The Yimas Language of New Guinea William A. Foley Stanford University Press Stanford, California Stanford University Press Stanford, California Copyright © 1991 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University Printed in the United States of America of CIP data appear at the end the book For the Yimas people as they find their way in the modern world Preface This book is the result of a research project spread over some ten years and funded largely by the Australian Research Grants Scheme (Grant A176/15655), with some supplementary funding in 1985 from the Fac­ ulties Research Fund of the Australian National University. The goal of the project was a complete study of the Yimas language, its grammar and lexicon, the social and cultural contexts of the use of the language, its history and genetic relations, and its interactions with neighboring languages. Some of the results of this project have been reported in pre­ vious works, notably Foley (1986, 1988), but this book represents the most complete document on the language to date. Still to come are a Yimas dictionary and a volume of traditional legends, presented in Yi­ mas with Tok Pisin and English translations. Further, the result of the Yimas language project will play a central role in a long term research project I have just commenced-a reconstruction of the prehistory of the Sepik-Ramu basin, using largely linguistic data. The following grammar is not written in any set theoretical frame­ work. I wanted the organization of the grammar to reflect the structure of the language as closely as possible. Hence, I have deliberately chosen to be eclectic, choosing various ideas from different theories when these Heem to elucidate the structure of the language best. Thus, the reader will find that the phonology is largely cast in an autosegmental frame­ work, while the syntax reflects a rather broad structuralist/functionalist pmspective. Still, these frameworks are not rigidly adhered to, but are adapted as needs be in order to make the grammar widely accessible. This seemed to me to be the best approach, because this work is likely to hP the only documentation ever of the grammar of the Yimas language, and hence it is esset;1tial that it be intelligible to the widest possible au­ di«�nce. Those who find in the labyrinth of Yimas grammar, facts which vii viii PREFACE are confirmations (or disconfirmations!) of their favorite linguistic hy­ potheses are welcome to make whatever use they like of this grammar and restate it in whatever theoretical model they fancy. This book is the last I will write at the Australian National Univer­ sity, and I would like to take this opportunity to thank my colleagues and the general staffof the University for their help and kindnesses over the years, which have made my twelve years here such a pleasant time. The conditions at the Australian National University must be among the very best in the world, and whatever value the reader may find in this work is due in no small part to the excellent support provided by the University over the years. For the completion of this work, I owe a great debt to several people. The two most important are Mrs. Ellalene Seymour, who patiently and uncomplainingly typed the manuscript from untidy handwritten drafts, and Rosemary Butt, whose electronic wizardry made the correcting and editing of the manuscript much less painful than it otherwise would have been. Thanks also go to Val Lyons, who drew the maps. Finally, a simple thanks is inadequate to express my debt to my main language teacher Stephen Yakayapan Mambi and my other language helpers at Yimas: Paul Api, Pius Taki, Marikin, Malkior Yumbwi, and Bruno Yumbwi. It was their hard work and patience which made this book possible. Finally, I hope the dedication of this book to the Yimas people goes part of the way in repaying their kindness and trust in me over the last ten years. Contents List of Maps and Tables xiii Abbreviations xv 1 The Language and Its Speakers 1 1.1 Linguistic Type 1 1.2 Neighboring Languages 7 1.3 Ethnographic Sketch 11 1.4 Sepik Area Languages and the Lower Sepik Family 18 1.5 Sources for This Study 34 2 Phonology 37 2.1 Consonants 38 2.1.1 Segmental Phonemes 38 2.1.2 Consonant Clusters 41 2.2 Vowels 44 2.3 Segmental Phonological Rules 50 2.3.1 Palatalization 51 2.3.2 Liquid Strengthening 53 2.3.3 Palatalization Again 54 2.3.4 The Spreading of the Autosegment R [round] 58 2.3.5 Consonant Truncation 70 2.4 Reduplication 71 2.5 Suprasegmentals 75 2.6 Boundaries and the Notion of the Word 80 2.7 A Note on Orthography 87 3 Word Classes 89 3.1 Nouns 90 3.2 Verbs 92 3.3 Adjectives 93 IX CONTENTS X 3.4 Quantifiers 101 3.5 Locationals 105 3.6 Temporals 109 3. 7 Pronouns 111 3.8 Deictics 112 3.9 Conjunctions 116 3.10 Interjections 117 4 Nouns and Noun Phrases 119 4.1 Noun Classes 119 4.1.1 Class I 119 4.1.2 Class II 126 4.1.3 Class III 128 4.1.4 Class IV 132 4.1.5 Class V 136 4.1.6 Class VI 141 4.1. 7 Class VII 144 4.1.8 Class VIII 147 4.1.9 Class IX 153 4.1.10 Class X 158 4.1.11 Minor Classes 163 4.2 The Oblique Suffix -n "' -nan 165 4.3 Proper Nouns 169 4.4 Noun Compounds 171 4.5 Possession 176 4.6 Nominals and Noun Phrases 180 5 Basic Verbal Morphology 193 5.1 The Pronominal AffixSystem for Core Nominals 193 5.1.1 The Basic Schema for Role Marking 193 5.1.2 The Prefixes and Their Combinations 200 5.1.3 Ditransitive Verbs and the Expression of the Dative 208 5.1.4 The Indication of Paucal Number 216 5.1.5 The Forms of the Copula 225 5.1.6 The Grammatical Status and Pragmatic Functions of the Pronominal Affixes 227 5.2 Tense, Aspect, and Mood 235 5.2.1 The Tense/Aspect System 236 5.2.1.1 Irrealis 237 5.2.1.2 The Suffix k 240 - i 5.2.1.3 The Past Tensesa 241 5.2.1.3.1 The Remote Past 241 CONTENTS xi 5.2.1.3.2 The Far Past 242 5.2.1.3.3 The Near Past 243 5.2.1.4 The Present Tenses 244 5.2.1.4.1 The Perfective 244 5.2.1.4.2 The Imperfective 245 5.2.1.4.3 The Habitual 246 5.2.1.5 The Future Tenses 247 5.2.1.5.1 The Near Future 247 5.2.1.5.2 The Remote Future 248 5.2.1.6 Aspectual Suffixes 249 5.2.1.6.1 The Completive Aspect 249 5.2.1.6.2 The Durational Aspect 249 5.2.1.6.3 The Immediate Aspect 250 5.2.2 Modality 251 5.2.2.1 Negation 251 5.2.2.2 Potential Modality 263 5.2.2.3 Likely Modality 265 5.2.3 Mood 268 5.2.3.1 Imperative Mood 269 5.2.3.2 Hortative Mood 273 5.2.3.3 Negative Imperatives and Hortatives 275 6 The Verb Theme and Clause Structure 277 6.1 Yimas as a Polysynthetic Language 277 6.2 Stem Derivational Processes 281 6.2.1 The Concept of Transitivity 281 6.2.2 Verb Stem Derivations: Reciprocal Formation and Valence Decreasing 284 6.2.3 Verb Stem Derivations: Valence Increasing 288 6.2.3.1 Causativization 288 6.2.3.1.1 Lexical Causatives 289 6.2.3.1.2 Non-productive Morphological Causatives 289 6.2.3.1.3 Productive Morphological Causatives 291 6.2.3.2 Possessor Raising 300 6.2.3.3 Promotion to Core 303 6.2.3.3.1 Comitative tav- 303 6.2.3.3.2 Benefactive -va 308 6.2.3.3.3 Allative ira- 311 6.2.3.3.4 Visual tavkway- 314 6.2.3.3.5 Kinetic pampay- 316 6.2.3.3.6 Following tur- 318 6.2.4 Verb Stem Derivations: Reduplication 318 6.2.5 Verb Stem Derivations: Noun Incorporation 319 xii CONTENTS 6.3 Theme Derivational Processes 321 6.3.1 Serial Verb Constructions 321 6.3.1.1 Specializations in Serial Verb Constructions: Modality 332 6.3.1.2 Specializations in Serial Verb Constructions: tt- 'do, feel, become' 334 6.3.2 Adverbial Incorporation 336 6.3.2.1 Obligatorily Incorporated Adverbials 336 6.3.2.1.1 Continuative yakal- 336 6.3.2.1.2 Durative nanav- 337 6.3.2.1.3 pay- 'at first, right now' 338 6.3.2.1.4 Visual tavkway- 339 6.3.2.1.5 taray- 'free, clear, loose' 339 6.3.2.1.6 kwanan- 'badly, incorrectly, aimlessly' 341 6.3.2.1.7 kwanti- 'now, today' 341 6.3.2.1.8 pwi- 'later, then' 342 6.3.2.1.9 mamav- 'slowly' 342 6.3.2.1.10 kaykaykay- 'quickly' 342 6.3.2.2 Optionally Incorporated Adverbials 342 6.3.3 Elevationals/Directionals 346 6.4 An Explicit Account of Yimas Verbal Morphology 353 6.5 Yimas Clause Structures 369 7 Interclausal Relations 377 7.1 Non-Finite Nominalizations 377 7.1.1 The Suffix -ru and Agentive Nominalizations 377 7.1.2 Complementation 384 7.1.3 Purpose Clauses 402 7.1.4 Non-Finite Relative Clauses 403 7.1.5 Non-Finite Oblique Clauses 407 7.2 Finite Nominalizations 412 7.2.1 Finite Relative Clauses 413 7.2.2 Perception Complements 433 7.2.3 Finite Oblique Clauses 435 7.3 Clause Chaining and Coordination 445 7.3.1 Clause Chaining and Dependent Verbs 445 7.3.2 Clause Coordination 449 Appendix: Yimas Texts 457 Text 1: Origins of Yimas Village 457 Text 2: The Flood 477 Text 3: How Men's Penises Got Shortened 483 Bibliography 487 List of Maps and Tables Map 1 Yimas and Neighboring Languages 6 Map 2 The Lower Sepik Family 24 Table 1 Lower Sepik Cognate Sets 25 Table 2 Cognate Sets for Class VI 26 Table 3 Distinctive Features of Yimas Consonants 40 Table 4 Yimas Noun Classes 167 Table 5 Inflection with Pronominal Affixes of Intransitive Verbs 215 Table 6 Inflection with Pronominal Affixes of Transitive Verbs 217 Table 7 Inflectionwith Pronominal Affixes of Ditransitive Verbs 218 xiii Abbreviations A - subject of transitive verb HAB - habitual ACC- accusative HORT- hortative ADJ- adjective IMM- immediate ADV- adverbial IMP- imperative AGR- agreement IMPERF- imperfective ALL - allative INCH- inchoative ASP- aspect INDIC- indicative BEN - benefactive INVIS- invisible CAUS- causative IRR- irrealis COM - comitative KIN - kinetic COMP - completive L - low CONT - continuative LIKE- likely COP- copula LOC - locative D