 612 defence industry 193 state support for 592–3 concentration of scientiﬁc research on thaw (1953–67) 281, 288–9, 610–17, 675, 572–3, 576 682 Five-Year Plan 397 see also art; ﬁlms; literature; music; post-war 241–2, 300, 308, 337 propaganda; theatre wartime production 234, 238 currency see also nuclear weapons reforms 170, 427 defencism ruble no longer convertible (1926) 393 ideology of 105 stabilisation 391 revolutionary 108, 110 Custine, Marquis de 7 Demichev, Petr 288 cybernetics 570 democracy Czechoslovak legionnaires 144 and aims of February Revolution 119–20 Czechoslovakia and Bolshevik coup 138, 139 crisis (1938) 219, 654 in former Soviet states 354 federal form of 343 Gorbachev’s interest in 320–1 and Hungarian uprising 679 in industry 163 relations with USSR 669 as norm of modernisation 29 ‘special path to socialism’ 670, 671 prospects for 19, 354, 379–80 suppression of 1968 ‘Prague Spring’ 41, Putin and 379, 380 299–300, 306 democratic centralism, end of 328 Transcarpathian Ukrainians in 530, 534–5 Democratic Centralists (DC) 152 Democratic Choice of Russia party 368 dachas, spread of ownership of 402 Democratic Conference (14–19 September Dagestan 520 1917) 133 Chechen invasion (1999) 376, 520 Democratic Russia movement 330 Dalian 667 demography Dallin, Alexander (1924–2000) 33 effect of collectivisation on 400–1 Dan, Fedor 171 effect of economic policies on 385–6 dance halls 599 effect of post-Soviet economy on 408–9 Daniel’, Iulii 298 see also population trial 617, 682 Deng Xiaoping 691 Daniels, Robert Vincent 30, 38 market reforms 698 Daud, Mohammed, Afghanistan 311, 691 Denikin, General Anton, commander of Davies, Joseph E., US ambassador to USSR 18 Whites 112, 146, 496 Mission to Moscow 19 Denmark, German invasion 657 Davies, R.W. 34, 36 Department of Propaganda 636 Davies, Sarah 54 deportations Davis, Jerome, sociologist 12 during Second World War 502–3 de-Stalinisation 276–7, 614, 725–7 of kulaks and peasants 195, 201, 203, 400–1 and Eastern Europe 677 of nationalities and ‘socially dangerous’ end of 298 elements 202, 212, 401, 427, 502–3 of ‘woman question’ 485–90 and returns under Khrushchev 282, 502 de-urbanisation, civil war 163, 167, 170 social disruption and disorder resulting Dean, Vera Micheles 13 from 203–5 death penalty of suspected collaborators 239 executions under Stolypin 69 war deaths as result of 226 Kerensky’s restoration of 132 from western republics 538

803

Index

desertions Dolmatovskii, Evgenii 598 on Eastern Front 231 Donbass coalﬁelds 386 imperial army 97, 125 Dostoevsky, Fedor 634 Red Army 160 Dotsenko, Viktor 634 detente´ 54, 305–8 Douglas, Paul, labour economist 13 Brezhnev’s vision of 305–7 Dovzhenko, Aleksandr 596, 625 decline of 307 Earth 398 and Third World 307–8 Liberation 601 see also Cold War Dreiser, Theodore, novelist 12, 18 Deutscher, Isaac (1907–67) 33, 35–6 Druzhba narodov (journal) 622 Deutscher, Tamara 34 ‘dual power’ 115, 116 development Dubcek,ˇ Alexander, Czechoslovakia 299 and democracy 29 Duclos, Jacques, French communist 657 and post-colonialism 29 Dudayev, General Johkar 519–20 Stalinism as stage in 50 declaration of Chechnya’s independence Dewey, John 14, 15, 19 364, 365 American Committee for the Defense of Dudintsev, Vladimir, Not by Bread Alone 281, Leon Trotsky 17 727–8 Diagilev, Sergei 582 Dunaevskii, Isaak, composer 597 dictatorship of the proletariat 52 Durant, Will, historian 14 difference Duranty, Walter, New York Times and identity relations with China 688–90 correspondent 12 limits of (Hungary) 678 Durkheim, Emile 29 Stalinist fear of 666, 667 Dzerzhinsky, Feliks toleration of (1953–6) 673–5 head of Cheka 146 see also Soviet identity statue destroyed (1991) 352 Dimitrov, Georgii, Comintern 650, 657, Dziuba, Ivan, Ukrainian dissident 541 686 disease 455 Eastern Europe (Soviet bloc) among urban industrial workers 83 calls for economic reform 299–300 dissidents COMECON trade bloc 306, 403 as accomplices in Western plots against demands for independence 337, 342 socialism 667–8 economic weakness 308 Eastern Europe 307 Gorbachev’s view of 336, 340, 697–8 repression of 298, 319, 682 and Helsinki Accords (1975) 307 and science 573–4 independence (1989) 341 western republics of USSR 522, 540–2 institutions 668 district (uezd) committees, formed after purges 671 February Revolution 117 relations with Moscow 664–5, 669, 675, divorce 676 Bolshevik laws on 173, 473, 476 Soviet control over 665–6 rates 489, 492 state autonomy in 26, 41, 539 re-liberalisation (1950s) 486 Eastman, Max, journalist 16, 19 reversal of liberalisation 209, 481, 484 L’Echo de Paris, on Bolsheviks 9 Djilas, Miloslav 667 economic reform (from 1987) Dnieprostroi, hydroelectric dam at 193 500-day Plan (1990) 334–5, 405 Dniester Republic 546, 548 attempts at macroeconomic stabilisation Dobb, Maurice (1900–76) 33 359–61 Dobrynin, Anatolii 338, 693 effect on republics 514 as ambassador in Washington 686 failure of 331–5, 702 as CCID secretary 695, 697 Gorbachev’s policies 321, 333–4, 404–5 Doctors’ Plot (1952–3) 264, 267, 274, 508, 668 insider privatisations 333, 360 public declaration of error 674 Law on Co-operatives (1988) 333, 335

804

Index

Law on Individual Economic Activity bankruptcy of (1991) 358, 366 (1986) 333 budget deficits 372 Law on the State Enterprise (1987) 333, 404, effect of break-up of Soviet Union on 463 supplies 408 monetary reforms 360 inflation 372 moves away from central planning (late international debt 372, 374 1980s) 333–4, 384 loans-for-shares schemes 371, 407 perestroika 404–6, 463–4 recovery (1999) 379 privatisation of large state enterprises 360–1 short-term bonds (GKOs) 373–4 prospects for (1991) 354 Eden, Anthony, UK prime minister 285 prospects for (1996) 370 edinolichniki (private peasant farms), survival threat by Primakov to reverse 375 of 196, 206 uskorenie (acceleration) under Gorbachev edinonachalie (one-man management) 459, 320, 334, 404, 462 460 Yeltsin’s move to market economy 358 education see also economy, post-Soviet Bolshevik 586 economics, and mathematics 570 co-education 473, 484 economy 383–6 curriculum reform 586 assessment of Soviet experiments 409–10 expansion of 468 and barriers to technological innovation higher, for women 479, 484 567 Khrushchev’s reforms 510–11 central planning 169–70, 198, 279, 300, 383 in national languages 499, 536 commodity shortages 198, 249 rural schooling 88, 428, 431 crisis of 1917 128 rural women 489 decentralisation experiment (under Stalinist expansion of 206–7, 400 Kosygin) 299 vocational training 400, 456 delusional information about 395–6, 684 see also literacy; universities economic councils (sovnarkhozy) 158, 279 Efimov, Boris, cartoonist 602 effect of Second World War on 227, 233–4, Egorov, Iurii, They Were the First 614 241, 402 Egorov, M.A. 504 failure to revive (1970s) 308, 405 Egypt 681 inter-war (self-contained) 219–21 Khrushchev’s visit 285 Khrushchev’s policies 277–83, 289, 402–3 Soviet support for (1973) 307 long-term instability 384 Ehrenburg, Ilya political intervention in 157, 385 novelist 602, 610 post-Stalinist 402–4 The Thaw 281, 674 post-war concentration on defence 241–2 Eikhe, Robert Indrikovich 251 prescriptive visions of 409 Eisenhower, Dwight D., US president 286–7 private trading 169, 180, 187, 198 Eisenstein, Sergei, film-maker 208, 606 and pursuit of modernisation 384–5 Aleksandr Nevsky 601 stagnation (1970s–1980s) 308, 310, 319, 383 Battleship Potemkin 592 state markets 198 Ivan Groznyi 608 tsarist 157, 386 and Richard Wagner’s Die Walkure¨ 601 under Brezhnev 302–3, 403–4 Strike 592 War Communism 147, 157–63, 164, 390–1 Ekaterinburg see Sverdlovsk see also collectivisation; economic reform El Salvador 698 (from 1987); economy, post-Soviet; elections Five-Year Plans; industry; New parliamentary (1999) 377 Economic Policy (NEP) and popular politics 330 economy, post-Soviet 406–9 referendum on Federation constitution assessment of transition 406–7 364, 366 attempts at stabilisation 372–4 regional (postponed 1991) 358 August 1998 crisis 371–4 Russian Federation (1993–6) 366–71

805

Index

elections (cont.) economy 532 Russian presidential (1996) 369–70 First World War 95, 525 to Communist Party, manipulation of 152 incorporated in USSR 505 to Congress of People’s Deputies (1989) inter-war independence 150, 525, 533 327–8 land privatisation 437, 438 to Duma (1993) 363 liberal democracy 354, 518 to legislatures of republics (1990) 328 National Front 512 to Presidency (indirect) 328 nationalism 131, 543, 545 to Soviet legislature (1989) 329 post-Soviet independence 346, 546 see also political parties Revolution of 1905 525 electoral law Russians in 506, 547 reforms (1907) 69 Estonian Popular Front (1988) 543 Russian Federation 363, 367 Estonian Progressive People’s Party 525 electronics 572 Estonian Social Democratic Workers’ Party elites 525 and communes 418 Ethiopia 308, 314 identification with Europe 683 ethnic minorities see nationalities initial reaction to outbreak of First World ethnography, in Stalinist USSR 210 War 95 Eurobonds 373 nationalist 109 Eurocommunism 683, 694 women 470 Gorbachev and 697 emigration Europe during civil war 166, 390 balance of power 95 Jews 307, 508, 512 and Brezhnev’s Peace Programme from post-Soviet Russia 408, 576 306 from tsarist Russia 386, 387 cultural influence on Russia 579, 590 from western regions (Second World War) fear of ‘contagion’ of revolution 111 538 Little Entente (1934) 649 emigr´ es´ political geography 495 radicalisation of 99 relations with USA 675 return of (1917) 109 see also West, the empires European Union and international trade 219 and Baltic States 518, 547 Stalinist view of imperialism 665 enlargement 408 employers’ organisations 84 Evlogii, Archbishop 99 employment Evtushenko, Evgenii 615, 616 job security (under Brezhnev) 301–2 ‘Heirs of Stalin’ 616 post-Soviet unemployment 466 ‘Zima Station’ 612 unemployment under NEP 391, 393, executions 450 of imperial army officers 109 energy production 194 of Jews 609 see also coal; natural gas; oil under Stolypin 69 Engels, Friedrich 552 see also Great Purges; show trials enterprise paternalism 458–62 Extraordinary Commission to Combat entrepreneurs 405 Counter-revolution and Sabotage environment, degradation of 408, 410 (Cheka) 146 environmentalist movements 542 Ezhov, N. I., head of political police 212, 214, Ermash, Filip 624 215 Erofeev, Viktor 628, 633 Ezhovshchina see Great Purges Esenin, Sergei 589 Estonia 495, 524–6 Fadeev, Aleksandr deportations (1940s) 505–6, 538 Rout 595 dissidents 542 Young Guard 595, 608

806

Index

Fainsod, Merle 27 socialist realism in 596–7 How Russia is Ruled 25 The Amphibious Man 616 Smolensk Under Soviet Rule 25 ‘trophy’ German and American 607 families under zastoi 624–6 Bolshevik legislation on 173–4, 472–3 see also Eisenstein collective child-rearing ideal 180 Filonov, Pavel 582 collective rights in communes 413 Finland 676 hierarchies within 413 communism in 664 household organisation 86, 412, 445 independence 150, 495 patriarchy within 413, 468 and Japan 652 return to traditional model 209–10, 476–7 nationalism in 130, 149 family law codes Soviet war in 18, 222, 228, 236, 656 1926 Family Code 173, 476 Finns 1936 209, 481–2 deportations 202, 502 1944 484, 486 nationalism among 91, 102 1968 488, 490 First All-Russian Congress of Soviets (June 1992 bill defeated 493 1917) 123 famine First Congress of Peasant Soviets (May 1917) 1921–311, 148, 162, 166, 171–2, 178 123 1931–3 Ukraine 16, 40, 196, 398, 424, 500, 536 First International 707 1946–7455, 664 First World War 94, 219 death tolls 148, 166, 196, 201 Bolshevik demand for peace 135–6 Farrell, James T., novelist 17, 19 and Bolshevik view of socialism 714 fascism Eastern Front 95 comparison with Marxism 24–5 and effect of revolution in Russia 107–11 effect of rise of on Western ideological German occupation of borderlands (1918) loyalties 17, 649 111–13 Popular Front against 650–2 Great Retreat (1915) 100, 104 Fatherland-All Russia political coalition 377 June offensive (1917) 109 Federation Council (1990) 329 and labour migration 387 Federation Council, Russian Federation (1993) military campaigns (1914–16) 96–7 363 munitions crisis 96, 104 elections to 366 outbreak of 94–6 Filev, Anatolii 686 and peasants 416–17 ﬁlm industry 582, 591–2, 600, 624 politics of war 104–7 in decline 631–2 Provisional Government’s policy (1917) and glasnost’ 630 122–6 Soiuzkino organisation 596 women in industry 471 ﬁlms 208, 582 Fischer, Louis (1890–1977), The Nation ‘about agriculture’ 613 correspondent 12, 18 anti-Semitic 608 Assignment in Utopia 16 anti-Western 608 The Soviets in World Affairs 16 French cinema week (1955) 611 Fischer, Ruth 35 historical 613–14 Fitzgerald, F. Scott 15 Hollywood 171, 591 Fitzpatrick, Sheila 51–2, 53, 57, 58 Moscow International Film Festival (1959) Five-Year Plan, First (1928–32) 611 assessment of 397–8 musical 599 bureaucracy for 395 pirated foreign videos 627 Gerschenkron effect (on data) 397 portrayal of women 623 intention of rapid economic growth 394 republican studios 625–6 investment in heavy industry 193 Russian nationalist rewriting 608–9 and labour productivity 396–7 screening of previously forbidden 324, 630 Stakhanovism 396

807

Index

Five-Year Plan, First (1928–32)(cont.) as superpower 682–91 targets and budgets 395–6 and threat of Nazi Germany 648–50 Western enthusiasm for 14 see also Cold War; international relations; workers’ enthusiasm for 54 Soviet identity Five-Year Plans 394–8 Foucault, Michel 57, 59 Fokin, Mikhail 582 France 219 folk traditions 500 academic study of Russia 7 music 599 anti-fascism 651–2 and rural religion 87 and Far East 646, 652 Food Army (Prodarmiia) 159 Front Populaire 651 food supplies and perception of threat 662 after February Revolution 117 policy against international communism food crimes (1941) 229 645, 646 forced requisitioning of (1919) 161–2 relations with 645, 646–7, 649–50, 651–2 problems under Bolshevik government surrender (1940) 657 158–63 Francis, David, US ambassador to Russia 9 rationing 158 Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, assassination of Second World War 233 95 subsidised 302 Frank, I.M., physicist 559 see also grain Frankfurt School 28 Footman, David 36 freedom forced labour 203, 402 cultural 629–34 under Stalinism 193, 400, 401 Gorbachev’s use of word 322 see also Gulag labour camps intellectual 550, 570–1 Foreign Office (British), Information and freedom of speech 323, 715 Research Department (IRD) 39 see also censorship; liberties; press freedom foreign policy French Communist Party (PCF) 645, 651 Afghanistan 311–12, 691–4 French Revolution, symbols of liberty 119 alignment with Weimar Germany 640 Friedrich, Carl (1901–84), political scientist 22, and alliance with Britain (1940) 658–61 55 anti-Japanese front 652–4 Frunze, Mikhail Vasilevich, and Red Army arms reduction talks (1985–8) 339 235 China 641–3, 688–90, 691 Ful¨ op-Miller,¨ Rene´ 42 conflict between revolutionary rhetoric Fundamental Laws (1906) 68 and pragmatism 643–6 and definition of autocratic power 70 detente´ 54, 305–8 Furmanov, Dmitrii, Chapaev 208, 587, 597 as European great power (1992–2001) 699, Futurists 79, 588 700–4 and expectation of world revolution (1917) Gaidai, Leonid, film-maker 624 636–7 Gaidar, Egor 335, 368 fear of France 646–7 market liberalisation plans (1991–2) 358, 360 institutions of 668–9 Galich, Aleksandr 626 natural allies of (1953–6) 675–81 Galicia 95, 99 as normal great power (1985–91) 694–700 expulsion of enemy aliens 99 as part of great power condominium 663–7 nationalism in 529, 534 perception of capitalist encirclement 113, Russian occupation (1914) 96, 99 667–73 scorched earth policy (1915) 99 Popular Front against Fascism 650–2, 654 to Poland 530 purpose of Comintern 636–7 Gardin, Vladimir 583 relations between Comintern and Garst, Roswell, American farmer 278 Narkomindel 639–40 gas see natural gas shift away from revolution in Europe 638–9 Gaugauz Republic (Moldova) 546 and Soviet identity 705 Gaulle, Charles de, French president 286

808

Index

Gazeta-Kopeika (St Petersburg daily and Non-Aggression Pact with USSR (1939) newspaper) 78 18, 221, 659 Gdansk, Poland, Lenin Shipyards strike 313 reunification (1990) 341 Geertz, Clifford 57 rise of Nazism 647–8 gender studies 55 rise of 95, 219 General Secretary science in 562 powers of (late 1980s) 320, 327, 695 Second World War 225, 228 role in central decision-making 685 Germany, East 286 genetics, and Lysenko affair 558–9 and Berlin Ultimatum (1958) 286–7 Geneva Germany, West 286 four-power conference (1955) 285 and Brezhnev 306 US–USSR summit (1985) 339 Gerschenkron, Alexander (1904–78) 38, 384 Genoa Conference (1922) 175 ‘Gerschenkron effect’ (on data) 397 Georgia 95, 354 Getty, J. Arch 53 collectivisation in 423 Gierek, Edward, Polish communist 312, 313 effect of conflict on economy 408 Ginzberg, Evgenia 482 film-making 625 Gitelman, Zvi 56 independence 349, 355, 515 GKO (Gosudarstvennyi Komitet Oborony) (State Mensheviks in 94, 124, 150, 497 Defence Committee) 229, 240, 242, and minorities 92, 515 255 nationalism in 91, 131, 345, 512, 513 autonomy of members 257 relationship to RSFSR 174, 702 compared with Politburo 256 subsumed into Transcaucasian Republic dissolution (1945) 259 (1922) 175 Gladkov, Aleksandr, playwright 606 Gerashchenko, Viktor, head of Russian Gladkov, Fedor, Cement 587, 595 Central Bank 360 Glasgow University, Institute of Soviet and Gerasimov, Gennadii, Gorbachev’s press East European Studies 36 spokesman 341 glasnost’ German, Aleksei, Roadcheck 630 and Chernobyl’ disaster 574–5 German, Pavel, ‘Brick Factory’ 590 concept of 323, 404, 695 German Social Democratic Party (SPD) 709, cultural freedom under 629–34 711, 713 and nationalism 344, 514, 542–4 Germans in Russia and visibility of economic failures 333 deportations 202, 226, 401, 502 Glassboro, summit meeting (1967) 300 popular aggression towards (First World ‘God-Seeking’, spiritual searching 80 War) 100 Gogoberidze, Lana, film-maker 626, 630 Germany Gold Standard, adoption (1897) 386 anti-Comintern pact with Japan (1936) 653 Golder, Frank (1877–1927), historian 11 and Belorussia 528, 538 Goldman, Emma, anarchist 10 and Bolsheviks 135–6, 145, 200 Gomulka, Wladislaw, Poland 312, 676 economy 107, 233 relations with Khrushchev 677 First World War 102 Goncharova, Nataliia 582 capitulation and fall of monarchy (1918) Gorbachev, Mikhail 46, 61, 684 111 agricultural incentive schemes 432–3 invasion of Russia (1917–18) 110 Andropov’s support for 317, 688 offensive on Eastern Front (1914) 96 attempt to preserve Union (1991) 346–8, Schlieffen Plan 96 514 and Georgia 150 attempted coup (August 1991) 347–9 invasion of Soviet Union (1941) 18, 222, 223, aversion to violence 338, 340, 349, 545 225, 230 on Brezhnev era 293 retreat (1942–5) 223 as Central Committee secretary (1978) 310 KPD (Communist party) 647, 648, 649 and democratisation 320–1 Lenin’s hopes for revolution in 636, 637, 639 and economic reform 321, 333–4, 404–5

809

Index

Gorbachev, Mikhail (cont.) state monopoly 127 election as president (1990) 328 taxes (to replace requisitioning) 169, 178, and ending of the Cold War 336–42 419 foreign policy 695–700 see also food supplies introduction of contested elections 327 gramophone 582, 590 meeting with Bush (1989) 341 Gramsci, Antonio 57 move from reform to systemic change Granick, David 31 (perestroika) 325–31 Great Britain 225, 647 and need for scientiﬁc-technical progress alliance negotiations 655, 658–61 574 and Armenia 150 and new freedoms 322–5 and China 643 and normalisation of relations with West Communist Party in 649 699–700 foreign policy interests 219, 662 overview of changes 316 and Georgia 150 plans to remove 331, 357 and India 641 policy on nationalities 513–14, 544 mutual assistance pact (1941) 223 relations with Politburo 317–19 post-war relations with USA 665 resignation address (25 December 1991) relations with Labour administration 645 349–51 relations severed (1927) 200, 246, 643 retreat from economic reform plan 335 as threat to USSR and socialism 663 security concessions 700 trade agreement (1921) 641 and Social Democracy 694 withdrawal from Russia (1919) 638 speech to Central Committee conference Great Depression (from 1929) 219 (1984) 318 Great Purges (Ezhovshchina) 40, 52–3, 212, 213, view of Eastern Europe 336, 340, 697–8 251, 266 view of Khrushchev 291 and arts 598–9, 600 view of ‘path to socialism’ 697, 730 and industry 454 Gorbatov, Boris, journalist 602 labour camps 202 Gorer, Geoffrey 23 mechanisms of 213 Gorky, Maxim 401 operational order no. 447 212 and ‘God-Building’ 82 and perception of threat 213–14 and New Life newspaper 584 Red Army command staff (1937–38) 221, and socialist realism 207, 594 228, 236 Goskino (State Department of Cinema) 624 statistics on 40 Gosplan (state planning agency) 169, 198, 391 xenophobia in 213 and agricultural output quotas 425 see also deportations; purges; repression and Five-Year Plan 395 Grechko, Andrei, minister of defence 307, and perestroika 405 309 Gottwald, Klement, President of Greece, Italian invasion (1940) 659 Czechoslovakia 665 Green movement (peasants) 147 government rebellions (1918–21) 161–2 relations with parastatals (First World Griazodubova, Valentina 480 War) 105, 106 Grinevetskii, V.I. 392 see also Provisional Government Grinevskii, Oleg 684 Grachev, Pavel, defence minister 365, 519 Grishin, Viktor 301, 319, 320 grain Griskeviˇ cius,ˇ Petras 309 crises (1927–8) 188–9, 194, 199 Groman, Vladimir, economist 395 exports to fund industrialisation 188–9, 190, Gromyko, Andrei, foreign minister 307, 326, 194 685, 695 imports from West (1960sand1970s) 279, and Afghanistan 692 288, 306, 431 Grossman, Vasilii 614 procurements in 1930s 194, 197, 394, 398, 422 Forever Flowing 632 quota assessment (Bolshevik) 158 Life and Fate 324

810

Index

Groznyi, Chechnya 377, 519 modernisation theory 293 Guchkov, Aleksander, War Minister in move from political science to social Provisional Government 107 history 37–43 Gulag labour camp colonies 203, 215, 400 oral histories 293 deaths 226 Pokrovsky School of history (1920s) 499 institutional responsibility for 675 post-Soviet 57–64 popular culture in 609 problems of 5–6, 63–4 release of political prisoners (1955) 276 revisionist 43–54 Gumbinnen, Battle of 96 shifts in Gumilev, Nikolai 588, 589 social history of Soviet west 522–3 Guomindang, Chinese nationalist party 642, Hitler, Adolf 652, 653, 667 and invasion of Soviet Union 658, 659 Gurian, Waldemar 23 Non-Aggression Pact with Stalin (1939) 221 Habermas, Jurgen¨ 57 perception of 647, 648 hammer-and-sickle emblem 178 plans for invasion of Britain 658–9 Happy-Go-Lucky Fellows (film) 597 war aims on eastern front 219, 232 Harper, Samuel Northrop (1882–1943) 11, 12, Ho Chi Minh 646, 673 42 Hobsbawm, Eric J., historian 22 The Government of the Soviet Union 12 homosexuality, outlawed 481 Harvard Interview Project 21 Hook, Sidney 19 Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System Hoover, Herbert, US president 11, 172, 647 (Ukraine) 55 Horney, Karen, Neurosis and Human Growth 43 Harvard University, Russian Research Center housing 21, 22 communal 280, 400, 445 harvests 171, 178, 180 Khrushchev’s policies 280, 488 drought (1963) 288 subsidised 302 drought (1975) 308 urban 83 poor (1960s) 279 How the Steel was Tempered (film) 209 Havel, Vaclav,president´ of Czech Republic 577 Hrushevsky, Mykhailo, Ukrainian president Haxthausen, Baron August de 7 496, 530, 536 Hazard, John N. 22 Hughes, H. Stuart 22 health Hughes, Langston (1902–67) 14 infant mortality 470, 491, 542 human rights (liberties) post-Soviet 408, 492 CC Ideology Department and 696 see also disease in Chechnya 377 health care, under Stalinism 206 Helsinki Watch groups 541 Hellman, Lillian 18 Western demands for 307, 312 Helsinki Accords (1975) 307, 312 Hungarian Soviet Republic 145 Helsinki Watch human rights groups Hungary in Lithuania 541 conformity with Moscow 671, 677 in Ukraine 541 economic model 299, 331 Henderson, Loy, American diplomat 13 elections (1947) 666 Herberstein, Sigismund von, Notes upon suppression of 1956 uprising 41, 277, 286, Russia (1517–49) 7 677–9 Hess, Rudolf, flight to Britain 660 and Transcarpathia 535 Hindus, Maurice (1891–1969), journalist 12, 15 Huntington, Samuel P. 29, 32 historiography archives 292 Iabloko party 368 of Brezhnev era 292–5 Ianaev, Gennadii 347 of the civil war 140–2 Ianushkevich, Nikolai, chief of staff (1915) 98, exceptionalism of Sovietology 41 101 methodologies Iaroslavl’ province, peasant out-migration 443

811

Index

Iavlinskii, Grigorii 368 investment (first Five-Year Plan) 193 economic reform plans 334 iron and steel production 194 Iazov, Dmitrii, minister of defence 348 large-scale state 169, 258 ideology 13 and Law on the State Enterprise (1987) 333 centrality of 20, 57 liberalism among managers 460–1 Communist party 156–7 management 459–61 power of 44 nationalisation 158 withering of Marxism-Leninism 344 opposition to economic transformation Ilenko, Iurii, film-maker 625 (1991–2) 359–60 Ilichev, Leonid, ideological adviser to post-war growth 456 Khrushchev 616 and research institutes 572 Imperial Navy, Baltic Fleet at Kronstadt 120 scientists and 551, 558 imperialism secret ‘company towns’ 241 Stalinist view of 665 technological levels 386, 387, 392, 393, 551 and trade 219 trust groupings 169 Independent Miners’ Union 464 under Khrushchev 279–80 India 641 under NEP 190 Khrushchev’s visit 285, 681 under War Communism 157 individualism 62 use of forced labour 401 in cultural thaw 727–8 war mobilisation 106, 230 as liberal goal 73 work force 83, 454 socialist view of 73 reductions 445–6, 466 Indochina 646 workers’ control of 157, 158 Indonesia, Khrushchev’s visit 285 see also defence industry; economy; labour Industrial Party, trial (1930) 560 infant mortality 470, 491, 542 industrialisation 48, 67 inflation deindustrialisation in 1990s 441 1990s 372, 405, 463 Five-Year Plans 394–8, 451 after 1992 price liberalisation 359, 435 and formation of urban proletariat 440 crisis of 1917 128 and growth of urban working population and currency reform 170 83, 387 hidden 198 and rearmament 220–1, 238 information tsarist 386–8 institutionalised lack of 683–5 under NEP 187, 190, 394 on military inferiority 696 under Stalin 192, 200 Ingrian peasants, deported to Murmansk western republics 539 401 industrialists Ingush people and February Revolution 121 allowed to return 282 reaction to 1917 strikes 129 deportations 401, 502, 503 industry and Ossetians 515 collapse of (1918–19) 164, 167, 390 Inkeles, Alex 55 consumer goods 488 Institute of Europe 696 cost-accounting (khozraschet) system for Institute of Global Economics and factories 169, 404, 450 International Relations (IMEMO) 658, councils of labour collectives (STKs) 463 687, 696 efficiencies 456 institutions enterprise paternalism 458–62 effect on Russian character 7 factory committees of workers (1917) 121, of foreign policy 668–9 129, 163 under Stalin 215 factory provision of housing and food 199, see also State Duma 461 insurance, unemployment 450 falling productivity 308 intellectuals (intelligentsia) foreign investment 306 and Bolshevik cultural policy 155, 579

812

Index

and February Revolution 131 Ivanov, Vsevolod, Armoured Train No.14–69 identification with Europe 683 607 materialist-idealist split 580 Izvestiia newspaper 703 and nationalist protests 512, 540–1 and political ideologies of dissent 72–6 Jackson, Senator Henry M., and and reformist discourse 688 Jackson–Vanik amendment (1974) and Russian culture 579–80 307 and spiritual revivalism 82 Jadid Muslims 150 ‘worker-intellectuals’ 585 James, C.L.R. 19 Inter-Regional Group of Deputies, within Japan 68 Congress 328 anti-Comintern pact with Germany (1936) International Monetary Fund 373 653 international relations conflict with 652–4 arms reduction talks (1985–8) 339 invasion (1918) 636 detente´ 54, 305–8 invasion of Manchuria 647, 652 doctrine of ‘reasonable sufficiency’ of and Nazi–Soviet pact 654 weapons (Gorbachev) 339 Neutrality Pact (1940) 660 interpretation of threat 662 Second World War 219, 222, nature of power in 662–3 223 International Science Foundation troops in Siberia 145 576 war with China 653 International Science and Technology Centre Jaruzelski, General Wojciech, Poland 313 576 jazz 208, 590, 597 internationalism 123 Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (JAC) 507, among radical opposition 105 668 Ioffe, A. A., emissary to China 642 Jews 56, 90 Ioffe, Abram, physicist 558, 564 Autonomous Region in Birobidzhan for and London science conference 561 507 Ioseliani, Otar 626 Babii Yar massacre (Ukraine) 503 Iran, Khomeini revolution (1979) 311 blamed for 1905 unrest 90 Irkutsk, revolutionary committee (March deaths within Soviet Union 226 1917) 117 and Doctors’ Plot (1952–3) 264, 508, iron and steel production 194 668 Isakovsky, Mikhail, lyricist 597 emigration movement 307, 508, 512 Ishmukhamedov, Elier, film-maker 625 executions 609 Iskander, Fazil in First World War 99, 100–2, 387 editor 628, 730 Holocaust deaths 225, 226 ‘Tree of Childhood’ 620 and korenizatsiia 506 Iskra organisation (1900–3) 711–12 massacred by Whites 146 and political liberties 712–13 nationalism among 91–2 split 713 ‘pogroms’ against 90, 506 Iskusstvo kino film journal 608 Stalinist policies against 506–8, 668 Islam see also anti-Semitism Bolshevik government and 150–1 John of Kronstadt, Father (d.1908) 80 fears of post-Soviet fundamentalism 518 John Paul II, Pope 312 Israel, war with Egypt (1973) 307 Johnson, Lyndon, US president 300 Italy, imperial ambitions 219 journalists Ittifak, Tatarstan independence movement accounts of Bolshevik revolution 8 518 accounts of Soviet Russia 10, 15–16 Iudin, Pavel, ambassador to China 680 ideological interpretations by 15–16 Iur’eva, Izabella, singer 598 investigative 630 Ivan Groznyi (film) 208 Second World War 602 Ivanov, Viacheslav 581 Western, disillusionment of 15

813

Index

journals 627, 632 Katyn forest, massacre 538 closed 663 Kautsky,Karl Symbolist 581 The Erfurt Programme 708, 710 Jowitt, Kenneth 60 and theory of Social Democracy 708–9 Kazakhstan 305, 354 Kad´ ar,´ Janos´ 299, 678 and Commonwealth of Independent States Kadets (Constitutional Democratic Party) 73, 516 550, 552 famine (1932–3) 500 defence of imperial-national state 116, 130 industrialisation 401 Provisional Siberian Government 145 nationalism 344, 512 resignation from Provisional Government resistance to collectivisation 423 126 Russians in 501 and second coalition of Provisional Virgin Lands programme 275, 429 Government 126 Kazakhs, in First World War 103 Kafengauz, Lev, economist 395 Kazan’ 151, 414 Kaganovich, Lazar 242, 263, 508, 675 Keenan, Edward 42 and downfall of Beria 726 Keldysh, M.V. 571 and Khrushchev 276, 277, 677 Kemerovo, Siberia, urban growth 201 membership of Politburo 249, 260 Kennan, George 13, 20–1 as party General Secretary in Ukraine 535 Siberia and the Exile System 7 and Stalin 186 Kennedy, John F., US president 287, 288 Kaganovich, M. M. 460 Kent, Rockwell 18 Kaiser, Robert 15 Kerblay, Basile 37 Kalatozov, Mikhail, Cranes are Flying (ﬁlm) 281 Kerensky, Aleksandr 131, 135 Kaledin, General 149 and Kornilov rebellion 132–3 Kalinin, Mikhail 251, 420 preparations for military offensive 125–6 and de-kulakisation 722 Provisional Government 109, 111, 116 and Jewish Autonomous Region 507 Kerner, Robert, historian 13 president of USSR 246, 248 KGB Kalmyks, deportation of 502 power of under Andropov 299 Kaluga province, peasant out-migration 443 resistance to dissolution of USSR 347 Kamenev, L. B. (1883–1936) 125 and transition under Yeltsin 356 and Lenin’s plan to overthrow Provisional Khabarovsk, population growth 201 Government 134 Khalkhin-Gol, battle of (1939) 654 and Stalin 184 Khasbulatov, Ruslan 361 and Trotsky 185, 245 Khiva, captured by Bolsheviks 151 Kandinskii, Vasilii 582 Khizha, Georgii 359 Kania, Stanislaw, Polish communist 313 Khlebnikov, Velimir 588 Kantaria, M.V. 504 Kholodnaia, Vera 583 Kapitsa, P. L. 559, 564 Khomeini, Ayatollah, Iran 311 letter to Khrushchev 567 khozraschet (cost-accounting system) 169, 404, letter to Stalin 566 450 Karachai people, deportation of 502 Khrulev, General 256 Karakhan, Lev, and China 642 Khrushchev, Nikita 26, 242, 683 Karelia and 22nd Congress (1961) 614, 615, 728–9 deportation of Finns from 202 agricultural policies 278–9 Russian settlement 393 Virgin Lands scheme 275, 279, 296, 402, Karmal, Babrak, Afghan Parcham faction 311, 429 693 attempt by ‘anti-party group’ to depose Karpovich, Michael (1888–1959) 38, 39 (1957) 277–8 Katayev, Valentin biography 272–3 For the Power of the Soviets 608 and China 284, 680–1, 689–90 Time Forward! 208, 595 and Cuban Missile Crisis 287–8

814

Index

and cultural thaw 281, 288–9, 610–17, 675, Koestler, Arthur (1905–83), Darkness at Noon 682 18, 62, 324 and de-Stalinisation 276–7, 614 Kohl, Helmut, German chancellor 342 death (1971) 290 Kolbin, Gennadii, Kazakhstan 344, 513 deposition 289–90, 682 Kolchak, Admiral, leader of Whites 112, 145 and economy 402, 683 kolkhozy see collective farms and Kennedy 286, 287 Kollontai, Aleksandra, director of Zhenotdel as leader 270–1, 296, 685 122, 474 legacy 41, 291 kombedy (committees of village poor) 159, 160, and Malenkov 275–6, 277, 675, 679 418 membership of Politburo 252, 265 Kommersant newspaper 703 and Molotov 275, 276 Komsomol (Communist Youth League) 174, and nationalities 282, 509–11 455, 593 and nuclear test-ban treaty 288 Komsomol’sk-na-Amure industrial town 401 personality and rise of 263, 270–2 Konev, Marshal Ivan Stepanovich 679 policies towards women 486–8 Korea 676 and relations with West 272, 285–8 Korean War 241, 672 relations with writers and artists 277, Koreans in eastern Russia, deportations of 280–2, 288–9, 616 202, 401, 502 retreat from cultural thaw (1963) 616 korenizatsiia (indigenisation) 176, 180, 210, role in Stalinism 273 498–9 and science 567–8 and Jews 506 ‘Secret Speech’ (1956) 268–9, 276, 296, 611, Ukraine 535 674 Korneichuk, Aleksandr, journalist 602 and succession struggle 274–8 Kornilov, General Lavr 110 suppression of religion 282 rebellion 132–3 and Third World 284, 681, 690 Korsh theatre 581 and toleration of difference 673–9 Kosior, Stanislav 249, 251, 535 and Ukraine 509 Kosolapov, Richard, editor of Kommunist 318 visits to Beijing 283 Kosovo, NATO war in 703, 704 and Yugoslavia 276, 284 Kostroma province, peasant out-migration Khrushchev, Sergei (son) 269, 279 443 Khutsiev, Marlen 623 Kosygin, Aleksei 297, 309 Ilich’s Gate 616 and Afghanistan 692 Kiev 529 economic decentralisation 299 taken by Germany (1941) 222 Kotkin, Stephen 58 Kiisk, Kaljo,¨ Estonian ﬁlm-maker, Madness 618 Kozin, Vadim, singer 598, 601 Kim Il-Sung, Korea 672 Kozlov, Frol, deputy to Khrushchev 290 Kingissepp, Viktor, Estonian Bolshevik 525 Kozyrev, Andrei, Russian foreign minister 702 Kinoglaz newsreel series 591 Krasin, L. B., Communist party leader 154 Kirgizia republic 393 Krasnoiarsk-26 closed city 401 see also Kyrgyzstan Kraval’, I. A., statistical agency 203 Kirichenko, Aleksei Illarionovich, Ukraine 509 Kravchuk, Leonid, president of Ukraine 347, Kirienko, Sergei, prime minister 371, 374 349, 516, 547 Kirilenko, Andrei 297 Krestinskii, Nikolai 648 and Afghanistan 692 Kriachkov, A. D., architect of Novosibirsk 204 Kirov, Sergei 186, 249 Kritika (journal) 59 murder of (1934) 250 Kritsman, L., on War Communism 157 Kissinger, Henry, US foreign policy adviser Kriuchkov, Vladimir, KGB 348 306, 308 Kronstadt, naval uprising (1921) 148, 166, 168 Klimov, Elem, ﬁlm director 630 Kronstadt soviet, in 1917 118 Knorin, Vil’gel’m Georgievich, Comintern Kruchenykh, Aleksander 588 648, 650 Krymov, Iurii, Tanker Derbent 595

815

Index

kto-kogo (Who-Whom?) scenario of class labour discipline 448–50, 451 leadership 718–19, 720 reforms under Khrushchev 456–7 Stalin’s interpretation of 721–2 labour history 45, 47–9 Kuchma, Leonid, president of Ukraine 547 labour legislation Kuibyshev, Valerian, chair of Central Control labour books (workers’ records) 454 Commission 245, 452 restrictions on job mobility 402 Kukryniksy, cartoonists 602 on working conditions 83 Kulakov, Fedor 301, 310 labour migration kulaks (peasant elite) 179, 394, 421 under Stalinism 446–7 collectivisation as campaign against 195–6, women and 122 201, 203 labour productivity 392, 404 de-kulakisation 213, 398, 400, 721–2 absenteeism 310 demonisation of 421–2 and management 454 Stalin’s view of 189, 194, 419 pre-Revolution 448 Kuleshov, Lev, Adventures of Mr West... (film) production collectives 453 591 Second World War 455 Kulik, Grigorii Ivanovich 257 socialist competition strategy 452–3 Kun, Bela,´ Hungarian revolutionary 145, Stakhanovism 396, 453–4 651 under Brezhnev 457–8 Kunaev, Dinmukhamed, Kazakhstan 301, 305, under Five-Year Plan 396–7 344 under Khrushchev 456–7 dismissed 513 under NEP 450 Kuraev, Mikhail 633 Land Code (1922) 419 Kurapaty forest, Belarus, graves of Stalinist Land decree (October 1917) 136–7 victims 543 land ownership Kurchatov, I.V.,nuclear project 562 among peasants 87 Kursk, German offensive (1943) 223 confiscations (1917–18) 136–7 Kuzbass mining district 464 labour and rights to 412, 436 Kuznetsov, A. A., and Leningrad Affair 261, noble, decline in 87 262 peasant purchases of gentry lands 416 Kuznetsstroi 193 and privatisation of collectives 435, 436–7, Kvirikadze, Irakli, The Swimmer 620 438–9 Kyrgyz (Kirgiz) peoples land reform ethnic conflict in First World War 103 demand for (1917) 127 and Uzbeks 516 illegal seizures by peasants (1917) 127–8 Kyrgyzstan 354 post-Soviet experiments 434 and Commonwealth of Independent States tsarist experiments 388–90 516 Land Statute (1919) 418, 477 Landau, L. D. 559, 561, 564 labour Landsbergis, Vytautas, president of Lithuania and employment security 301–2, 308 545 forced 193, 203, 400, 401, 402 language, Communist ideological 156, gendered division 443, 451, 478, 479 164 militarisation of 158, 454 languages peasant view of 412, 436 Estonian 524 prisoner-of-war 456 and formalisation of minority cultures 210 shortages (Second World War) 402, 454 Hebrew and Yiddish 91 slave 671 and Khrushchev’s reforms 510–11 work force reductions 445–6, 466 Latvian 526 see also workers minority 89, 177, 508, 510 labour camps 202, 274, 400 and nationalism 544 Second World War deaths in 226 Russian made compulsory in schools 499 see also Gulag penal colonies Ukrainian 529

816

Index

Lansing, Robert, US secretary of state 8 and industry 446, 459 Lapidus, Gail 55 and interpretation of ‘smash the state’ Larin, Iurii 717 phrase 715, 716 Larionov, Mikhail 582, 616 Marxism of 75 Lasch, Christopher 6 materialism of 580 Lassalle, Ferdinand, and modern socialism misgivings about Transcaucasian Republic 709 175, 498 Latin America 690 and nationalities 498 Latvia 495, 526–7 and New Economic Policy (NEP) 168, authoritarian regime (1934) 533 181–2, 718 Bolshevism in 526–7 opposition to liberalism and deportations (1940s) 505–6 parliamentarism 124, 137 dissidents 541 and party 712 economy 532 on peasant Green rebellions 161 emigration (pre-First World War) 387 and prospect of world revolution 112, First World War 95, 526 638–9 incorporated in USSR 505 and prospects for socialism 149, 181 inter-war independence 150, 527 realpolitik of 641 liberal democracy 354, 518 return from exile 110, 124 nationalism 131, 345, 510, 543, 545 and Stalin 175–6, 184 post-Soviet independence 346 State and Revolution 134, 152, 715 Russians in 506, 547 Testament 183, 184 strelnieki¯ infantry 526 view of science 552, 553 Latvian Social Democratic Workers’ Party view of worker–peasant co-operation 178, 526 418, 720 Laue, Theodore von (1916–2000) 33 view of workers 448 law see Fundamental Laws What is to be Done? (1902) 75, 712, 713 Law on Co-operatives (1988) 333, 335 Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Law on Individual Economic Activity (1986) Sciences 558, 564 333 Leningrad law, rule of 73 German siege of (1941–5) 222, 226, 229 Law on the State Enterprise (1987) 333, living standards 303 404 population growth 201 League of Foreign Peoples of Russia 102 underground cinema movement 627 League of Nations 649 war deaths 226 Lebed’, General Aleksandr 520 Leningrad Affair (1949) 261–3, 266, 674 Lebedev-Kumach, Vasilii, lyricist 597, 602 Leningrad Institute of Physics and Lee, Andrea 15 Technology 558 legitimacy, laws on 473, 484 Leningrad (journal) 663 Leites, Nathan 23 Leninism, relationship to Stalinism 16, 38, 46, Lemberg see L’viv (L’vov) 50–1 Lena goldﬁelds (Siberia), strikes 70 Leont’ev, Valerii 626 Lenin, V.I. 135, 182, 708 Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole 7 and ambition of revolution in Germany Lewin, Moshe 33, 36–7, 58 636, 637, 639 on Stalinism 50, 52 April Theses 125 Lewis, Sinclair 12 and assassination of royal family 145 Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR) attempted assassination of 145 liberals and Baltic states 638 ‘banquet campaign’ (1904) 68 and China 642 political parties 72–3 and Comintern 637 and traditions of intelligentsia 72 criticism of (under Gorbachev) 325 Liberation of Labour movement 711 illness and death (1924) 182, 183 Liberman, Evsei, economist 289

817

Index

liberties economy 532 political 709, 711, 712 First World War 95, 527 under Gorbachev 322–5 foreign relations 533 see also human rights Great Diet of Vilnius 527 liberty, symbols of (1917) 119 and Hungarian uprising 679 libraries, removal of foreign books incorporated in USSR 505 607 inter-war independence 150 life expectancy 408 liberal democracy 354, 518 Ligachev, Egor 317, 318, 320, 321, 326 National Popular Front 512 and anti-alcohol campaign 332 nationalism 345, 543 criticism of reforms 326 and Poland 527 Likhachev, Dmitrii, Academician 328 post-Soviet independence 346 linguistics 565 relations with Germany 533 Lippmann, Walter 9, 20 relations with Poland 533 Lipset, Seymour Martin, The Political Man 29 Revolution of 1905 527 literacy 192, 206 Russians in 506 among peasants 88, 180 Sajudis popular front 543 among urban workers 83 Taryba national assembly 528 in Estonia and Latvia 524 Litvinov, Maksim and nationalism 343 foreign affairs commissar 646, 655 and popular culture 77, 583 and post-war world 665 rural women 429 view of Hitler 648, 649 spread of 78, 400 Liu Shaoqi 672, 678 Ukraine 536 Lobachevskii, N. I., mathematician 550 literary salons 581 Lobov, Oleg 519 literature local government bleakness of modern 633–4 councils of people’s commissars bowdlerised 607 (sovnarkomy) 152 chernukha 634 liberal goals for 73 and glasnost’ 632–3 organisation after February Revolution Jewish 91 117–19 kolkhoz prose 613 political power during civil war 152 Muslim 92 problems of rural areas 204–5 ‘no conﬂict drama’ 609 Lodge, Nucia, The Country of the Blind (with no longer equated with culture 634–5 Counts) 24 popular 77, 79, 88, 582, 590 Lominadze, Vissarion 249 popular crime stories 583, 627, 634 London, history of science conference (1931) popular ﬁction 627, 633, 634–5 561 production novel (socialist realist) 595 London, University of, School of Slavonic proletarianisation of 593 Studies 10 publication of previously forbidden Luckievic,ˇ Ivan and Anton, Belorussian 324 editors 528 publishing quotas 619 Lukashenka, Aliaksandr, president of Belarus and small-scale reality in 623–4 548 socialist realism in 595, 596 Lukov, Leonid, A Great Life 606 under Bolsheviks 587–9 Lumumba, Patrice, president of Congo 285 see also poetry; writers Lunacharskii, Anatolii 584, 589, 592 Literaturnaia Moskva 281 and ‘God-Building’ 82 Lithuania 495, 527–8 Lutheranism, and literacy 524 authoritarian regime (1926) 532 L’viv declaration of independence 545 L’vov (Lemberg), occupation of 96 deportations (1940s) 505–6 as capital of Galicia 529 dissident movement 541 fall of 97

818

Index

L’vov, Prince G.E. markets chairman of Union of Zemstvos 107 and agriculture 389 as prime minister of Provisional liberalisation 434, 436 Government 107, 116, 123 private trading under NEP 169, 180, 187 Lyons, Eugene (1898–1985), journalist 15 small-scale exchange permitted 205 Lysenko, T. D. 558–9, 563–4 state 198 inﬂuence of 563–4, 568 see also black markets Lysenkoism 569 Markish, Shimon 612 marriage, laws on 468 Maapaev¨ assembly 525 Marriage, the Family and Guardianship Code McCarthy, Senator Joseph 15 (1918) 173 McCarthyism 21 Marshall, George, US secretary of state 666 MacDonald, Dwight 19 Marshall Plan (European Recovery McFaul, Michael 62 Programme) 665, 666 Macmillan, Harold, British prime minister martial law (1914) 97–100 286 expulsion of enemy aliens 99 Magnitogorsk, creation of 193, 401 occupation policy 99 Maiskii, Ivan, Soviet ambassador in London and political control over civilian 658, 665 population 99 Makanin, Vladimir 619 in provinces (1917) 128 Makhno, Nestor, Ukrainian anarchist 149, 497 Martov, Iulii (Tsederbaum) L., Marxism of 74 Maklakov, Nikolai, interior minister (1914) 98 internationalist Menshevik 123 Malenkov, Georgii 242, 252, 261, 263 Martyrology of Belarus Association 543 demotion 675 Marx, Karl as deputy to Stalin 265 criticism of (under Gorbachev) 325 economic strategy 299 and narrative of class 706 and foreign policy 283 Marxism and formation of GKO 255 and class narrative 706–7 and Molotov 259 comparison with fascism 24–5 rivalry with Khrushchev 275–6, 277, 679 and dialectical materialism 555, 557, 569 Malevich, Kazimir 582 and formation of urban proletariat 440 Malia, Martin (1924–2004) 39, 46, 271 and science 552, 554–5, 557–8, 565–6, 569 The Soviet Tragedy 57 as theory of modernisation 29 Malinovka, Saratov province 161 US view of 20 malnutrition 455 Marxist Russian Social Democratic Workers’ Malraux, Andre´ 35 Party 68, 74 Mamin, Iurii, The Fountain 631 see also Bolsheviks; Mensheviks Mamontov family, as arts patrons 581 Marxists Manchuria, Japanese invasion 647, 652 as political opposition (to 1914) 74–6 Mandel’shtam, Osip 588, 598 and spiritual revivalism 82 Mansurov, Bolat, ﬁlm-maker 625 view of proletariat 82 Manuilov, Andrei Appolonovich, minister in Maskhadov, Aslan, president of Chechnya 520 Provisional Government 107 Masliukov, Yurii, economic minister 375 Manuil’skii, Dmitrii Zakharevich, Comintern mass politics, replacement of class politics by 657 23 Mao Zedung 643, 652, 653 Massell, Gregory J. 56 ‘great leap forward’ 689 Masurian Lakes, First Battle of 96 relations with Khrushchev 283–4, 680 Masurian Lakes, Second Battle of 97 and Stalin 274 materialism visit to Moscow (1949) 672 dialectical (Marxism) 555, 557, 569 visit to Moscow (1957) 283 discontent with and spiritual revivalism Marinina, Aleksandra 634 81–2 market economy, move towards 358, 360 and political radicalism 580

819

Index

maternity leave 473, 475, 486 women 431, 489 additional 490, 491 see also emigration; urbanisation for agricultural workers 477 Mikhail, Grand Duke, refusal to take throne reduced 481 115 mathematics, and economics 570 Mikhailov, P., popular singer 208 Mayakovsky, Vladimir 588 Mikhoels, Solomon, actor 507 Mead, Margaret 23 execution (1948) 609 Mechnikov, I. I., Nobel prizewinner Mikoyan, Anastas 242, 249, 263 550 and deposition of Khrushchev 290 media see press; television and fall of Beria 726–7 Medvedev, R. A. 570 and foreign policy-making 668 Medvedev, Vadim 325, 338 and Hungary 678 Mehnert, Klaus, German sociologist 13 and Khrushchev 275, 276 Mekhlis, Lev Zakharevich 257 and Molotov 259 Mel’nikov, Leonid, Ukraine 509 and Poland 677 Memel (Klaipeda),˙ annexed by Lithuania 533, and Stalin 186, 259, 264, 265 539 military-revolutionary committees 135, 137 Mendeleev, D. I. 550 Miliukov, Pavel, foreign minister in Mensheviks 68 Provisional Government 10, 123 and Bolshevik Sovnarkom 137 Millikan, Max, at MIT 30 condemnation of Petrograd insurrection Miloseviˇ c,´ Slobodan 704 (October 1917) 135 ministers, tsarist, influence of 70–1 and February uprising 115 Ministry of Culture 612 opposition to war 104 Ministry of Defence (1992) 702 and political liberties 713 Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) and Provisional Government 116, 123–4 relations with CCID 685–7 relations with Bolshevik government 144, under Gorbachev 696 147 under Yeltsin 702 as trade union leaders 84 Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) 668 Western Social Democrat support for 17 responsibility for Gulag administration Menuhin, Yehudi and Hepzibah 616 675 merchants, as arts patrons 581 and transition under Yeltsin 356 Merriam, Charles E. (1874–1953) 11 Ministry of State Security (MGB) 663 The Making of Citizens 11 control over police (militsiia) 668 Merz, Charles 9 and East European states 669 Meshketian Turks, deportation of 502 merged with MVD 675 messianism 82 see also KGB Metropolis, literary almanac 628 Mirbach, Count, German ambassador, Meyer, Alfred G. (1920–98) 31 assassination of 145 Meyerhold, Vsevolod 590, 598 Mission to Moscow (film) 19 MFA see Ministry of Foreign Affairs MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), MGB see Ministry of State Security (MGB) Center of International Studies middle classes (CENIS) 30 as art patrons 579 Mitterrand, François, president of France 348 and February Revolution 122, 131 mobility women 469–70 geographical 78, 400 see also bourgeoisie see also migration; social mobility midwives 476 Model Collective Farm Code (1935) 424 migration, internal 389–90 Model Regulations of Production Enterprises labour 446–7 460 of peasants to towns (post-emancipation) modernisation 443 admiration for First Five-Year Plan 14 to urban areas 88, 170, 303, 387 in Brezhnev era 295–6

820

Index

liberal goals for 73 money, loss of function (1918–20) 390 material economic progress 77 Montesquieu, Baron Charles de 7 negative aspects of (pre-revolutionary) Moore, Barrington, Jr. 25 78–9, 85 Morits, Iunna 615 and science 549, 577–8 Morning Post, London newspaper 9 modernisation paradigm 28–32 Morozov family, as arts patrons 581 see also development Moscow modernism Bol’shoi theatre 581, 603 cultural 580–1, 582 Chechen terrorist attacks 376 in literature 587 as cultural centre 581–2 modernity, ‘totalitarian’ effects of 28 German advance on (1941) 222, 229 Moldavia (Moldova from 1991) 495, 531 living standards 303 and Commonwealth of Independent States martial law in 97 516 peasant immigration 443 Democratic Movement in Support of population growth 83, 201 Restructuring 544 population losses (civil war) 170 dissent 542 US–USSR summit (1985) 339 independence 349, 517, 531 zemstvo relief committee 105 independence (1991) 547 Moscow Art School 581 Moldovanisation policy in Transnistria Moscow Arts Theatre 581, 590 537 Moscow International Film Festival (1959) Muslim population in 546 611 nationalist movements 544 Moscow Machine Building Trust 169 post-Soviet transition 354, 548 Moscow province, peasant out-migration republic (1940) 658 443 separatism 546, 702 Moscow State Institute of International under Romanian rule 531, 535, 546 Affairs (MGIMO) 696 see also Bessarabia Mosely, Philip 30 Moldovan Popular Front 544 Mozambique 308, 314 Molotov, Viacheslav 242, 246, 263, Mozzhukhin, Ivan 583 657 Muggeridge, Malcolm, Manchester Guardian and Comintern 648, 649, 650 correspondent 16 deposed 681, 682 Mulla Nasreddin (Muslim magazine) 92 and Eastern Europe 666 Munich (Germany), Institute for the Study of and foreign policy 283, 668, 681 the USSR 21 and formation of GKO 255 Munnich,¨ Ferenc, Hungary 678 and Hungary 677, 678 Muradeli, Vano, composer 607 and Khrushchev 275, 276, 277 Murakhovskii, Vsevolod 320 on kulaks 421 Muratova, Kira, ﬁlm director 630 and Non-Aggression Pact with Germany Muscovy, foreign perceptions of 6 221, 659 music and Poland 677 audio cassettes 626 recantation in Kommunist 674 classical 209 and science programme 563 folk 599 and Stalin 186, 246 jazz 208, 590, 597 Stalin’s attacks on 253–4, 259, 264, 265 love songs 598 view of Tito 670, 676 marches 597, 602 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (1939) 18, 221, 505, opera 598–9 537, 655–7 popular 582, 599 denounced (1979) 541, 543 post-war repression 607 human chain protest (Tallinn to Vilnius) Red Army Chorus 597 545 and socialist realism 595 Japan and 654 wartime popular songs 602

821

Index

Muslims under Brezhnev 304, 310, 512–13 Bolshevik policies to emancipate women see also Russian nationalism 174 nationalities cultural reform 92 Bolshevik government and 148–51, in First World War 103 497–8 nationalism among 91, 92 and break-up of USSR 355–7, 516–17 see also Islam and collectivisation 501 mutinies, Volynskii regiment (February contradictory policies in pre-revolutionary uprising) 114 Russia 89–93 mysticism 80 deportations 202, 502–3 in First World War 100–4, 109 Nabokov, Vladimir 633 formalisation of 210 Nagorno-Karabakh 345, 512, 515 historiography of 55–6 Nagy, Imre, Hungarian prime minister 676, Khrushchev’s policies 282 678 and korenizatsiia (indigenisation) 176, 180, dismissed 677 210, 498–9 Narbikova, Valeriia 633 local policies on 89 Narkomindel see People’s Commissariat for and migration to urban areas 387 Foreign Affairs Muslim 150–1 Narliev, Khojakuli, ﬁlm-maker 625 NEP policy towards 174–7, 393 nation-building and post-Soviet nation-building 517–18 Europe 495 in the Soviet West 522–3 in pre-revolution western states 524–31 Stalinist reconstruction of 210–12 stages in 524 under Brezhnev 304–5 national character 11, 42, 55 in USSR 176–7, 192, 220, 342, 498 as ‘Asiatics’ 20 view of socialism among 498 formed by climate 7, 10 and White movement 112 formed by swaddling of infants 23 nationality, as basis of privileges and role of institutions 7 repression 241, 513 Western assumptions about 6–7 NATO national identity Russian Federation view of expansion Russian 90 (1990s) 703–4 in USSR 211, 498 and war in Kosovo 703, 704 national liberation movements (NLMs) 26 natural gas 194, 306 Afghanistan (1920s) 638 exports from Turkmenistan 408 and First World War 102, 496 production 456 Gorbachev and 698 nauchnaia organizatsiia truda (NOT), scientiﬁc Gromyko’s view of 685–6 organisation of labour 449 rivalry with China over 690 Nazarbaev, Nursultan, president of Stalin’s policy towards 673 Kazakhstan 347 support for 308, 312, 689 Nearing, Scott 12 USSR as natural ally for 675 Neizvestny, Ernst 280, 291 see also Third World Nekrasov, Viktor, Both Sides of the Ocean 616 nationalism 56, 91 Nemtsov, Boris, provincial governor of among non-Russians (1917) 130–1, 148, Nizhnii Novgorod 370, 434, 437 149 neo-traditionalism 60–1 and class 131 NEP see New Economic Policy (NEP) (1921–8) and dissent 540–2 Nepmen (private traders) 179, 181, 182, 187, and glasnost’ 344, 514, 542–4 391, 394 and perestroika 406, 544 Stalin’s view of 189, 721 reconstruction of 344 Netherlands and revolution 130 colonies 219 and separatism 544–7 German invasion 657

822

Index

New Economic Policy (NEP) (1921–8) 51, 159, methods of deportation 502 166, 384, 390–4 powers of 239, 240 assessment of 391–3 use of forced labour 401 Bolshevik concerns over 180 Nobel prizes 550, 559 central planning 169–70 nomads and nomadism effect of death of Lenin on 182 collectivisation of 398 end of 190–1, 393–4 suppression of 500 and nationalities 174–7, 393 Non-Aligned Movement 681 as new approach 168, 169 North Africa 646 and popular culture 590–1 Norway, Second World War 657 recovery 170–1, 392 Nove, Alec (1915–94) 32, 33 retrospective view of 404, 730 Novocherkassk, 1962 price riots 302, 403, as stage in progress towards socialism 180, 457 187, 718 Novosibirsk 201 state capitalism of 199 opera house 204, 206 under Stalin 185–91 urban planning 204 and women’s status 475–6 Novotny,´ Anton´ın 299 and work force 446 Novyi mir (journal) 610, 616, 627 New Life newspaper 584 protection of writers 620 New Republic, and Russian invasion of Finland NSM see New Soviet Man (NSM) 18 nuclear research 562 New Soviet Man (NSM), concept of 663, 666, nuclear test-ban treaty 288 673 nuclear weapons 289, 566 New York Times assumption of US–Soviet parity 306, 573 misreadings of Bolshevik revolution 9 Chinese request for 680, 689–90 publication of Khrushchev’s speech (1956) first atomic test 562 269 intercontinental ballistic missile 563 newspapers see press limitation treaties (1972) 307 Nicaragua 698 reduction agreement (Washington 1987) Nicholas II, Tsar 71 339 abdication 107, 115 thermonuclear test 563 assassination at Ekaterinburg with family unilateral moratorium on testing (1985) 700 145 and concept of nation 71, 90 obshchestvennitsy (wife-activists) 482 October Manifesto (1905) 68, 70 October Manifesto (1905) 68, 70, 84 order to crush February uprising Octobrists (Union of 17 October) 73 115 Ogarkov, Nikolai, chief of the general staff personal command of army 97 693 prorogation of Duma 104 Ogonek, reformist periodical 695 relations with government 104, 107 oil and Ukraine 530 Caucasus 386, 519 nightclubs, St Petersburg 581 consumption 403 Nijinsky, Vaslav 582 price falls 332, 373 Nikolai Nikolaevich, Grand Prince, as Russian multinational companies 407, 704 supreme army commander 96 Siberian reserves 306 Nilin, Pavel, scriptwriter 606 Okeev, Tolomush, film-maker 625 Nixon, Richard, US president 306, 307 Oktiabr’ (journal) 621 Nizhnii Novgorod Okudzhava, Bulat 614, 615 land reform proposals (1990s) 434, Old Believers 458 435 Olearius, Adam, on Muscovy 7 peasant out-migration 443 oligarchs, rise of (1990s) 371, 703 NKVD (Commissariat of the Interior) oligarchy, defined 244 control over police 214 Olympic Games, Moscow (1980) 312

823

Index

Omsk parliament, democratic, as goal of liberals 73 Kadets’ anti-Bolshevik government in 145 Pasha Angelina, ﬁrst woman tractor driver soviet (1917) 118 425 opera 598–9 passports, internal (1932) 211, 425, 447 opinion polls 328, 687 Pasternak, Boris 209, 588 see also public opinion Doctor Zhivago 207, 281, 324, 589 Ordzhonikidze, Sergo 175, 249 Nobel prize 614, 682 and 1928 ‘emergency measures’ 247 Pasvolsky, Leo 13 and Stalin 246, 250–1 paternalism suicide (1937) 251 enterprise 458–62 Orel province, martial law (1917) 128 in pre-revolutionary Russia 458 Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists paternity suits 484, 486, 488 (OUN) 504, 534 patriarchalism 76, 413, 468 Orlova, Liubov’ 599 Patriotic War see Second World War Orthodox Church patriotism 230 attempts to revitalise 80 and defence campaign 426 Bolshevik government and 148 oppositionist 104 and family law 468 study of indoctrination methods 11 Khrushchev’s restrictions on 282 Pats,¨ Konstantin, Estonian nationalist 525, 533 millennium of Christianity celebration 324 Pavlov, I.P., Nobel prizewinner 550, 565 missionary work in borderlands 90 Pazniak,´ Zianon, Belarusian archaeologist 543 and sectarian movements 81 peasants 412, 442–3 wartime freedom for 504 and 1906 commune reforms 389, 415–16 Orwell, George (1903–50) 18 alienated by Bolshevik food procurement 198423, 62, 324 policies 147, 159–60, 419 Animal Farm 23, 324 Bolshevik categorisation of 179 Osipenko, Polina 480 and Bolshevik class narrative 718–22 Ossetia 515 in Brezhnev era 429–32 Ostrovskii, Nikolai Alekseevich (1904–37), and collectivisation 420–6 How the Steel was Tempered 614 resistance to 195–6, 422–4 otkhodniki (hired labourers) 414 social effects of 197 Ottoman Empire, and First World War 95, and election of township committees 117 103, 495 and elections to Constituent Assembly Our Home is Russia party 368 139 Outer Mongolia 667 and First World War 416–17 Ovalov, Lev, novelist 627 Green rebellions (1918–21) 161–2, 168 Ovechkin, Valentin, ‘District Routine’ 610 growth of political discontent among 87–8 as hired labourers 414 paganism, and folk religion 87 Khrushchev’s view of 427 Pale of Settlement, Jewish 91 and land settlement 127–8, 136–7, 160, 177 formal end of (1915) 101 migration to towns 88, 443 Pan-Islamism 92 and NEP 177–80, 188–9, 419–20 Pan-Turkism 92, 497 and parastatals under Provisional Panch, Petro, Ukrainian writer 606 government 108 Panﬁlov, Gleb, The Theme 630 and perestroika 433–7 Panina, Varia 582 in pre-revolutionary Russia 86–9, 411–12 Papanin, Ivan, Arctic explorer 724 prospects for in post-Soviet Russia 437–9 Paradzhanov, Sergei 625 rejection of communal land tenure 163 parastatal complex and religious and spiritual revival 81 emergence of during First World War 105–7 restrictions on mobility of 197, 399 and Provisional Government 107, 108 Revolution (autumn 1917) 126–8 Pares, Bernard (1867–1949), historian 10 right to cultivate plots and own livestock Paris, four-power summit (1960) 287 196, 206, 407, 424–5

824

Index

sale of surplus on free market 169, 186, 194, physics 559, 564 391 Piatnitskii, Osip 648, 649 and Second World War 231–2, 426–7 Pichul, Vasilii, Little Vera 631 as targets of mass repression 213, 427 Pikul’, Valentin 627 transformation into proletarian workers Pil’niak, Boris 598 442–8 Naked Year 587 view of labour 412 Pipes, Richard 39, 45, 46, 497 and War Communism 417–19 on US National Security Council 54 see also agriculture; kulaks Plehve, Viacheslav, assassination of (1904) penal colonies 68 deportation of kulaks to 195 Plekhanov, Georgii 711 deported populations in 202 Plevitskaia, Nadezhda 582 see also labour camps pluralism, socialist (Gorbachev’s use of term) Penza province, martial law (1917) 128 322 People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan 311, Pobedonostsev, Konstantin, chief procurator 691 of Orthodox Church 70 perestroika 325–31, 344 Podgornyi, Nikolai 290, 297 backlash 326, 405–6 dismissed (1977) 309 economic reforms 404–6, 463–4 poetry effect on rural life 433–7 open-air readings 615 ‘from below’ 463–4 under Bolsheviks 587–9 and nationalism 406, 544 poets 581 and rethinking of path to socialism 729 fate of 589 Pervukhin, Mikhail, and Khrushchev 277 pogroms Petain,´ Marshal Henri 657 First World War 99, 103 Peter the Great, Tsar, and science 549 of Jews 90, 506 Peterburgskii listok (daily newspaper) 78 Pokoianie (Repentance) (ﬁlm) 324 Petkus, Victoras, Helsinki Watch in Lithuania Pokrass Brothers, composers 597 541 Pokrovskii, M.N., and Marxist science 557 Petliura, Simon, Ukrainian nationalist 496 Pokrovsky School of history 499 Petrakov, Nikolai, economist 331 Poland 95, 495 Petrograd assimilated by USSR 222, 505 demonstrations at Tauride Palace (July conﬂict with Bolsheviks 146, 638 1917) 126 elections (1947) 666 February 1917 revolution in 114–16 German invasion 219 industrialists 121 German offensive against (1914) 96 population losses (civil war) 170, 445 German–Russian agreement on (1939) renaming of St Petersburg 97 221 storming of Winter Palace (1917) 135 and Japan 652 see also Leningrad; St Petersburg murder of Soviet ambassador (1927) 246 Petrograd Soviet 108, 115 nationalism in 130, 149 agitational literature for rural areas 126 relations with USSR 669, 677, 686 insurrection in support of garrison 135 and repression of Belorussia 533–4 invitation to join Provisional Government rise of Solidarity movement 312–13, 542, 116 686 Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC) scorched earth policy (1915) 99 135 Stalin’s ambitions for 655, 656 Order No.1 (destruction of army Ukrainian nationalism in 534 command) 120 Poles in Russia Petrovskii, Grigorii 249 deportations of 99, 202, 401, 502 Petrushevskaia, Liudmila, playwright 620 during First World War 99, 102 Philby, Kim 660 nationalism among 91 philosophy, and science 557, 568 in Ukraine 529

825

Index

police, civil (militsiia) 215 Pollitt, Harry, British communist 649 State Security (MGB) control over 668 Pomerantsev, Vladimir 611 subordinated to political police 215 Ponomarev, Boris, CCID secretary 684, 686, police, political, and mass repressions 212, 695 214–15 and Afghanistan 692 police, secret 264 on Gorbachev 697 see also NKVD Popkov, P.S., and Leningrad Affair 261, Polish United Workers’ Party 313 262 Politburo (Political Bureau) Popov, Evgenii 628 ageing (1970s) 309 on ‘sixtiers’ 628 appointments to 260, 320 Popovsky, Mark, emigr´ e´ scientist 574 attempt to block Gorbachev 317–19 Poprov, A.I., farmer 439 collective leadership under Brezhnev 297 population conﬂicts within 249 birthrate 481, 489, 490 and creation of Presidency (1990) 329 fall (1990s) 492 and ‘emergency measures’ (1928) 247 in labour camps 202 and expulsion of Trotsky 245 life expectancy 492 manipulation of decision-making 252 recovery in early 1920s 170 personal rights and networks 250, 320 under Stalinism 200–1 promotion of younger cohort to (1938–9) Populist socialists, compared with Marxists 74 252 Port Arthur 667, 673 purges within 251 Portal, Roger 37 relationship to Sovmin 260–1 Poskrebyshev, Aleksandr 265 relative autonomy of members 246, 248, Possony, Stefan 23 249–50 post-colonialism resistance to Gorbachev’s reforms 321 and development 29 ruling group (‘quintet’) 253 see also national liberation movements Stalin’s domination of 195, 240, 248, 260 Postyshev, Pavel Petrovich, purged 251 working methods of ‘septet’ in Stalin’s Potemkin, Vladimir 654 absences 263 Potsdam accords 286 see also Presidium poverty Political Directorate of the War Ministry 111 as precondition for communism 30 Political Directorate of the Workers’ and women 492 Peasants’ Red Army (1918) 111 Powers, Gary, U-2 spy plane pilot 287, 684, political parties, in Russian Federation 686 366–9 Poznan, Poland, demonstrations 677 new coalitions (1999) 377–8 Praeger, Frederick A., publisher 40 political prisoners Prague, Problems of Peace and Socialism amnestied (1953) 674 headquarters 687 released from Gulags 276 Pravda political science 1938 stories 723–4 ‘behaviouralist revolution’ (1960s) 41 publication of Yevtushenko’s poem ‘The move towards social history 37–43 Heirs of Stalin’ 281 political culture approach 42 Preobrazhenskii, Evgenii, economist 418 and ‘totalitarian model’ 22–8 Presidency, ofﬁce of (1990) 328, 329 politics and constitutional crisis (1993) 362 opposition in First World War 104–5 constraints on 330 radicalisation of (1917) 109 and transition under Yeltsin 356 re-emergence of popular (1980s) 330 Presidency, Russian Federation (1993), powers and science 550–2, 569–70, 571, 577 of 363–4 see also Marxism Presidential Council 329 politruk system of dual command (Red Army) Presidium (of the Central Committee of the 235, 236 Communist Party) 264, 277–8

826

Index

and attempt to depose Khrushchev (1957) Marxist image of 82, 444 277–8 ‘moral’ demands of 84 reverted to name of Politburo 298 in pre-revolutionary Russia 82–6 press relations with Bolshevik government Bolshevik control over 584 163–6 diversification under Gorbachev 324 transformation of peasants into 442–8 foreign broadcasts to Russia 324 Proletkul’t 155, 585 and liberal Russian identity 703 propaganda mass circulation daily newspapers 77, 78, Bolshevik use of 585–6, 715 79, 88 collectivisation campaign 195, 398, 478 reporting of disasters 323 military use of in First World War 100 state monopoly 715 of motherhood 473, 476–7, 480, 484 underground nationalist 512 and nationalities 504 wartime 602 and popular alienation (under Brezhnev) see also censorship; journalists; television 305 press agency, use of posters 586 wartime 601–2, 636 press freedom property in 1905 reforms 69, 77 Bolshevik abolition of private 156 Stolypin’s restrictions on 69 creation of new rights (1990s) 360 under Gorbachev 324 Protazanov, Iakov 583 prices Protection of Motherhood and Infancy liberalisation (1992) 359, 435 organisation 476 rises (1990s) 435 Proudhonists, French 707 subsidised 302, 403 provincial committees, formed after Prigorodnyi, North Ossetia 512 February Revolution 117 Primakov, Evgenii 345, 685 Provisional Government 112, 123 and 1999 presidential elections and ‘dual power’ 115–16 377–8 failure of 138 prime minister 375–6 and local authority 117 prime minister, office of 363 origins in parastatal complex 107 printing presses planned overthrow of 134 Bolshevik control over 584 relations with army 108 family-owned 583 relations with nationalities 109, 496 see also publishing Przemysl, fall of (1915) 97 privatisations (of state enterprises) 360–1, 406, psycho-history 43 463, 465–6 public opinion and agriculture 434 All-Soviet (All-Russian) Institute for Public insider 333, 360 Opinion (VTsIOM) 328 loans-for-shares schemes 371, 407 and expansion of civic life 77 ‘voucher’ 407 and failed coup (1991) 349, 352 Problems of Communism (journal) 21 Public Opinion Research Institute 687 professionals publishing and February Revolution 132 and protection of writers 620 women as 469 state control of 595 Progressive Bloc, in First World War 104 see also press; printing presses Prokofiev, Igor 606 Pudovkin, Vsevolod 592 Prokofiev, Sergei 208 The Return of Vasilii Bortnikov 610 proletariat (urban workers) Pugacheva, Alla 626 and Bolshevik class ideology 121, 164, purges 444 Communist Party (1920–1) 154 and culture 592–4 Eastern Europe 671 dictatorship of 52 within Politburo 251 historical mission of 707, 710 see also Great Purges

827

Index

Putilov works, Petrograd 114 morale in Afghanistan 312 Putin, Vladimir 62, 376, 377 political and military compromise in and Chechen war 378, 520 organisation 235 and nationalities 520–1 reliance on nuclear weapons 289 rising popularity of 378–9 role in revolution 717, 719 Pyr’ev, Ivan 599, 601 Second World War 234–9 conscription 238 radar, development of 562 military deaths 225, 233 Radek, Karl 639 national units 504 radio, wartime 602 obsolete equipment 398 Radus-Zen’kovich, V.A. 161 women in 483 Raeff, Marc 38 size of 235 Raikin, Arkadii 626 Stalin’s purge of command staff (1937–8) railways 221, 228, 236, 654 inadequate for troop movement 96 Stalin’s Stavka command structure 237 labour for 387 strelnieki¯ Latvian infantry 526 Trans-Siberian 67, 386, 647 and transition under Yeltsin 356 Turksib railway 401, 654 war against Finland 228 under NEP 171 Red Cross, and war relief (First World War) Rainis, Janis,¯ Latvian poet 526 105 Raizman, Iulii, The Communist 614 Red Guards (Petrograd October 1917) 135 Rajk, Laszlo, Hungarian foreign minister 671 allowed to challenge orders 234 Rakhmanin, Oleg 691 Reed, John, American journalist 8, 119 Rakosi,´ Maty´ as,´ Hungarian communist 671, reformist discourse 677 intelligentsia and 688 Rambaud, Alfred 7 and new thinking under Gorbachev ranks and titles, abolition of 156 696 Ransome, Arthur, journalist 8 and research institutes 687–8 Rapallo, Treaty of (1921) 640 reforms, (after 1905 revolution) Rashidov, Sharaf, Uzbekistan 305, 309, 314 contradictory nature of 68–9 Raskova, Marina 480 see also perestroika Rasputin, Valentin 623, 683 refugees, First World War 99, 101, 416 Fire 633 relief organisations, First World War rationing 158, 198 refugee 101 under perestroika 463 war relief (parastatals) 105–7 Rayonist movement 582 religion Reagan, Ronald, US president 54, 313 national variations 504 relations with Gorbachev 338, 339, 340, revivals 80–2, 205 699 in rural areas 87, 205 Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) 337, suppression of 282, 500 573 in western republics 540 red, symbolism of (February uprising) 114, 119 see also Orthodox Church Red Army 144, 150, 473 religious societies 80 demobilisation 170 religious tolerance desertions (1918–20) 160 in 1905 reforms 91 doctrine of the offensive 235, 237 under Gorbachev 323 and doctrine of pre-emptive strike 221 Remnik, David 15 dual command with political commissars repression 235, 236, 238 of civil society 167 encirclement (1941) 222 class basis of 211 frontier defence 237 of dissidents 298, 319, 682 Khrushchev’s cuts 289 as instrument of policy 214 low morale 228, 238 mass 212–16, 425

828

Index

peasants 213, 427 Revolutionary Communists (RC) 144 post-war cultural 605–10, 682 ‘revolutionary defencism’ 108, 110 role of police in 212, 215 Tsereteli’s 123 of scientists 560–1 Reykjavik, US–USSR summit (1985) 339 of women 482 Rhys Williams, Albert 8 see also collectivisation; deportations; Great Riazan’ province, peasant out-migration Purges; terror 443 republics (of USSR) Riazanov, Eldar 624 Academies of Science 572 The Irony of Fate 625 and autonomous regions 343, 498 Ribbentrop, Joachim von, and elections to legislatures (1990) 328, 330 Non-Aggression Pact with USSR 221 ﬁlm studios 625–6 Rieber, Alfred 37 institutional autonomy 343 Riga, Latvia 526, 540 movement of Russians into 501 Riga, Treaty of (1921) 146, 150 relations with USSR 342–3 Rittersporn, Gabor T. 53 role in leadership struggle (1953) 508–9 Riutin, Martemian 722 republics, post-independence Robinson, Geroid Tanquary, Rural Russia conﬂicts within 517 Under the Old Regime 13 and Russian populations 517–18 Rodionov, M. I., and Leningrad Affair 261, research institutes 262 and liberal identity 703 Romania and reformist discourse 687–8, 698 elections (1947) 666 revolution German invasion (1940) 659 and Bolshevik view of class narrative 716–18 and Hungarian uprising 679 Deutscher’s law of 35 independence 341 as illegitimate 46 and Moldova 546 modernism as 295 Ukrainian nationalists in 534 as tradition 156 see also Bessarabia; Moldavia Revolution of 1905 68, 77, 459 Romanian National Liberal Party 534 Estonia 525 Romanov, Aleksei 624 and land reform 388 Romanov dynasty Lithuania 527 end of 115 and movement for women’s emancipation patronage of arts 581 76, 470 Romanov, Grigorii 319, 320 scientists and 551 Romm, Mikhail Revolution of 1917 Ordinary Fascism 617 and autonomy for nationalities 496 Secret Mission 608 effect on Russian culture 579 Room, Abram, Court of Honour 608 effect on Russia’s war 107–11 Roosevelt, F.D., US president 652 and expectation of world revolution 636–7 Rossiia, concept of 90, 701 February Revolution 8, 114–17, 122, 131 Rossman, Jeffrey 54 local government organisation 117–19 ROSTA (Russian Telegraph Agency) 586 politics of war (March-July) 122–6 Rostotskii, Stanislas, It Happened in Penkovo ‘July Days’ 125–6 613 October Revolution Rostov-on-Don, Soviet army at 231 and failure of democracy 44 Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916–2003) revisionist historiography of 43–9 The Dynamics of Soviet Society 30–1 Western liberal view of 8 The Stages of Economic Growth 30 poets and 588 Rostropovich, Mstislav 620 political polarization (summer 1917) 128–33 Rothstein, Andrew, British communist 658 role of peasants in 416 Rozhdestvenskii, Robert 615 scientists and 552–4 Rubenstein, Modest, scientist 561 see also Provisional Government Rudenko, Mykola, Helsinki Watch 541

829

Index

Rudzutak, Ian 246, 248, 251 Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic rural areas (RSFSR) 174, 498 effect of February Revolution 117 see also Russian Federation and German advance (1941) 228 Russians unrest in 87, 204–5 in Baltic states 506, 547 see also agriculture; collectivisation; movement into non-Russian republics 501, commune; villages 540 Rus’, concept of 90 see also national character Russell, Bertrand 10 Russia’s Choice party (pro-Yeltsin) 366, 368 Russia, pre-revolutionary 7, 354 ‘Russification’, policy of 90–1, 495 attempts to understand 13–14, 15–16 Russo-Japanese War (1904–5) 68 imperial foreign policy 95 Rutskoi, Aleksandr, declared president by legacy of autocracy 153 Congress 362 martial law regime in First World War Ryazan’ province, martial law (1917) 128 97–100 Rybakov, Anatolii, Heavy Sand 621 optimist–pessimist debate (1900–14) 67, 93 Rybkin, Ivan 368 politics of First World War 104–7 Rykov, Aleksei 246, 249 science in 549–52 and 1928 ‘emergency measures’ 247, 248 and transition from tsarism to and Stalin 185, 186 Communism trial (1938) 723 western borderlands in First World War 95, Ryzhkov, Nikolai 317, 320, 321 97, 110, 111–13 and economic reform 331, 334, 404 see also Russian empire; Russian Federation; USSR Saburov, Maksim 277 Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians St Petersburg (RAPM) 593 ‘Bloody Sunday’ (Jan. 1905) 68 Russian Association of Proletarian Writers as cultural centre 581–2 (RAPP) 593 daily newspapers 78 Russian Central Bank, and 1998 economic Mariinsky Theatre 581 crisis 372 population 83, 443 Russian empire Religious-Philosophical Meetings (1901–3) and eastern Ukraine 529 80 and ethnic minorities 89–93 see also Petrograd nationalisation of during First World War St Petersburg Academy of Sciences 549 100–4 Sakharov, Andrei 280, 298, 577 Russification policies 495 campaign against 573 Russian Federation 518 election to Congress (1989) 327 centrist discourse 701, 702 ‘Letter to the Soviet Leadership’ 683 conservative discourse in 701 Reflections on Progress . . . 570 declaration of independence (1990) 347, 356, salaried workers (sluzhashchie), and February 516, 546 Revolution 132 and demand by Chechnya for secession SALT II Treaty (1972) 307 364–6 negotiations 307, 312 liberal discourse in 700, 702–3 Samara, Committee to Save the Constituent new constitution (1993) 363–4 Assembly (Komuch) 144 and Tatarstan 518 samizdat (underground distribution of Russian nationalism proscribed literature) 620, 621 radical 366–8 Saratov province Stalin’s promotion of 504 forcible requisitioning of food (1919) 161 tsarist promotion of 90 martial law (1917) 128 use of Christian symbols of 602 strike (1921) 166 Russian Social Democratic Workers’ Party township committees (1917) 117 124, 144, 525 Sargent, Orme, British Foreign Office 660

830

Index

Savinok, Iurii 438 Second World War (Great Patriotic War in Schapiro, Leonard, Origins of the Communist Soviet Union, 1941–5) 192, 217 Autocracy 36 and arts 600–3, 622 Scheffer, Paul, Berliner Tageblatt deportations 502 correspondent 16 the Eastern Front 222–7 Schlesinger, Rudolf (1901–69) 36 effect on economy 227, 241, 402 Schlieffen Plan 96 effect on Stalinist state 227, 239–42 Schulenberg, Count Friedrich Werner von in film and fiction 614 der, German ambassador to USSR 255 German invasion of Soviet Union (1941) 18, Schuyler, Eugene 7 222, 223, 225, 228–9, 230 Schwarz, Solomon, Menshevik historian 48 patriotic defence campaign 426 science peasants and 426–7 applied to war effort (Second World War) science in 561–3 561–3 Soviet resistance 229–34 and dissidence 573–4 treatment of civilians under German effect of Chernobyl’ disaster on 574–5 occupation 226, 231–2 expenditure on 556, 566 turning point for Allies 224 Hegelian dialectic and 555 victory 239 and intellectual freedom 570–1 see also Red Army international investment in (from 1991) 576 sectarianism 81 and modernisation 549, 577–8 secularism, among Jews 92 and politics 550–2, 569–70, 571, 577 sedition, trials for (1906–7) 69 in post-Soviet Russia 575–7 Semenov, Iulian, novelist 627 restrictions on foreign contacts 563–4, Semenov, N. N., chemist 569 568 Semichastnyi, Vladimir 269 Soviet inferiority to West 566 Serbia, Austrian ultimatum to 95 Stalinist use of 558–60 serfdom, abolition of (1861) 86, 87 see also technology Seton Watson, Hugh (1916–84) 36 scientific research 550 Sewell, William H., Jr. 49 concentration on military technology sex, civic discussion of 78 572–3, 576 Shaginian, Marietta, Mess-Mend 591 effect of 1917 Revolution on 553 Shakhnazarov, Georgii 316, 326, 347, 684, under Bolshevik government 554 686 scientific socialism 707, 709 on role of General Secretary 685 ‘scientific-technological revolution’ Shakhty trial (mining engineers) 189, 560 (nauchno-tekhnicheskaia revoliutsiia Shamshiev, Bolotbek, Kyrgyz film-maker 625 NTO) 457 Shanghai International Settlement 643 scientists Shatalin, Stanislav 334 ‘academic rations’ 553 Shaw, George Bernard 15 emigration (after 1991) 576 ‘Shchekino experiment’ 299 numbers of 566 Shcherbakov, Aleksandr Sergeevich 252, 508 political activism 571 Shcherbitskii, Vladimir, Ukraine 301, 305 and Revolution of 1917 552–4 Shchukin family, as arts patrons 581 and Stalinist repression 560–1 Shelest’, Petro, Ukraine 300, 511, 540 scorched earth policy Shengelaia, Eldar, film director 630 First World War 99 Shenin, Oleg 348 Second World War 223 Shepilov, Dmitrii 681, 685 Scott, James 59 and Khrushchev 277, 675 Scott, Joan Wallach 49 Shevardnadze, Eduard 321 Second Congress of Soviets 143 as foreign minister 338, 340, 696 Second World War and Georgian nationalism 345 international origins of 217–19 Shipler, David 15 war in Europe (to 1941) 654–61 Shliapnikov, A.G., Workers’ Opposition 164

831

Index

Sholokhov, Mikhail 611 smychka (worker–peasant co-operation) 178, Quiet Don 608 720 shops and shopping 77, 79 Social Democracy, Russian 710–13 stores for Soviet elite 302–4 revolutionary modification of 711 see also black markets; commodities Social Democracy, Western 8, 706 Shostakovich, Dmitrii 208, 209, 606 Kautsky and 708–9 ‘Babii Yar’ Symphony 616 perception of betrayal by 714 Lady Macbeth of Mstensk 598 and worker movement 707–10 show trials 617, 682 Social Democrats 1936–8723–4 and February Revolution 114, 706 and loss of support for USSR 17 see also Bolsheviks, Mensheviks republican nationalists (1928–9) 499 social disorder, resulting from collectivisation scientists 189, 560 and deportations 203–5 Shpalikov, Gennadii 616 social history Shtiurmer, B.V.,chairman of Council of and concept of working class 441–2 Ministers 107 and labour politics 47 Shukshin, Vasilii 613, 623, 624 and totalitarian model of USSR 27–8 Snowball Berry Red 625 social mobility 78, 399 Shultz, George, US secretary of state 340 in early Soviet state 51 Shulzhenko, Klavdiia, singer 602 limited form of (under Brezhnev) 303 Shumeiko, Vladimir 359 social reforms Shumiatskii, Boris 596 liberal goals for 73 Shumsky, Oleksandr, and Ukrainisation Stolypin’s commitment to 69 536 Social Revolutionary Party (SR) 74, 104 Shushkevich, Stanislav, president of Belarus alliance of Left SRs with Bolsheviks 143 349 attempt to form anti-Bolshevik Shveitser, Mikhail, Alien Kin 613 government 144 Siberia and Bolshevik Sovnarkom 137 demand for compensation for and elections to Constituent Assembly 138 environmental damage 408 expelled from soviets 144 labour camps 202 and February Revolution 114, 124 peasant uprising 161 and October Revolution 135 urban growth 201 and peasant revolt (1918–21) 162 Virgin Lands programme 203, 275, 390, 402, and Provisional Government 116 429 relations with Bolshevik government 147 Whites in 146 social sciences, changes in terminology 21 Sibneft, oil company 407 socialism Sidanco oil company 407 failure of in Soviet Russia 35–6, 58 Simmons, Ernest J. 22 influence as economic model 384 Simonov, Konstantin, journalist 563, 602, 612 interpretations of 322 Siniavskii, Andrei 298, 621 Lenin’s belief in 125, 149, 181 trial 617, 682 ‘path to’ 697, 730 Skoropadsky, General Pavlo, Ukrainian scientific 707, 709 hetman 530 Stalin’s proclamation of victory of 205, 211, Skrypnyk, Mykola, and Ukrainisation 536 214, 723 Slansk´ y,´ Rudolf 670 see also Bolshevism; capitalism; Slavonic Review, The 10 communism; Marxism Slutskii, Boris 609 Socialist Academy see Communist Academy ‘Physicists and Lyric Poets’ (poem) 566 socialist realism 207–8, 594–600 Smetona, Antanas, Lithuanian nationalist 528, socialists 532 and nationalist movements 91 Smirnov, Andrei 630 political ideologies of 73–4 Smith, Hedrick 15 relations with Bolsheviks 143

832

Index

societies rise of (1917) 117, 118–19, 134 and voluntary associations 77 rural 418, 420 see also parastatal complex view of war 123 Society of Friends (Quakers), relief efforts see also Central Committee of the Soviets (1918–20) 391 (VTsIK) Soiuzkino (ﬁlm industry organisation) 596 sovkhozy see cooperative farms Sokol’skii, Konstantin 598 sovnarkhozy (economic councils) 158, 279 Sokurov, Aleksandr 630 Sovnarkom see Council of Ministers (Sovmin); soldiers Council of People’s Commissars appeal of Provisional Government to 108 space progamme 402, 563 First World War 95, 97, 101 Spain 655 role in February Revolution 120 Special Council for Defence (1915) 106 and rural agitation (1917) 126 spiritual revival 80–2 Second World War 238 and discontent with materialism 81–2 Solidarity movement, Poland 312–13 ‘God-Seeking’ 80 Solomentsev, Mikhail 326, 332 Spiro, Herbert J. 26 Solov’ev, Iurii 327 Sputnik (satellite), launched (1957) 40, 402, 563 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr 298 Stakhanovism 396, 453–4 Cancer Ward 618 rural 425 expulsion 617, 682 Stalin, Joseph (1878–1953) 125, 253, 261 Gulag Archipelago 40, 52, 324 anti-Semitism 507 One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962) and fabrication of Doctors’ Plot (1951) 281, 288, 616, 682 264, 267, 508 Sorokin, Pitirim 19 attacks on Molotov 253–4, 259, 264 Sorokin, Valentin 633 character 244, 262 Soros, George, International Science personality 216, 243–4 Foundation 576 and China 274, 667, 671–2 Sotsialisticheskii vestnik (Socialist Herald) 17 and Comintern 637–8, 644–5 Soviet identity as commander-in-chief of army 237, 256 and democratisation under Gorbachev control of secret police 264 695–700 cult of 43, 244, 258, 600, 601 and foreign policy 705 and de-Stalinisation 269, 276–7, 725–7 NSM 663, 666, 673 death (1953) 265–6, 508 and ‘private’ self 673 as dictator 254, 258–63, 266 reinforced by false information 684 anti-oligarchic strategy (1952) 263–5 and toleration of difference 673–5 consolidation of personal dominance as vanguard 674, 675, 681, 684, 688, 697 239–40, 253 see also difference lack of challenges to 265 Soviet Studies (journal) 36 move from oligarchy to dictatorship Soviet Union see USSR (Union of Soviet 249–54 Socialist Republics) nature of control over state 243–5 Soviet West, the 522–3 subjugation of close advisers 258–60 German occupation 226, 231–2, 503–4, 538 and Five-Year Plan 395 and Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact 537 foreign relations see also Baltic States; Belarus; Moldova; and alliance with Britain 658 Ukraine Non-Aggression Pact with Hitler (1939) Soviet Women’s Committee 491 18, 221, 655–7 Soviet Writers, Fourth Congress (1967) 618 relations with foreign communist soviets parties 645 Council of People’s Commissars (October and formation of Transcaucasian Republic 1917) 137 175, 498 and party centralisation 152–3 grain requisitions (1928–9) 188–9, 194, 394 popular support for 137–8 and Hitler 221, 647–8

833

Index

Stalin, Joseph (1878–1953)(cont.) culture and morality 206–10, 607 interventions in science 563, 565–6 demographics and population movements Khrushchev’s condemnation (1956) 268–9 200–5 ‘Left Opposition’ to 185–6 as epitome of totalitarianism 23, 27, 40 legacy of 274 and family law 481–2 and Lenin 175–6 forced collectivisation 192, 194–8, 398–400, and Leningrad Affair 261–3 721 and nationalities 210, 498 industrialisation 192, 200, 394–8 head of Commissariat of Nationalities international context of 199–200 (Narkomnats) 149 labour migration 446–7 and NEP 185–6 mass repressions 212–16 change of policy on 186, 188–9 nationalities under 210–12, 500–3 and nuclear weapons project 562 new hierarchies in 19 Order no.227 231 and ofﬁcial optimism 724–5 Order no.270 231 relationship to Bolshevism of civil war 140 perception of threats and relationship to Leninism 16, 38, 46, post-war external 258, 264, 427, 667–73 50–1, 142 to revolution 199, 211, 216 revisionist historiography of 49–54 and Politburo and science 555–61 control of 248, 260 Western Communist support for 17 manipulation of decision-making in 252 see also Five-Year Plans promotion of younger cohort (1938–9) Stanford University, Hoover Institute of War, 252 Peace and Revolution 11 status in (1922) 183 Stanislavsky, Konstantin 581, 590 politics state interpretation of kto-kogo scenario of civil institutions under Stalin 215 class leadership 721–2 limitations on Stalinist 243 ‘socialism in one country’ 185, 193, 200 mechanisms of political control 319 and post-war cultural ideology 594, 606 see also autocracy; totalitarianism relations with deputies 244–5 State Association of Metal Factories 169 rise to power 184–5, 189–90, 191, 245–8 state capitalism see New Economic Policy rivalry with Trotsky 183–5 State Committee for New Technology 566 Second World War State Committee for the Press 619 delegation of powers during 256–8 State Control Commission, and corruption invasion of Poland 656 (1919) 155 punishment of defeatism 231, 237 State Council, and martial law regime 98 reaction to German invasion 223, 229, State Department of Cinema (Goskino) 624 237, 254–6 State Duma (1906–17) 68 and threat from enemies of socialism 205, authority of 68, 98 425, 723 formation of committee (February 1917) 115 use of repression 212–16, 425 Fourth 98 Great Purges 52–3, 266 prorogued 104 as instrument of policy 214 representation of minorities in 90 purge of Red Army ofﬁcers (1937–8) 221, State Duma, Russian Federation 363 228, 236 elections to 366 view of Tito 670 political crisis (1998–9) 374–6 see also Stalinism proportional representation vote (1993) 366 Stalingrad, siege of 223 threat to impeach Yeltsin 375 Stalinism 216, 394–401 State Institute of Cinematography 616, 624 consolidation of 205–6 State Museum of Modern Western Art 607 contradictions within 192, 664 state, tsarist criticism of (under Gorbachev) 324 and industrialisation 67 and cultural xenophobia 605–10 popular protests against 69

834

Index

Stavka (General Headquarters), established Szporluk, Roman, The Influence of East Europe (1941) 237, 256 and the Soviet West on the USSR 523 Stedman Jones, Gareth 49 Steffens, Lincoln, writer 8 Tairov, Aleksandr, Chamber Theatre 581, 592 Stepashin, Sergei, prime minister 376 Tajikistan 354, 408 Stolypin, Petr, prime minister 69, 71 collectivisation in 423 assassination 69 and Commonwealth of Independent States commitment to social reforms 69 516 and Duma 98 Tallinn, Estonia 525 reform of peasant communes (1906) 88, Tambov province 103, 388, 415–16 communes 415 Stravinsky, Igor 582, 615 martial law (1917) 128 strikes 83 peasant uprising 161, 168 1910–14 70, 84 Tamm, I. E., physicist 559 against food shortages (1920–1) 168 Tannenberg, Battle of 96 coalminers (1989) 463 Taraki, Nur Mohammed, Afghan Khalq February 1917 Petrograd 114–15 faction 311, 692, 693 legalised 69, 84 Tarkovsky, Andrei 281, 624 Lena goldfields (Siberia) 70 Ivan’s Childhood 614 Moscow 166 Tartu Peace Treaty (1920) 526 Petrograd 166 Tashkent 151 summer 1917 128, 471 university 499 Strumilin, Stanislav Gustavovich (1877–1974) Tatarstan 518 395 referendum on independence (1992) 364 Struve, P. V. 130 Tatlin, Vladimir 582 Stucka,ˇ Peteris,¯ Latvian Bolshevik 527 Tatyana Society, refugee relief organisation students 101 and February Revolution 131 taxes radical 593 collective responsibility for, abolished Suchkov, A. 421 (1904) 88 Suez Crisis (1956) 285 inefficient collection (1990s) 372 Sukhanov,N.N.421 under NEP 391 Sukhomlinov, General, minister of war (1914) Taylor, Frederick Winslow, ‘Taylorism’ 449 96 technology Sun Yat-sen, and Chinese nationalists 642 attempt to stimulate (1950s–60s) 566–7 Suprematists 582 barriers to innovation 567 Supreme Council of the National Economy Bolshevik faith in 719 (Sovnarkhoz) 158, 169, 279 imported from West 403 Supreme Soviet, Gorbachev’s new 327 lag in computing and electronics 572 Suslov, Mikhail 297, 316, 678, 682 levels of 386, 387, 392, 393 Central Committee secretary 282, 686, Soviet investment in 556 691 and spread of culture 626–7 death 314 see also science on Mao 690 television Sverdlovsk (Ekaterinburg) documentary films 630 assassination of royal family at 145 and film industry 624 population growth 201 imported soap operas 631 Sviatopolk-Mirskii, Prince Dmitrii 68 political centrism in 703 symbolism ‘Temporary Statute of Military Censorship’ February Revolution 119 (by martial law regime) 99 Second World War use of Christian 602 Tereshchenko, Mikhail Ivanovich (1886–1956), Symbolists 82, 580, 581 minister in Provisional Government Syrtsov, Sergei 249 107

835

Index

Tereshkova, Valentina 491 tovaroobmen system of food procurement terror 159 and Black Book of Communism 63 towns and urban areas 105, 137 Stalin’s use of 243 ‘cleansing’ and deportations 202 useofincivilwar145–6 de-urbanisation 163, 167, 170 use of by totalitarian regimes 22, 25, 27 and German advance (1941) 229 terrorism, Chechen, in Moscow 376 growth in size and population 77, 83, 387, textile industry 121, 458 447 Thatcher, Margaret, UK prime minister 313 inﬂux of dispossessed and fugitives into and Gorbachev 699 203–4 theatre migration to 88, 170, 303, 387 freedoms under Gorbachev 629 religious revival among workers pre-revolutionary 581 81 under Bolsheviks 589–90 secret defence industry 241 Third Communist International 145 strained public services 204 Third World see also cities; urbanisation and detente´ 307–8 township (volost’) committees, formed after Khrushchev and 284 February Revolution 117 and Western development model 30 trade, international see also national liberation movements with Britain 641 (NLMs) and Comecon 403 Thomas, Dorothy 12 and imperial ambitions 219 Thomas, Norman 19 nineteenth-century 219, 386 Thompson, E.P. 49 Soviet need for control over 220 Thorez, Maurice 651 by successor states 408 Tikhonov, Nikolai 309, 317, 320 under NEP 392 Timasheff, Nicholas S., The Great Retreat 19 trade unions 13, 128, 459 Timoshenko, General, head of Stavka 256 legalised 69, 84 Tito, Josip 284 role for under Bolsheviks 163 and Khrushchev 676–7 traditional society, in development Soviet view of 670 (modernisation) model 30 Tobol’sk, communes 414 Transcarpathia province Todorovskii, Valerii, ﬁlm director 632 in Czechoslovakia 530, 534–5 Togliatti, Palmiro, Italian communist 651 Ukraine 530, 539 Tolstaya, Tatiana 633 Transcaucasia Tolstoy, Aleksei, Road to Calvary 587 as front in First World War 95 Tolstoy, Lev [Leo] mass deportations from 212 adulation of 69, 81 nationalism in 130, 150 death (1910) 69 oil in 386, 519 popularity of War and Peace (Second World soviet governments 496 War) 603 see also Armenia; Azerbaijan; Chechnya; Tomskii, Mikhail 194 Dagestan; Georgia; Transcaucasia and 1928 ‘emergency measures’ 247, 248 Transcaucasian Republic (1922) 175, and Stalin 185, 186 497 Tonisson, Jaan, Estonian nationalist 525 transition (transitology) 61–62 ‘totalitarian model’, in study of Soviet Russia Transnistria 537, 40 22–8 and Dniester Republic 546 totalitarianism travel, foreign 324 applied to both communism and fascism Tret’iakov family, as arts patrons 581 18, 22, 24–5 Trifonov, Iurii 622 critiques of 26–8 House on the Embankment 622 and modernisation 31–2 Triple Entente (Russia, France and Great ‘spontaneous’ 31 Britain) 95

836

Index

Troianovskii, Oleg, Khrushchev’s foreign as autonomous Socialist Soviet 535 policy adviser 286 Babii Yar massacre of Jews 146, 503 Trotsky, Leon 125, 182 Bukovina province 530, 534, 537 expulsion of 185–6, 245, 246 and civil war 496 History of the Russian Revolution 16 and collectivisation 398, 536 and Lenin’s plan to overthrow Provisional deportations 538 Government 135 dissident movement 541, 617 The Lessons of October 184 Eastern 529 and Red Army 144, 235 Ukrainisation policy in 535–6 rivalry with Stalin 183–5, 655 ethnic networks in 305 trial and Western support for 17 famine (1931–33) 16, 40, 196, 398, 424, 500, use of term Stalinism 49 536 view of class revolution 716, 717 film studios 625 view of Hitler 648 First World War 95, 530 view of Stalinist USSR 17 German occupation 225, 426, 503–4, 538 Trotskyists, Western 17 Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church 529, 541, Trudovik (Labourist) faction (in State Duma) 544 74 Green World ecological movement 544 Truman Doctrine 665 Harvard study project 55 tsar industrialisation 401 personal power of 71 Khrushchev and 508–9 see also autocracy land seizures 128 Tsederbaum, Iulii see Martov mass deportations from 212 Tsereteli, Iraklii (I.G.) 45 nationalism 91, 102, 149–50, 496, 512 and ‘revolutionary defencism’ 123 cultural 529 Tsfasman, Aleksandr 590, 598 nationalist movement (1987–9) 529, 543–4 Tsipko, Aleksandr 325 native university 499 Tsvetaeva, Marina 588, 620 nature of 130, 523 tuberculosis 83 partisans 503 Tuchkov,Vladimir, ‘Master of the Steppes’ 634 western 529 Tucker, Robert C. 23, 26, 33, 42–3 peasant uprising 161 on Stalinism 50, 52 post-Soviet 354, 547–8 Tugan-Baranovskii, Mikhail 440 and break-up of USSR 516 Tukhachevskii, Mikhail, and concept of ‘deep independence (1991) 355, 547 battle’ 235, 237 ‘Orange Revolution’ 548 Tula province workers’ demand for independence 464 martial law (1917) 128 Rada (Central Council) 530 peasant out-migration 443 Rada newspaper 529 Turchin, V.A. 570 relationship to RSFSR 174, 529 Turdiev, Robert 686 reunification (1939) 537, 539 Turkestan 103, 390, 393, 496 Rukh movement (Popular Movement for Turkey 676 Restructuring) 544, 546 and Azerbaijan 150 Taras Shevchenko Ukrainian Language Turkic peoples, ethnic conflict in First World Society 544 War 103 Transcarpathia province 530, 539 Turkmenistan 354 Ukrainian Herald 541 natural gas exports 408 Western 529–30 Turovskaya, Maya 281 ceded by treaty of Brest-Litovsk 136 Tvardovskii, Aleksandr 616, 682 nationalism in 529 see also Galicia U-2 spy plane incident (1960) 287, 684, 686 Ukrainian Institute of Physics and Ufa Conference (1918) 145 Technology, Khar’kov 560 Ukraine 529–30 Ukrainian People’s Republic 530

837

Index

Ukrainians Urals deportation (First World War) 99 labour camps 202 radical nationalism in European states peasant uprising 161 534–5 urban growth 201 Ulam,AdamB.27 urban workers see proletariat (urban workers) Ulbricht, Walter, East German president 274 urbanisation 192, 387, 402 Ul’ianov, Vladimir see Lenin, V.I. under Stalin 200–1 Ul’ianovskii, Rostislav 686, 692 see also towns and urban areas Ulmanis, Karlis, Latvia 527, 533 Urusevskii, Sergei 614 Unger, A. L. 53 USSR State Council, transitional executive Uniate (Greek Catholic) Church, in Ukraine body (1991) 357 529, 541, 544 USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) Union of 17 October (Octobrists) 73 in 1985 319–20 Union of Cinematographers 624 in 1991 352–5 Union of Landowners and Farmers 128 constitution 176, 215 Union of Private Landed Proprietors 436 contribution to Second World War 224–5 Union of Private Peasant Farmers 434 dissolution of (1991) 61–2, 349, 352–7, 516–17, Union of Theatre Workers 629 731 Union for Women’s Equality 470 attempt to preserve union (1991) 346–8 United Nations 224 resistance to Union Treaty (1991) 347 human rights standards 307 end of Communist Party power in 328 recognition of former Soviet states 546 federal structure of 304, 495–6 United States of America 21, 26, 219 foundation (1922) 151, 175–7, 495 and Afghanistan 312, 692 as global power 239, 685–700 and America as ‘good society ...in Gorbachev revolution 322–5 operation’ 28 as imperialist 39 assumption of USSR as threat 20–1, 22–8, international isolation 199, 274 241, 306 legacy of Stalinism 271, 274 and Brezhnev 306 nationality in 176–7, 498, 523–4 cultural influence (early 1920s) 171, 590, 591 and fear of nationalism 540–2 and early Soviet Russia 10, 13–14 perceived threat of invasion (from 1920s) economic aid to USSR 223, 233 220–1 influence over Europe 665, 675, 680 as perverse model of modernisation 30–1, and Japan 652 58 Khrushchev and 286 popular discontent and resistance in 53 and Korean War 672 Russian cultural dominance in 211, 304, 495, and nuclear threat 241, 306 499 and nuclear weapons parity 306, 573 as scientific system 549 relations with 20, 54, 307, 647 separatist movements 346 relative strength 241, 306, 336 social histories of 58–61 and Second World War 225, 659 and Soviet Bloc under Khrushchev 283–5, Soviet studies in 10, 37–9, 40 674 as threat to USSR and socialism 663 and threat of war (1927) 199, 220 view of Bolshevism 9 and transfer of power between leaders view of show trials (1936–8) 17 289 see also Reagan, Ronald transformation under Stalin (from 1928) Unity political coalition 378 192–3 universities 572 war preparations from mid-1930s 221 and academic freedom (1905) 550 Western European view of (late 1930s) 221 national (native) 499 Western views of communist experiment women at 479, 484 12–20 uprisings and demonstrations, 1905 see also economy; foreign policy; Russian Revolution 68 Federation; Soviet identity; Stalinism

838

Index

Ustinov, Dmitrii, minister of defence 309, 317, famine (1921–2) 171–2 684 urban growth 201 and Afghanistan 693 Voloshyn, Avhustyn, president of Utesov, Leonid 590, 597, 598 Carpatho-Ukraine 535 ‘Baron von der Pschick’ 602 volunteer army, formation of 143 Uzbekistan 305, 354 Volunteer Army of South Russia see Whites and Commonwealth of Independent States Volynia, German population in 100 516 Voronin, Vladimir, president of Moldova 548 Uzbeks, in Osh region 516 Vorontsov-Dashkov, viceroy in Georgia 103 Voroshilov, Kliment 242, 657 Vainer, Arkadii and Grigorii, novelists 627 and formation of GKO 255 Vakhtangov, Evgenii 592 and Khrushchev 276, 277 Varga, Eugene, Institute of Global Economics and Stalin 186, 246, 257 and International Relations 658 Voznesenskii, Andrei 289 Varzar, Vasilii Egorovich, economist 395 Voznesenskii, Nikolai 242, 252, 615 Vavilov, N. I., geneticist 559 and Leningrad Affair 261–2 Veblen, Thorstein, critique of capitalism 14 in Politburo 260 Verba, Sidney, The Civic Culture (with and Stalin 253 Almond) 29 trial and execution of 262 Verbitskaia, Anastasia, novelist 583 VTsIK see Central Executive Committee of Vernadskii, V.I. 551, 555, 561 the Soviets and political reform 552 Vynnychenko, Volodymyr 530 Vernadsky, George (1887–1973) 38 Vyshinsky, Andrei 668 Ver tov, Dziga 591 Vysotskii, Vladimir 626 Vialtseva, Anastasia 582 ‘Morning Gymnastics’ 729 video technology 627 Vietnam, USSR and 308, 673 wage funds 301 Vietnam War 306 wages and effect on US policy 26, 43 agricultural 428, 430 villages 86, 126, 414 arrears (to 2000) 466 effect of February Revolution on 117 and bonus pay 164, 461 and NEP co-operatives 179 differentials 453 Soviet 303 increase under NEP 450 workers’ links with 444, 445, 448 and informal strategies 461 see also commune post-Soviet 465 Vilnius 527 unpaid 198, 372, 465 ceded to Poland 528, 533 women’s 487 returned to Lithuania 539 Wagner, Richard, Die Walkure¨ 601 Viola, Lynne 53 Walder, Andrew 60 violence, state 153 Wale¸sa, Lech 312 between president and parliament (1993) Walker, Martin 15 362 Wall Street Crash (1929) 645 in collectivisation campaign 195, 398, 422 Wallace, Donald Mackenzie 7 see also coercion; terror Wallace, Henry A., US vice president 20 Vladimir province, peasant out-migration Wang Ming (Chen Shaoyu), Chinese 443 communist 653 Vladivostok, population growth 201 War Communism 147, 157–63, 164, 167, 390–1 Vlasov, General, capture by Germans 228, 239 peasants and 417–19 voennizatsiia (militarisation of state as short-cut to communism 716, 718 institutions) 215 war industries committees 105, 106, 115 Volga provinces 128, 161 Warsaw, German campaign against (1914) 97 civil war conﬂicts 144 Washington, US–USSR summit (1985) 339 deportation of Germans from 226 A Wealthy Bride (ﬁlm) 208

839

Index

Webb, Sidney and Beatrice 33 attempted emancipation of Muslim 174 Weber, Max 29, 60 Bolshevik emancipation of 156, 173–4 welfare and class 85, 482 provision in rural areas 430 social mobility (1930s) 479–80 sick-benefit funds 459 commodification of sexuality 492 supplied by workplace 458, 461 discontent (1970s) 489 Werth, Alexander 15 domestic responsibilities (‘double burden’) West, Nathaniel 18 480, 484, 487–8 West, the education academic study of post-war USSR 20–2 co-education 473 anti-communist leaders (in 1980s) 313 literacy rates 207, 429 assumption of Western master narrative 28 of rural women 489 and detente´ (c.1965–75) 54, 305–8 and effect of market liberalisation 436 economic crises (1970s) 306 elite 470 and Gorbachev’s reforms 699–700 and end of state regulation 492–3 influence of popular culture 281 gendered roles left-wing enthusiasm for Bolshevism 8 in employment 172, 427 left-wing ideological support for Soviet post-war 483–5 Russia 17–18 traditional hierarchies 468, 473, 494 optimism about capitalist democracy 6 and labour movement 122 and perception of international revolution life expectancy 492 645 middle-class 122, 469–70 right-wing views of Bolshevism 8 migration to towns 431, 489 views of communist experiment 12–20 obshchestvennitsy (wife-activists) 482 views of visiting writers on Soviet political organisation (1990s) 492–3 experiment 10, 12–13, 15–16 portrayal in films and literature 623–4 and Yeltsin 348 poverty 492 see also Europe; United States of America pre-revolution White Sea Canal 193, 401, 671 and 1905 Revolution 76, 470 White, Stephen 42 in public life 469–70 Whites (White Army) 143 resistance to Stolypin’s commune Allies’ support for 112, 145 reforms 415 defeat of 146–7 as prisoners 482 and Muslim populations 151 in professions 469 use of terror 146 as physicians 469, 483 Wilhelm II, Emperor of Germany 95 and reforms under Brezhnev 488–90 Wilhelm of Urach, German prince 528 resistance to collectivisation 423–4, Wilson, Edmund 19 477–9 An Appeal to Progressives 14 return to traditional model 209–10 To the Finland Station 18 ‘back to home’ movement 491–2 Wilson, Woodrow, US president 112, 495 and ideology of domesticity 469–70 view of February 1917 Revolution 8 and propaganda of motherhood 473, Witte, Sergei, prime minister 71 476–7, 480, 484 and completion of Trans-Siberian railway and redefinition of wifehood 482 67, 386 rights within communes 413, 420, 477 industrialisation 386 rural ‘woman question’ and cultivation of private plots 425, 429, de-Stalinisation of 485–90 478 in pre-revolutionary politics 76 in peasant households 86, 413 women workers on collectives 478–9 and 1905 Revolution 76, 470 and rural religion 87, 477 and 1917 Revolution 471–2 Second World War February Revolution 114, 122, 471 in armed forces 483

840

Index

employment 483 Workers’ Group of War Industries and wartime food production 426 Committee, and February uprising 115 single mothers 173 Workers’ Opposition 164 social and cultural success 493–4 workers’ organisations socialist activists 470 relations with Provisional Government 108 soldiers’ wives 471 role of Marxists in 75 under NEP 172–4, 475–6 Workers’–Peasants’ Inspectorate (1920) 155 unemployment 466, 475, 492 working class 441–2 voting in Constituent Assembly elections end of (under Gorbachev) 462–7 122, 471 and establishment of soviet power 137–8 workers 462, 468, 485 andmassculture579, 582, 590 industrial 469, 479, 487 participation in war industries committees working-class 85 106 see also women’s emancipation political consciousness among 84–5, 444 WomenintheUSSRyearbook (1990) 491 rarity of family households 445 women’s emancipation reduction in size (during civil war) 163 abandoned 479, 490 resistance to Bolshevik practices 163, 165 Bolshevik reforms 156, 173–4, 471, 472 and Social Democracy 707–10, 711 debate under perestroika 491–2 see also proletariat (urban workers); movement for 76, 122, 470 workers work and 490 working conditions 83, 450 and Zhenotdel (Women’s Bureau) 474–5 continuous working week (nepreryvka) work permits, temporary, for Moscow 452 303 working hours 83 worker club movement 592 World of Art movement 81, 582 ‘worker-intellectuals’ 585 World Bank 373 Worker Opposition group (1920–1) 715 World Youth Festival, Moscow (1957) 281 workers 45, 462 Wrangel, Baron N. 9 adaptation to the system 447–8 Wrangel, Petr, commander of Whites 112, 146 artisanal 443, 444 writers continuing links with villages 440, 444, 445, expelled 620, 621 448 Khrushchev’s relations with 277 enthusiasm for rapid industrialisation 48 tactics to avoid censorship 621–2 increasing discontent 456 women 469, 470, 493 informal strategies for acquiring goods and Writers’ Union 595, 596, 618 services 461 powers of control 619, 628 labour discipline 448–50 revival of 611 and perestroika 405, 465 relations with Bolshevik government 163–6 xenophobia relationship with workplace management cultural 605–10 458–62 in Great Purges 213 reliance on workplace provision 198 resistance to Stakhanovism 397, 453, 455 Yakovlev, Aleksandr 269, 318, 696, 697 role in revolution 120–21, 129 and foreign policy 338 ‘shock’ 452 rebuttal of Andreeva letter 326 socialist competition strategy 452–3 as reformist 321–2, 325, 347 and trade unionism 708 Yakut peoples, relations with Russians 513 see also labour history; proletariat (urban Yalta Agreement (1945) 666 workers); working class Yeltsin, Boris 61, 369, 702 workers’ consciousness (soznatel’nost’), and 1998 economic crisis 371–4 Marxist concept of 83 banning of Communist Party 356 Workers’ Defence Committee (KOR), Poland as challenger to Gorbachev 328, 348–9, 352, 312 357, 516

841

Index

Yeltsin, Boris (cont.) Zelenograd, science city 566 and Chechnya’s declaration of zemstvos independence 365 democratisation of (1917) 117 conﬂict with Congress of People’s union of (parastatal) 105 Deputies 361–3 Zhang Guo-tao, Chinese communist 653 and creation of market economy (1991) 358 Zhang Xueliang, Manchurian warlord 653 and dissolution of USSR (1991) 348–9, 355–7, Zhdanov, Andrei 242, 252, 261, 508, 606 516 and concept of Soviet identity (NSM) 663, Duma threat to impeach 375 725 election to Congress (1989) 327, 328 and Eastern Europe 666 and events of October 1993 361–4 and Finland 664 ‘family’ network 371 and foreign policy-making 668 as First Secretary of Moscow Party 320, as Stalin’s deputy 253 325 Zhdanov, Iurii, scientist 563, 565 illness 371, 378 Zhdanovshchina (cultural repression) 606, indecision on political system 357–8 663, 668 legacy 379–80 Zhelezniakov, A. G., sailors’ leader 138 and new constitution (1993) 363–4 Zhemchuzhina, Polina, wife of Molotov 251 and new freedoms 325 Zhenotdel (Women’s Bureau) 474–5, 477, 478 and perestroika 326 abolition 479 and political crisis (1998–9) 374–6 Zhirinovsky, Vladimir, radical nationalist popular support for 330, 335, 354, 377 366–8 as president of Russian Republic 328 Zhou En-lai 672 and presidential elections 366, 369–70 at Twenty-Second Congress 284 and proposals for economic reform (1990) Zhukov, General Georgii 255, 654 334 Zhvanetskii, Mikhail 626 and Russian Republic independence 347, Zinoviev, Aleksandr, The Yawning Heights 574 516 Zinoviev, Grigorii (1883–1936) 125, 134, 638 and Tatarstan 518 and Comintern 644 Yemen 308, 314 expulsion from Party 186, 190, 246, 250 Yevtushenko, see Evtushenko and kto-kogo phrase 719 Yudenich, General 112 and prospect of Italian revolution 638 Yugoslavia 289, 343 and Stalin 184 Khrushchev’s relations with 276, 284, and Trotsky 185, 245 676–7 and use of propaganda 715 NATO intervention in Kosovo 703, 704 Zionism 91 Yukos oil company 704 Ziuganov, Gennadii Andreevich, presidential Yushchenko, Viktor, president of Ukraine 548 candidate (1996) 369 Znamia (journal) 627 Zamiatin, Evgenii, We (novel) 632 Zoshchenko, Mikhail, satirist 587, 606, 663, Zaslavskaia, Tat’iana, economist 404, 431 674, 725 Zasulich, Vera 711 Zvezda (journal) 663

842