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A Zooarcheological Investigation Into the Meat Industry Established at the Cape of Good Hope By ©2010 Adam R. Heinrich ALL RIGHTS RESERVED A ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE MEAT INDUSTRY ESTABLISHED AT THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE BY THE DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. By ADAM R. HEINRICH A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School–New Brunswick Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Anthropology Written under the direction of Carmel Schrire And approved by ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ New Brunswick, New Jersey May 2010 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION A Zooarchaeological Investigation Into the Meat Industry Established at the Cape of Good Hope by the Dutch East India Company in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. By ADAM R. HEINRICH Dissertation Director: Carmel Schrire The Dutch East India Company (VOC) established their settlement at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652 in order to refresh passing trade ships with fresh water, vegetables, and meat in hopes of lessening disease and death during the long voyages around the tip of Africa between Europe and the Far East. The great demand for meat provided an impetus for Dutch-Khoehoe interactions which ultimately drained the Khoekhoe of their wealth, land, and identity. Currently, with the exception of the terrestrial faunal from Oudepost I (Cruz-Uribe and Schrire 1991), historic period faunal analyses at the Cape have been very localized, superficially descriptive, and taphonomically flawed, which has ii led to very little understanding of the overall colonial meat market and included some implausible interpretations. This thesis takes into account contextual evidence, applies zooarchaeological methodology, and incorporates actualistically-based research into taphonomic traces on bone surfaces and to better reconstruct the originally deposited samples. The investigation of the VOC’s meat industry that was emplaced at the Cape is carried out through the investigation of five faunal samples including three sites from the Castle of Good Hope; the Moat, the Granary (F2), and Donkergat (DKG); Elsenburg; and the Dump from Oudespost I. The systemic approach provides information about livestock production, slaughter, and consumption at the Cape with information about large scale slaughter for local markets or trade ship provisioning. This thesis describes the transplanted European husbandry practices as the VOC overcame initial hardships of meeting high meat demands to become the dominant power across the landscape. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would foremost like to thank Carmel Schrire for sharing her guidance and critical mind, while also having great patience throughout the research and writing of this dissertation. I would also like to thank my dissertation committee, Robert Blumenschine, Robert Scott, and David Landon (University of Massachusetts- Boston), for helpful critiques and advice. I would like to additionally thank Robert Blumenschine for his instruction in faunal analysis and taphonomy. I would like to thank Royden Yates, Graham Avery, Margaret Avery and Lalou Meltzer who were instrumental in helping me gain access and navigate the IZIKO: South African Museum, especially Graham Avery for working alongside me to help identify various bones and the birds. Thanks are also extended to the faculty at the University of Cape Town’s Archaeology Department for allowing me access to various faunal assemblages kept in their store rooms. I also appreciate the help from Richard Klein (Stanford University) who had helped me with some bone specimens in addition to reviewing some portions of this work. I would also like to thank Eileen Westwig at the American Museum of Natural History for providing access to their Mammalogy Collections. Funding for this research has been obtained from Special Opportunity Award, Bigel Grants, the Center for Human Evolutionary Studies Student Grant at Rutgers University, and Wenner-Gren. Outside of the thesis research and writing, I would like to thank colleagues who broadened my archaeological experiences including Charles Bello, Carolyn Dillian, Matt Tomaso and crew at CRCG; Paul McEachen and Robert Lore at Richard Grubb and iv Associates; Bill Liebeknecht, Ian Burrows, Richard Hunter and crew at Hunter Research; and especially Richard Veit for education and inspiration on topics from gravestones to mansions. Zuletzt, möchte ich meiner Familie und meine liebe Alison Kepple für Liebe und Stabilität danken. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv TABLE OF CONTENTS vi LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF FIGURES x CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1 I. Research Objectives 1 II. Historical Period Zooarchaeology 3 III. Historical Background 5 IV. Animals at the Cape 12 V. Animals in Food from the European Homeland and the Cape 46 VI. Summary of Historical Zooarchaeology at the Cape from the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 61 CHAPTER TWO: Methodology 66 I. Sampling 66 II. Taphonomy 67 III. Taxonomy and Quantifications 73 IV. Ages of the Fauna 75 V. Sex 79 VI. Butchery 81 CHAPTER THREE: Castle of Good Hope’s Moat 83 I. History 83 II. Archaeology 85 III. Faunal Results 93 IV. Discussion 116 CHAPTER FOUR: Donkergat (DKG) 129 I. History 129 II. Archaeology 130 III. Faunal Results 132 IV. Discussion 146 CHAPTER FIVE: The Granary (F2) 148 I. History 148 II. Archaeology 149 III. Thackeray’s Faunal Results 157 IV. Faunal Results 159 vi V. Discussion 173 CHAPTER SIX: Elsenburg 184 I. History 184 II. Archaeology 187 III. Faunal Results 194 IV. Discussion 212 CHAPTER SEVEN: Oudepost I Dump (DP) 225 I. History 225 II. Terrestrial Faunal Summary 225 III. Archaeological Summary of the Dump Deposit 227 IV. Faunal Results from DP 228 V. Discussion 240 CHAPTER EIGHT: Determining Breed Difference 244 I. Introduction 244 II. Sexual Dimorphism 246 III. Methodology and Materials 251 IV. Known-Sex Results 258 V. Archaeological Results 264 VI. Age-Related Variation in Tooth Row Lengths 275 VII. Age Variation Discussion 281 VIII. Conclusion 282 CHAPTER NINE: Conclusion 285 I. Scope of the Thesis 285 II. Characteristics of the VOC Meat Industry 286 III. The Impact of the VOC Meat Industry on the Cape Landscape 297 IV. The VOC Meat Industry’s Impact on the Cape Culture 302 V. Contributions to Slave Zooarchaeology 309 VI. In Closing 312 APPENDICES 315 1. Analysis Coding Conventions 315 2. Osteological Coding Conventions 318 WORKS CITED 321 CURRICULUM VITA 362 vii LIST OF TABLES page 1.1 Historical references to the domestic animals kept during the VOC period at the Cape with the time of their introduction and place of origin. 15 2.1 Criteria recorded to assess bone condition 69 2.2 Criteria recorded to describe non-butchery related taphonomic traces 72 2.3 Basic criteria recorded from specimens 76 2.4 Criteria recorded to describe butchery related taphonomic traces 82 3.1 Tobacco pipestem mean bore diameter according to Levels 93 3.2 Sample sizes for respective columns and levels 94 3.3 Surface condition observed on all bone fragments 96 3.4 The degree of root etching on the bone fragments 96 3.5 Measures of long bone completeness 98 3.6 Taxonomic representations in the Moat samples 101 3.7 Sheep postcranial epiphyseal fusion NISP 104 3.8 Cattle postcranial epiphyseal fusion NISP 106 3.9 The frequencies of butchery and burning in each Level 113 4.1 Sample sizes (NISP) for each Layer in Column 1 in DKG 132 4.2 Measures of long bone completeness 133 4.3 Taxonomic representations in each respective Layer in DKG 137 4.4 Estimated meat contributions from sheep and cattle in Layer 4 137 4.5 Sheep postcranial epiphyseal fusion stages for Layer 4 138 4.6 Cattle postcranial epiphyseal fusion stages for Layer 4 139 4.7 Pig postcranial epiphyseal fusion stages for Layer 4 139 4.8 The frequencies of butchery and burning in each Layer 143 5.1 Hall’s and Yates et al.’s pipestem bore sample sizes and mean diameters 156 5.2 Thackeray’s MNI by Phase 159 5.3 Sample sizes (NISP) for Phase 1 and Phase 7 159 5.4 Measures of long bone completeness 161 5.5 Frequencies of abrasion damage observed on bone surfaces 162 5.6 Frequencies of carnivore damage observed on bone surfaces 163 5.7 Frequencies of butchery and cooking evidence 163 5.8 Bone breakage patterns 164 5.9 Taxonomic representations in Phase 1 and Phase 7 of the Granary 165 5.10 Bird taxa identified in the various Phases of the Granary 166 5.11 Sheep epiphyseal fusion frequencies 169 5.12 Cattle epiphyseal fusion frequencies 169 5.13 Skeletal part frequencies of Ovis aries/size 2 bovids by NISP and compared to Thackeray’s sheep-only results 171 5.14 Cattle NISP compared to size 3 bovid NISP 172 5.15 Summary of Cannon’s Point faunal samples 174 5.16 Summary of Monticello’s faunal samples 176 6.1 Sample sizes of DBYC 6 194 6.2 Surface condition observed on the bone fragments from DBYC 6 194 6.3 Bone breakage patterns 196 6.4 Measures of long bone completion 197 viii 6.5 Taxonomic representations in the DBYC 6 sample 199 6.6 Estimated meat contributions from sheep and cattle in DBYC 6 200 6.7 Sheep postcranial epiphyseal fusion NISP 202 6.8 Cattle postcranial epiphyseal fusion NISP 203 6.9 Pig postcranial epiphyseal fusion NISP 204 6.10 The frequencies of butchery and burning in DBYC 6 209 7.1 Sample sizes (NISP) for both DP analyses 229 7.2 Bone fragment surface condition for DP 3-16 229 7.3 Bone breakage patterns from DP 3-16 232 7.4 Measures of long bone completion 232 7.5 Taxonomic representations in
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