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Grammatical Relations A grammar of Klon: a non-Austronesian language of Alor, Indonesia Pacific Linguistics 596 Pacific Linguistics is a publisher specialising in grammars and linguistic descriptions, dictionaries and other materials on languages of the Pacific, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, southeast and south Asia, and Australia. Pacific Linguistics, established in 1963 through an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund, is associated with the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at The Australian National University. The authors and editors of Pacific Linguistics publications are drawn from a wide range of institutions around the world. Publications are refereed by scholars with relevant expertise, who are usually not members of the editorial board. FOUNDING EDITOR: Stephen A. Wurm EDITORIAL BOARD: John Bowden and I Wayan Arka (Managing Editors), Nicholas Evans, David Nash, Andrew Pawley, Malcolm Ross, Paul Sidwell, Jane Simpson, and Darrell Tryon EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD: Karen Adams, Arizona State University Bambang Kaswanti Purwo, Universitas Atma Alexander Adelaar, University of Melbourne Jaya Peter Austin, School of Oriental and African Marian Klamer, Universiteit Leiden Studies Harold Koch, The Australian National Byron Bender, University of Hawai‘i University Walter Bisang, Johannes Gutenberg- Frantisek Lichtenberk, University of Universität Mainz Auckland Robert Blust, University of Hawai‘i John Lynch, University of the South Pacific David Bradley, La Trobe University Patrick McConvell, Australian Institute of Lyle Campbell, University of Utah Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander James Collins, Universiti Kebangsaan Studies Malaysia William McGregor, Aarhus Universitet Bernard Comrie, Max Planck Institute for Ulrike Mosel, Christian-Albrechts- Evolutionary Anthropology Universität zu Kiel Soenjono Dardjowidjojo, Universitas Atma Claire Moyse-Faurie, Centre National de la Jaya Recherche Scientifique Matthew Dryer, State University of New York Bernd Nothofer, Johann Wolfgang Goethe- at Buffalo Universität Frankfurt am Main Jerold A. Edmondson, University of Texas Ger Reesink, Universiteit Leiden at Arlington Lawrence Reid, University of Hawai‘i Margaret Florey, Monash University Jean-Claude Rivierre, Centre National de la William Foley, University of Sydney Recherche Scientifique Karl Franklin, SIL International Melenaite Taumoefolau, University of Charles Grimes, SIL International Auckland Nikolaus Himmelmann, Ruhr-Universität Tasaku Tsunoda, University of Tokyo Bochum John Wolff, Cornell University Lillian Huang, National Taiwan Normal Elizabeth Zeitoun, Academica Sinica University A grammar of Klon: a non-Austronesian language of Alor, Indonesia Louise Baird Pacific Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Published by Pacific Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 Australia Copyright in this edition is vested with Pacific Linguistics First published 2008 National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Author: Baird, Louise Title: A grammar of Klon : a non-Austronesian language of Alor, Indonesia / Louise Baird ISBN: 9780858835986 (pbk.) Notes: Bibliography Subjects: Alor (Indonesia)—Languages—Grammar Dewey Number: 499.223 Cover picture of a moko by Louise Baird. Mokos (metal drums) often have a link to the supernatural, and are a traditional form of wealth, and still used all over the Alor archipelago in important cultural transactions, such as brideprice. Typeset by Jeanette Coombes Cover design by Julie Manley Maps redrawn by Cartographic Services, RSPAS, College of Asia and the Pacific, ANU Printed and bound by Addcolour Digital Pty Ltd, Fyshwick, Canberra Table of contents List of figures and tables x Acknowledgements xiii List of abbreviations xiv Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Setting: history, location and languages 1 1.2 Overview of Klon 3 1.2.1 Language names 3 1.2.2 Genetic affiliation 3 1.2.3 The Klon dialects 3 1.3 Previous research 4 1.4 Data and approach for the study 5 1.5 Physical and cultural setting 6 1.6 Sociolinguistic setting 7 1.6.1 Multilingualism 7 1.6.2 Ritual speech 8 1.6.3 Access to media 8 1.6.4 Outsiders: facilities and attitudes 9 1.6.5 Attitudes towards Klon 10 1.7 The influence of other languages 11 1.7.1 Local languages 11 1.7.2 Malay 11 1.8 Typological overview and layout of this grammar 12 Chapter 2: Phonetics and phonology 14 2.1 Consonants 14 2.1.1 Consonant phonemes 14 2.1.2 Stops 15 2.1.3 Rhotic trill 17 2.1.4 Fricatives 17 2.1.5 Approximants 18 2.1.6 Lateral approximant 18 v vi 2.2 Vowels 19 2.2.1 Long and short vowel phonemes 19 2.2.2 Vowel sequences 20 2.3 Syllable structure 20 2.4 Stress 22 2.4.1 Disyllabic words 22 2.4.2 Trisyllabic words 23 2.5 Orthography 24 2.5.1 Phonemes 24 2.5.2 Unstressed vowels 25 2.5.3 Vowel sequences 25 2.5.4 Morphemes 25 2.5.4.1 Alienable/inalienable possession 25 2.5.5 Actor/Undergoer pronouns 26 2.5.6 Valence increasing u- and applicative mi- 26 2.5.7 Words with multiple affixes 27 2.5.8 Reduplication 27 Chapter 3: Grammatical relations 29 3.1 Introduction 29 3.1.1 Properties of grammatical relations 29 3.1.2 Grouping of A, S and O 29 3.2 Argument coding 30 3.2.1 Participant reference coding 30 3.2.2 Constituent order 31 3.2.3 Anaphoric co-reference in paratactically conjoined clauses 35 3.2.4 Reciprocals 39 3.2.5 Promotion through increase in valency 39 3.2.6 Noun incorporation 40 3.3 Summary 41 3.4 A note on adjuncts 42 Chapter 4: Word classes 43 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Nouns 43 4.2.1 Definition 43 4.2.2 Common nouns 43 4.2.2.1 A note on compound nouns 44 4.2.3 Proper names 45 4.2.4 A note on verbalised nouns 46 4.3 Verbs 46 vii 4.3.1 Morpho-syntactic criteria 46 4.3.2 Sub-classes of verbs 47 4.3.3 Verbs with obligatory pronominal prefixes 48 4.3.4 Verbs with optional pronominal prefixes 49 4.3.5 Verbs that are rarely pronominally prefixed 50 4.3.6 Split-S pronominal marking 51 4.3.7 A note on nominalised verbs 56 4.4 Closed word classes 56 4.4.1 Adjectives 56 4.4.2 Demonstratives and deictics 58 4.4.3 Pronominals 62 4.4.4 Numerals 62 4.4.5 Classifiers 63 4.4.5.1 Numeral classifiers 63 4.4.5.2 Noun classifiers 64 4.4.6 A note on adverbs 64 4.4.7 Discourse marker =e 64 4.4.8 Miscellaneous grammatical items 65 Chapter 5: Pronouns 66 5.1 Introduction 66 5.1.1 Number in pronominal paradigms 66 5.2 The marking of Actors 66 5.3 The marking of Undergoers 68 5.3.1 Overview 68 5.3.2 Class I Undergoer prefixes 69 5.3.3 Class II Undergoer prefixes 70 5.3.4 Class III Undergoer proclitics 71 5.3.5 Class IV Undergoer prefixes 73 5.3.6 Semantically determined pronoun choice 74 5.3.6.1 Overview 74 5.3.6.2 Class II/Class III Undergoer alternation 74 5.3.6.3 Class II/Class IV Undergoer prefix alternation 75 5.4 Dual pronouns 76 5.5 Emphatic pronouns 77 5.6 Third person discourse pronouns 78 Chapter 6: Noun phrases 81 6.1 Introduction 81 6.2 Noun phrase structure and modification 81 6.2.1 Basic NP structure and simple modification 81 viii 6.2.1.1 A note on the focus marker 85 6.2.2 Multiple modification and order of modifiers 86 6.2.3 Noun co-ordination and list NPs 88 6.2.4 Reduced noun phrases 88 6.3 Possession 89 6.3.1 Overview 89 6.3.2 Possessive pronouns 89 6.3.3 Alienable versus inalienable possession 90 6.4 Additional use of free possessive pronouns 92 Chapter 7: Verbal morphology 94 7.1 Introduction 94 7.2 Valence increasing prefixes 94 7.3 Valence increasing prefix u- 95 7.3.1 Overview 95 7.3.2 Valence increasing function on verbs 95 7.3.3 Adjective-derived causative u- prefixed verbs 99 7.3.4 Valence increasing u- on nouns and numerals 100 7.4 Applicative mi- 101 7.5 Reduplication 102 7.5.1 Overview 102 7.5.2 Partial reduplication: nominal Actor derivation 103 7.5.3 u- prefixed partial reduplication: nominal Undergoer derivation 104 7.5.4 Full reduplication: iterativity, durativity 105 7.6 Reflexives 105 7.7 Reciprocals 106 7.8 Intensifier a= 107 Chapter 8: Adverbs 108 8.1 Introduction 108 8.2 Temporal adverbs 108 8.3 Additive adverbs 109 8.4 Aspectual adverbs 109 8.4.1 Overview 109 8.4.2 Durative aspectual adverb i 110 8.4.3 Imperfective incompletive aspectual adverb: qada 112 8.4.4 Completive aspectual adverb: ik 113 8.4.5 Perfect aspectual adverb: agai 114 8.4.6 Continuative aspectual adverb: yeh 115 8.5 Modal adverbs 116 8.5.1 Overview 116 ix 8.5.2 Irrealis modal adverb: hok 116 8.5.3 Deontic modal adverb: musti 117 8.5.4 Epistemic modal adverb boge 117 8.6 Negative adverb 118 Chapter 9: Utterance and clause types 120 9.1 Introduction 120 9.2 Intransitive clauses 120 9.3 Transitive clauses 122 9.4 A note on ditransitive clauses 124 9.5 A note on nominalised clauses 124 9.6 Interrogatives 125 9.6.1 Overview 125 9.6.2 Polar questions 125 9.6.3 Content questions 127 9.7 Imperatives 131 Chapter 10: Serial verb constructions 135 10.1 Introduction 135 10.2 Structural characteristics of Klon SVCs 136 10.3 Symmetrical serial verb constructions 139 10.3.1 Overview 139 10.3.2 Sequential SVCs 139 10.3.3 Manner SVCs 140 10.3.4 Parallel SVCs 141 10.3.5 Symmetrical SVCs containing motion verbs 142 10.3.6 Lexicalised SVCs 143 10.4 Asymmetrical serial verb constructions 144 10.4.1 Overview 144 10.4.2 Directional SVCs 144 10.4.3 Modal SVCs 145 10.4.4 Instrumental SVCs 146 10.4.5 Placement SVCs 146 10.4.6 Locational SVCs 147 10.4.7 A note on the grammaticalisation of asymmetrical SVCs 148 Chapter 11: Discourse structure 149 11.1 Introduction 149 11.2 Relative clauses 149 11.3 Complement clauses 152 11.4 Coordinate
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