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Liberty, Restriction, and the Remaking of Italians and Eastern European Jews

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Liberty, Restriction, and the Remaking of Italians and Eastern European Jews "Liberty, Restriction, and the Remaking of Italians and Eastern European Jews, (1882-1965)" By Maddalena Marinari University of Kansas, 2009 B.A. Istituto Universitario Orientale Submitted to the Department of History and the Faculty of The Graduate School of the University Of Kansas in partial fulfillment of The requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy __________________________________________ Dr. Jeffrey Moran, Chair __________________________________________ Dr. Donna Gabaccia __________________________________________ Dr. Sheyda Jahanbani __________________________________________ Dr. Roberta Pergher __________________________________________ Dr. Ruben Flores Date Defended: 14 December 2009 The Dissertation Committee for Maddalena Marinari certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: "Liberty, Restriction, and the Remaking of Italians and Eastern European Jews, (1882-1965)" Committee: __________________________________________ Dr. Jeffrey Moran, Chair __________________________________________ Dr. Donna Gabaccia __________________________________________ Dr. Sheyda Jahanbani __________________________________________ Dr. Roberta Pergher __________________________________________ Dr. Ruben Flores Date Approved: 14 December 2009 2 Table of Contents Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………….3 Chapter 1: From Unwanted to Restricted (1890-1921) ………………………………………...17 Chapter 2: "The doors of America are worse than shut when they are half-way open:" The Fight against the Johnson-Reed Immigration Act (1924-1929)……………………………75 Chapter 3: "Assimilated but Undigested:" Becoming American under Restriction (1929-1945) ………………………………………………………………………...131 Chapter 4: "International Migration and One World:" Reframing the Debate on Immigration Reform in a New Era, 1945-1952....................................………………………….190 Chapter 5: "A Thing of Shreds and Patches:" Challenging Immigration Reform from Within (1952-1960) ………………………………………………………………………...250 Chapter 6: Reform at Last: A Diverse Coalition at Work ……………………………………..305 Conclusion: "Are Americans Extinct?" ………………………………………………………..357 Bibliography: …………………………………………………………………………………..367 3 Introduction On April 15, 1924, in his testimony to Congress in favor of immigration restriction, Senator Matthew Neely of West Virginia warned ominously: It is our duty to defend not only against enemies in arms but against the millions of physically, mentally, and morally inferior men and women scattered over Europe, Asia, Africa, Mexico, and the islands of the sea, who, as prospective immigrants, are awaiting their opportunity to rush to our shores. [If they are successful] we shall have justified the following words of Isaiah: "Your land, strangers devour it in your presence, and it is desolate." 1 In 1924, Senator Neely's arguments over restriction and exclusion had become familiar and part of popular knowledge. The debate was not really over whether the quota system would become law, but rather over the most 'scientific' criteria to adopt to exclude and restrict prospective immigrants. The adoption of the 1924 Immigration Act represented the climax of a long battle over the legitimacy of exclusion and restriction and the desirability of selecting specific people to enter the country. The country's first comprehensive immigration law drastically limited immigration from Europe, barred immigration from Asia, and strictly regulated immigration from Mexico. 2 The passage of the 1924 Immigration Act also concluded a period of immigrant mobilization begun in the 1880s with Chinese immigrants' opposition to exclusion and ended with Southern and Eastern Europeans' resistance against restriction. This study explores how Italian and Jewish immigrants mobilized against U.S. immigration restriction policy and, in the process, altered their identity and their place in American society and politics.3 Like specialists in Asian and Mexican migration, I shift the 1 Quoted in Cheryl Shanks, Immigration and the Politics of American Sovereignty, 1890-1990 (Ann Harbor, MI: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 56. 2 For a more detailed account of the 1924 debate on immigration and the law itself, see Mae Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004); and Shanks, Immigration and the Politics of American Sovereignty . 3 Throughout this dissertation I use Italian Americans and American Jews to identify the two groups I study in order to avoid confusion with Jewish and Italian immigrants in general and to highlight the distinction between how they constructed their identity, rooting it in ethnicity and religion respectively. 4 focus from the restrictionists to the restricted to shed light on how these two groups responded to the defamatory campaign against them and to the laws that restricted immigration from their countries of origin. 4 While we have learned a lot about how exclusion has affected Asian immigrants and Asian communities in the United States and how repatriation, workers programs, and illegality have shaped Mexican immigration to this country, we still know very little about how restriction changed the lives of Southern and Eastern Europeans. The assumption is that restriction barely affected Southern and Eastern European migrants because they were "white on arrival" and could benefit of the advantages that naturalization affords. Yet, although they were technically white, in practice they were ascribed "a whiteness of a different color."5 The entire campaign to limit new arrivals from Eastern and Southern Europe revolved around the construction of a different kind of whiteness that made undesirable. 6 The campaign to restrict immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe began as early as 1882 in concomitance with the campaign to exclude Chinese and Japanese immigrants. The two movements coexisted and overlapped often, as their proponents used similar arguments to mark Italian, Jewish, Chinese, and Japanese immigrants as undesirable. All four groups were attacked on the basis of their race, ethnicity, class, religion, gender, sexuality, moral standing, health, and political affiliation, among other factors. Yet, while the argument for Chinese and Japanese exclusion quickly gained momentum and led to immediate legislative action, the 4 Mae Ngai, Impossible Subjects ; Erika Lee, At America’s Gates. Chinese Immigration During the Exclusion Era, 1882-1943 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Lucy Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers – Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1995); George Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Fanscisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodriguez, Decade of Betrayal (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press: 1995). 5 Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999). 6 For a more in-depth discussion of the changing meaning of whiteness for Italian and Jewish immigrants, see Karen Brodkin, How Jews Became White Folks (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2004), Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno, Are Italians White? (New York: Routledge, 2003), and Thomas Guglielmo, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003). 5 campaign to exclude Southern and Eastern Europeans took longer, in part because the argument to restrict them was more difficult to build as it required justification to reject white immigrants. In the late 1890s, the debate surrounding the Lodge bill, the first to propose a literacy test to limit immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe, helped critics to identify their major tenets more clearly. For the first time nativists distinguished between "old" and "new" European immigrants and considered Southern and Eastern Europeans as a collective entity posing a serious threat to the survival of American society. Slavs, Italians, and Jews came increasingly to be associated with disorder, violent crime, and avarice respectively. The new form of nativism incorporated the older anti-Catholicism and anti-radicalism, borrowed from contemporary Darwinian and Spencerian theories, and embraced the country's new bombastic nationalism. Attacks against the two groups came from everywhere: academia, public intellectuals, 'experts' on immigration, and the media. Starting from the late years of the 1890s, a flood of publications on the new immigrants' inferiority entered mainstream America. The most popular titles included Edward A. Ross's The Old World in the New , Frank J. Warne's The Immigrant Invasion , and Madison Grant's bestseller The Passing Great Race , the book that officially sanctioned scientific racism. Italians and Eastern European Jews' moral and intellectual deficiencies, Ross argued, would dilute Americans' superior Anglo-Saxon stock. He condemned Eastern European Jews for their inborn love of money but feared southern Italians for their volatility, instability, and unreliability. Letting more Italians into the country would be to consent to incorporate "great numbers of wavering, excitable, impulsive persons who cannot organize themselves," and it would in the end force Americans to accept "less efficiency, less democracy, or both." With more Jews, Ross wrote, the nation's
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