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I CONTRIBUTION OF TO DURING THE ABBASID PERIOD (750 - 1258 A.D.) : A CRITICAL STUDY ,

• X !

THESIS SUBMITTED TO GAUHATI UNIVERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF

SUPERVISOR DR.MAZHAR ASIF

BY ABDUL KHALIQUE LASKAR 2009

CONTRIBUTION OF PERSIANS TO ISI A vi DURING THE ABBASID PERIOD (750 - 1258 \ I : A CRITICAL STUDY

THESIS SUBMITTED TO GAUHATI UNIVERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF ARTS

SUPERVISOR DR.MAZHAR ASIF

BY ABDUL KHALIQUE LASKAR 2009 ProQuest Number: 10105759

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e f . N o . Date

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CERTIFICATE

C ertified that this thesis entitled C ontribution o f P ersians to Islam during

the A bbasid P eriod (750-1258 A .D ): A C ritical Study subm itted by A bdul

K halique Laskar, Lecturer in Persian , M adhab Chandra D as College,

Sonaim ukh, Sonai, C achar, A ssam , em bodies the results o f his original w ork

and personal investigation, carried out under m y direct supervision and

guidance. H e has fulfilled all form alities and requirem ents under the Ph. D .

regulations o f this U niversity relating to the nature, period o f research and

presentation o f sem inar talks for subm itting a thesis. T he thesis as a w hole or

any part o f it has not been subm itted for any research degree o f this or any

other U niversity /Institution.

Reader in Persian Gauhati University Guwahati-14, Assam DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work on this thesis titled ‘

CONTRIBUTION OF PERSIANS TO ISLAM DURING THE

ABBASID PERIOD ( 750-1258 A.D. ) : A CRITICAL STUDY’ has been done by me under the supervision of Dr. Mazhar Asif, Reader & Head ,

Department of Persian, Gauhati University . No part of this thesis has been produced elsewhere for award of any degree .

£> •v Abdul Khalique Laskar ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I commenced my research work in 2006 at the instance of my dear parents who were responsible for my upbringing and for my education.

“One who is not grateful to man is not grateful to ”

- (Peace be upon him)

In the preparation of this thesis, I received sufficient help from various sources. At the very outset I would like to offer my sincere thankfulness and deep gratitude to my esteemed Research Supervisor Dr.

Mazhar A sif, Reader & Head , Department of Persian, Gauhati University for his constant inspiration, sympathetic guidance , valuable suggestion and lending necessary books for which I am able to complete my thesis in due tim e.

I am very grateful to the authorities & staff of K.K. Handique Library

, Cotton college Central library , Guwahati . Cultural House Library ,

New Delhi, Assam University Central Library Silchar , M C. Das College

Central Library, Sonai, S.S. College Central Library, Hailakandi, (iii)

Badarpur Darnl Hadis Library and other libraries of , for their services and kind co-operation.

I warmly express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Rekibuddin

Ahmed , Sr. Reader . Deptt. of Persian , G.U. for his kind help and in valuable suggestions.

I want to extend my acknowledgement with deep gratitude to my colleagues Mr. Sabir Ahmed Choudhury , Head , Deptt. of English , Mr.

Islam Uddin Barbhuiya, Lecturer Deptt. of Englih, Dr. Abdul Matin laskar,

Lecturer , Deptt. of Bengali , Mr . Khaled A ’zam Mazumder , Lecturer,

Deptt. of History, Mr. Parimal Ch. Das , Head, Deptt. of Philosophy, Mr .

Barat Uddin Laskar , Head, Deptt. of Persian , Mr. Munim Ahmed

Barbhuiya, Lecuturer, Deptt. of Economics ,Mr. Jaidul Islam Mozumder , head , Deptt. of Commerce , Mr. Mihir Kanti Nath , Librarian , M. C. Das

College , Sonaimukh , Cachar (Assam) & Mr . Bahar A li, Lecturer , Deptt. of Persian . G .U. for their inspiration, liberal help and encouragement and also giving valuable books and study materials related to my thesis that I received from them to carry out on the research w ork.

I would like to pay humble respect and deep sense of gratitude to my respected Moulana Allama Tayebur Rahman Barbhuiya, Ameer-E- Shariat

& Ameer -E- Nadwatut Tammer , North East India , Dr. Amalendu

Chakrabarty, Reader &Head, Deptt. of Bengali, G.U. Dr.Musleh Uddin, (iv)

Guest Lecturer , Deptt. of Persian , G.U. Mr. Ashique Uddin Mozumder,

Selection Grade Lecturer, Deptt. of Persian S.S. College Hailakandi, Mna.

N.U. Choudhury, Sr. Lecturer Deptt. of Persian . S.S, College , Hailakandi,

Mr. Abul Hussain Mozumder ( Sabiree ), Retd. Head, Deptt. of English ,

Lala Rural College , Hailakandi, & Mr. Baha Uddin Laskar, Executive

Engineer,PHE,Ghy. for giving valuable suggestion and books related to my

research topic.

I express my sincere thankfulness to all those people from whose

works I collected a great deal of materials. I am also indebted to those

authors whose works I consulted.

I want to mention my indebtedness to Ahmed Hussain Barbhuiya , a

student of M.A. 4th semester ,G.U. for offering source materials in

preparing Introduction of. this thesis .1 also offer my gratefulness to my

friends.likeHamid,Anuma,Ayesha,Firdoshi,FaizulChy.,Gulbarg,HelaDas,

Hif3ul,Imdad,Jashim,Jitul,Kenwar,Mausuf,Moynul,MirHussain,MofIda,

Matiur Rh.,RumaliDas,Salma,Sayma,Suhaeyl,Sultanara,SuptaDas,&others

for inspiring me to complete my thesis

My thanks goes to Mr. Shagal Das, Mihir Kanti Nath and Subhash

Haloi for DTP typing, printing and binding up this research work

Dated... ©g | Abdul Khalique Laskar. (V)

PREFACE

Iran , one of the oldest , has played a significant role to spread human in the world . Its language Persian, not only influenced the human race of its territory, but also the surrounding nations of the regions to a grate extent

The Aryans who lived in Iran were called Parsi and Avesta was their language. A large number of Aryans came to India via Iran where they were later known as Hindu and Sanskrit was their language . In fact they were two branches of the same race . They perhaps lived together some where in

Central Asia , followed the same religion and spoke the same language .

Pandit Jawaharal Nehru, the first , has rightly observed in his famous work entitled ‘ Discovery of India’, “ Few people have been more closely related in origin throughout the history than the people of India and the people of Iran . I doubt if there was any country in the wide world which have such a close and historical contact as Iran and

IndiaThe close relation between these two countries is also evidenced in the Vedas , Mahabarata , Ramayana and Avesta ,which are the earliest documents of India and Iran respectively .

As we know Persia i.e. Iran has always been centre of learning and cultural activities since the time immemorial, Almost all rulers of different that ruled over pre- Islamic Iran like Achamenian , Parthian and

Sassanian , were patrons of art and learning . In the two battles namely

Qadessia ( 636 ) and Nehavand (642),which was fought :beftWeen Persian

Empire and the , the last ruler of the Sassanian period Yazdgird -III though tried his best to check the advance of the Arabs but was completely routed . Gradually the Persian adopted the Muslim faith and Iran was islaminized and came under the .

There at after the death of Prophet Hazrat Muhammad ( peace be upon him) in the year 632 , four successive caliphs : i) Hazrat Abu

Bakr ii) Hazrat Farooque iii) Hazrat and iv) Hazrat ( R

:A) were chosen by the people . But after the Martyrdom of Hazrat Ali in

661 A.D. Hazrat Moaweya founded a new Umayyad at . (vii)

The last Umayyad Caliph was defeated in 750 A.D. in the battle of Zab and the famous Abbasid commenced its way . Out of gratitude to the

Iranians , by whose support they were raised to power , the Abbasid began to favour with high post. The Abbasid regime has been considered a of the Iranians . The Caliph now gradually began to entrust power to the Iranian . The Iranian festival like

Nu-roz, Mehargan etc. began to be celebrated at court.

When two races are brought into contact for sometimes, they mutually borrow thoughts and ideals willingly or unwillingly . The Iranians were compelled to express themselves in for more than two centuries

. The keen witted Iranians rapidly picked up Arabic and soon obtained such a mastery over the Arabic language and freed themselves from the shade of the Arabs . The richest fruit of the harmony of Iranian and may best be seen in originated from the Zoroasterism.

It is worthy to note that Persian has been playing very important role since the very beginning of Islam. In the early year of the 7th Century, a (viii) wellknown Persian named Salman Farsi left his motherland for Arab . He was the first to establish contact between Iran and Islam . He was one of the most faithful companions of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him

)was as pleased with his intelligence as to consider him one of the members of his family. He is who taught how to prepare ditches in Ghazvae Khandaq

In this thesis entitled Contribution of Persians to Islam during the

Abbasid period : A critical study , we shall try to uncover close relation between Iran and Islam, literary and scientific progress during the Abbasid period and at that time , the name of Persian Islamic scholars with biographical sketch and achievements to Islam.

i We have divided the research topic into six chapters . As no systematic study in this regard as yet had been taken up , we have tried to discuss regarding background of Iran , Islam and their origin , language ,

Islaminization of Persian Speaking regions , Political and cultural history of (ix) the and contribution of Persian Islamic Scholars to Islam in the field of arts and .

In Chapter -1, we would introduce background of Iran with its origin and map , definition of Indo - European along with diagram of the world language history of Pre-Islamic Iran and Pre-Islamie Ancient languages of

Iran.

In Chapter - 2,we have discussed about origin , development and its spreading out in non-Arab nations . The word Islam stands for complete surrender and submission to the will of Allah .The name of the religion originating in Arabic during the 7th century through the prophet

Muhammad ( Peace be upon him ) . The Islam stands for peace , peace for all not for the alone .

The 3rd chapter describes how the Persian speaking regions were islaminized . It also analyses the impact and influence of Islam in non -Arab nations particularly Iran, , Tadzhikistan and Uzbekistan . (X)

The 4th chapter entitled political and cultural history of Abbasid period

( 750-1258 A.D. ) In this chapter we have given the detail account ot tl <

Abbasid dynasty which is considered to be the golden period of the Islam . history . It also envisages regarding the political , cultural and literal activities of the Abbasid period including the achievements of the Abbasu in the field of music , , philosophy , calligraphy . literature , education system , , , chemisir\ and history etc .

The 5th chapter entitled ‘ Contribution of Persian scholars ot Islau who lived during the Abbasid dynasty’ . This chapter is the sou! of no thesis where we have made a critical study of the life and works of thov

Islamic Muhadditin , Jurists , Commentators of the Holy . Sufis an

Arifs , Philosophers , Historians , Scientists , Physicians , Musicians

Chemists , Mathematicians , Astronomers and scholars who were trot

Persian speaking countries and devoted their life for the cause of Islam The biographical notes and contributions of those Islamic scholars who were from Persian speaking countries and devoted their life for the cause of Islam needs to be evaluated .Below is a brief evaluation of those scholars .A1 Qisai, famous scholar of Koran, was the tutor of Amin and

Mamun, sons of Harun Al-Rashid.The famous Quranic commentators Ibn-e-

Qutaibah, Zamakhsari, A1 Boyzawee were ail Persians.The renowned compiler of the like Bukhari, Imam Muslim, Imam Tirmidhi,

Imam Nesai and Imam Ibn-e-Majeh were all Iranians .Founder of school Imam , the scholar of Hadith, Behram Maghribi were

Persian descend. The illustrious scholars Al-Beruni, Abu Ali Sina, the erudite translator Abdullah ibn Muqaffah were of Persian origin. The greatest physician A1 Majusi. A1 Razi, the expert geographer Khurdad Beh, the grammarian, A1 Farsi were also proud of their Persian lineage. The great

Sufis and Arifs like Abdul Qadir Jilani, Bayazid Bustami, Mansur bin

Hallaj, Imam Ghazzali were all from Persian. The great Arabic scholar (xii)

Ibn-e-Jarir Tabari, the musician like Ibrahim al Mausil. A1 Isfahani were of Persian blood.

The great astronomer, Abu Mashar and Al Faraghni, came from

Balkh and respectively. Al Farabi and Fakhruddin Razi, the great philosophers, were of Persian blood.

Al Khawarizam, the great mathematician,Abu Mansur Muaqqaf, the great druggist, Abdur Rahman Sufi and Abdul Wafa, the great scientists all were from Persian speaking regions. One of the mightidst physicians pf the

Islamic world was the Persian Razi known in as Rhages and whose books were translated in to many languages. The list selected from several books is by no means exhaustive, but we serve to show the numerical strength and quality of writers who though known to the world as Arabs by reason of their names, religion and languages, were all of Iranian descend.

Finally , in the last chapter , chapter - 6 , we shall compile our conclusion of this work research in brief. (xiii)

In the footnotes , we shall mention the names of authors , the names of the books , and the concerned page numbers only . Details such as year of publication , place of publication etc . would be available in the bibliography . In the footnotes ‘page number’ would be abbreviated as ‘p’, page numbers by’ as ‘pp’ , ‘ published by’ as ‘pub’. ‘ edited by’ as ‘ed.’, ‘ complied by’ as ‘ed.’ ? and ‘ translated by’ as ‘tr.’

In the text, we have used all non- English words in italics . We have written all Arabic and tJrdu quotations of authors and scholars in general form by hand. In the text or footnote, the serial numbers of footnote are written in chapter wise. CONTENTS

Page

DECLARATION i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii-iv

PREFACE v-xiii

Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION 1-17 i) Background of Iran and its origin 1 -7 ii) Map of Iran 8 iii) What is Indo European ? 9 iv) Diagram of the world languages 10 v) Pre-Islamic Ancient languages of Iran 11-17 Chapter - 2 ORIGIN & EXPANSION OF ISLAM 18-41 (a) What is Islam ? 18-29 (b) Expansion of Islam . 30-39 (c) Advent of Islam on Iran and its impact. 40-41

Chapter - 3 ISLAMINIZATION OF PERSIAN SPEAKING 42-59 REGIONS (I) Islaminization of Iran and its other regions. 42-53 (II) Islam in Afghanistan & . 54-56 (HI) Islaminization of Tadzhikistan. 57 (IV) Islam in Uzbekistan. 58-59

Chapter - 4 POLITICAL AND CULTURAL HISTORY OF THE ABBASID PERIOD (750-1258 A.D.l 60-204 A. . A Brief description of Prior situation of Abbasid Period 60-62 B. . Foundation & Expansion of the Abbasid dynasty. 62-65, C.. Political & Cultural History of the Abbasids . 66-168

D.. Causes of the Downfall of the Abbasid Khilafat. 169-172 E .Contribution of Abbasids in the field of art,culture and literature. 173-204

(a). Scientific and literary progress during the Abbasid period 173-175 (b) Contribution of Abbasids in the different field: 176-204

1. Education 176-177 2. Medicine 177-180 3. Astronomy 180-182 4. Mathematics 183-184 5. Chemistry 185-186 6. Physics 186 7. Botany 187 8. Zoology 188 9. Philosophy 189-191 10. Historiography 191-193 11. Geography 193-194 12. Calligraphy 195 13. Painting 196 14. Architecture 197-198 15. Handicrafts 198-199 16. Music 199-200 17. Literature 201-204 Chapter - 5 CONTRIBUTION OF PERSIAN SCHOLARS OF ISLAM WHO LIVED DURING THE ABBASID DYNASTY 205-250

A. Relation between Iran & Islam 205-206 B. The Great Muhadditin of Persian origin are : 207-250 1. Hazrat Imam Bukhari. 207-230 2. Hazrat Imam Muslim . 231-237 3. Hazrat Imam Nesai. 238-242 4. Hazrat Imam Ibn M ajah. 243-245 5. Hazrat Imam Tirmidhi. 246-250 C. The World famous Sufis of Persian origin are : 251-289 1. AbdulKadirJilani 251-271 2. Bayazid Bustami 272-277 3. Mansur Hallaj 278-289

D. The erudite Islamic Jurists of Persian descend are : 290-298 1. Hazrat Imam Abu Hanifa. 290-291 2. Imam Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Jarir Tabari. ( Historian & also comentator of the Holy Quran) 292-298

E. The great Islamic Philosophers , Historians , Geographers , Astronomer, Physician, Mathematician and Scholars also of Persian blood and descend are : 299-365

1. Imam Ghazzali ( Philosopher & Sufi) 299-311 2. ( Physician & Philosopher ) 312-318 3. Abu Nasr Muhammad A1 Farabi ( Philosopher) 319-321 4. A1 Beruni ( Historian & Geographer ) 322-326 5. Muhammad Ibn Zakaria A1 Razi ( Physician & Philosopher )327-334 6. Fakhraddin A1 Razi ( Philosopher, Political thinker and Mufassir) 335-336 7. A1 Ja’far Muhammad Ibn Musa A1 Khawarizmi 337-345 ( Mathematician, Astronomer & Geographer) 8. Abul Faraj ! ( Astronomer and Historian) 345-346 9. Abdur Rahman A1 Sufi ( Astronomer) 347-348 10. Abul Wafa Buzjani ( Geometrician & Astronomer ) 349-351 11. Ali Ibn A1 Abbas ( Physician & Surgeon ) 352-353 12. Abu Mashar( Astrologer) 353-354 1% Abu Mansur Muwaffaq ( Physician, Druggist & Pharmacologist) 355 14. Abul Hasan Khushayar bin Labban ( Trigonometrian) 355 15. Abul Hasan Ali A1 Nisavi (Mathematician) 356 16. Ibn Khurdad Beh ( Geographer ) 356 17. Abdullah Ibn Muqaffah ( Scholar) 357-358 18. Abul Abbas A1 Farghani ( Astronomer) 358-361 19. Other scholars of Persian origin. 361-365

Chapter - 6 CONCLUSION & BIBLIOGRAPHY 366-383

i) Conclusion 366-374 ii) Bibliography 375-385 CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER!

INTRODUCTION i) Background of Iran and its origin. Iran , one of the oldest civilizations , has played a significant role to spread human civilization in the world . Its language Persian, not only influenced the human race of its territory, but also the surrounding nations of the region to a great extent Iran and Persia : The two names have been used to designate the same country , but are not truly synonyms , when the Aryan peoples migrated from their original territory south of the Aral Sea to the upland plateau below the Caspian Sea , they called the new region Iran , which means ‘Land of Aryan ( ‘Airavejo’ , ‘ Aryavarta*) 1. The great royal palace site of the Achemenid dynasty, which originally ruled over the region north east of the head of the , was called Parsa , taken into the at the time of Alexander , the Great as Persepolis . The powerful Achaemenid was called Iran , but the regional and palace name became transferred to the province within the empire as Pars or , and hence the people of many other lands came to be called the country Persia . In Sassanian times , the official name of the empire of Iran was Iranshahr .Since 1935 when the Iranian government, for the sake of consistency , requested all foreign countries to use the official name of Iran, the correct designation has gained general usage . 1. Firoze Cowasji Davar, Iran and its Culture, P -viii 2

On the otherhand the language of country is Persian. Farsi to the inhabitants, since it is the language of ancient Parsa, and it is written in Arabic characters. 2

As stated above Iran is one of the world’s oldest countries. Its history dates back almost 5,000 years. It is situated at a strategic juncture in the region of South west Area. Evidence of man’s presence as for back as the lower Paleolithic period on the Iranian has been found in the Shah valley.

The first civilization o f Iranian was that of the Elamites , who might have settled in South western Iran as early as 3000 B.C. In 1000 B.C. Aryan tribes began migrating to Iran from the Volga River North of the Caspian Sea and from Central

Asia. Eventually two major tribes of Aryans, the Persians and settled in Iran, one group settled in the North west and founded the kingdom of . The other group lived in South Iran in an area that the Greeks later called Persians from which the name Persia is derived. However, both the Medes and Persians called their new homeland Iran, meaning ‘the land of Aryans’. 3

Our knowledge of the earliest inhabitants of Iran is very fragmentary.

Excavations in the cave at Behistun and in the caves called Beltand Hotu near

Bohshahr on the Caspian coast represent a splendid beginning. The initial finds indicate an active flint industry in the Middle Paleolithic period as well as Skeletons and skulls of the Mesolithic period: this latter material has been dated to about 10,000

B.C. by the carbon -14 method of analyzing pieces of charcoal from various levels of digging . The excavators themselves believe that these people were Nordic of the same race as the Inner Paleolithic hunters of Europe.

2. Encyclopedia of , Vol-10. P-68

3. Donald N. Wilber, Iran Past and Present, P -1 About 6,000 B.C the inhabitants of the area of Iran discovered agriculture , practical animal husbandry , and made printed pottery and polished stone implements . The physical characteristics of these people are not known, although at a later date precise material comes from a rock -cut relief at Kurangun in South western Iran . Dated about 2,500 B.C. , the scene contains the sharply cut profiles of some forty of the local people . Farming gave a more dependable food supply and it seems certain that the population expanded greatly and spread out over valleys and plains. 4

The migration of Aryans from their original abode in to the various points of Europe and Asia and particularly Iran and India , must be reckoned as the greatest event in , suddenly it opened a flood of intellectual activities , and the future course of human evolution was now largely determined by the tides of this flood .

The various groups of the migrating Aryans settled at different points in Asia and Europe bringing with them the language or languages through which they had been communicating. Thus came into being the Family of Indo European languages which can be truly regarded as the greatest repository of human wisdom and knowledge. No doubt, the advancement o f civilization and culture owes its greatest debt to the speakers of the Indo-European languages 5

Important Political Periods of the .

Iranian history which is more or less documented with a written record and the details o f which may from the subject matter of authentic study and discussion, extend over a period of 2,500 years. Roughly, it began in the year B.C 550 and continues to the present day. It may be classified into three periods as follows:

4. Donald N . Wilber, Iran past and present, P - 1SS

5. Dr. N.H. , A History of the , Vol.l, P - (viii) ( preface) 4 l.Pre-IsIamic Era :( Pre Aryan & Post Aryan) It may be said to have started with the rise of the Achaemenian dynasty, founded by Cyrus, the Great in B.C. 546 and lasted until the defeat of the Sassanian dynasty by the Arab ( Muslim) invaders in

A. D. 636 extending over eleven centuries .

Our knowledge of the earliest inhabitants of Iran is very fragmentary.

Excavations in the cave at Behistun and in the caves called Beltand Hotu near

Bohshahr on the Caspian coast represent a splendid beginning. The initial finds indicate an active flint industry in the Middle Paleolithic period as well as skeletons and skulls of the Mesolithic period this : latter material has been dated to about 10,000

B. C. by the carbon -14 method of analyzing pieces of charcoal from various levels of digging . The excavators themselves believe that these people were Nordic of the same race as the Inner Paleolithic hunters of Europe.

Even before the rise of the Achaemenan dynasty the Geographical boundaries of Iran were marked by the Oxus and the Persian Gulf on the one hand, and by the

Indus and the on the other. This vast region was inhabited in the North by a people of Aryan stock whom the Greeks called the Medes. The Shahnamah refers to them as the Pishdadiyan . Though the Iranian culture and civilization as well as the purest Aryan tradition existed during that period , the district culture of Iran and her actual written history began under the Achamenian. 6

6. Dr. AU Asghar Hikmat: Glimpses of ,pp-1,2 5

PRE-ISLAMIC ERA

It was during this era that the purely national culture of Iran, whose remnants are still found both within and outside the country , had reached the zenith of its growth and development. This part of Iranian history may be subdivided into three distinct periods.

A. The Achaemenian period , (or in the words of the Shahnamah, the age of the Kayans). This period began with the accession of Cyrus, the Great (B.C. 546) whom some of the scholars identified with Kaikhusraw of the Shahnamah . It ended with the invasion of Alexander, the Great, who routed the Achamenans and brought the end of the dynasty. The last Achaemenan king was put to death in B.C 330 .

The chief characteristics of this period are the evolution of the Ancient Persian language and the spreading language and the spreading abroad of the culture and

Political influence of Iran over an area extending from India to Greece .

B. The second period is the Parthian period which, in the Shahnamah, has been referred to as the age of Ashkaniyan .It represents an age of the rule of the “

Kings of the Tribes” and included the rale of the Greek Selucids as well as of later

Chieftains , mainly the descendants of Ashk . The later ruled small principalities in different parts of the country . The period began with the of Darius

Codomannus in B.C 330 and ended with the defeat of Ardawn , the Arsacid , by

Ardeshir in A.D. 226 .During this period , Iran was somewhat under the political and culture influence of Greece. Written records and detailed information belonging to the period are lacking and it may be described “The Dark Age” of Iranian history.

C. The Pahlavi period or the Shahnamah epoch, began with the fall of Ardawan and the founding of the Sassanian dynasty by Ardeshir Babkan in A.D. 226 6 and continued until the Arab invasion of Iran and the break up of the Iranian empire at the death of Yazdgird III in 651.7

Persian Empire was one of the biggest and mightiest of the world.

During the time of Darius , one of the great kings of Achaemenid , the states included even of undivided India . Even pomp and glory of the Persian Empire had been acknowledged by our beloved prophet Muhammad ( Peace be upon him). It is reported to have said that ‘I am very fortunate to be bom in a period when the just ruler like Anushirwan was ruling over Iran’ .

The documents and writings that have come to us in the Iranian languages as they developed in the course of their long history, are very valuable from the point of

‘ Historical Linguistics’ because their comparative study can very well reveal the evolution and development of an important branch of the Indo European family of languages through its various stages.

It is on the basis of the study of these documents that the history of the development of the Iranian languages has been divided into three significant period .

1. Ancient Period 2. Medieval Period 3. Modem Period

1. Ancient Period Median, Scythian, Old Persian and Avestan languages . Of these the last two languages hold great significance . Old Persian was the official language of the Achaemenian Empire which came into power in about 610 B.C. and a number of stone inscriptions are available in this language .

2. Medieval Period Among the Middle Iranian languages , which flourished after the fell of Achaemenan Empire and the interval of the Selucid rule . Pahlavi is the most important.

7. Ibid,P-2 7

It served as the official language of the two great Iranian dynasties, the Parthian and the Sassanian . Thus its span spreads from the middle of the 3rd Century B.C. to the middle of the 7th century A.D. a period of nine hundred years , It is also the sacred language of the two Iranian faiths. and Manicheanism. Pahlavi is now clearly divided into different dialects or languages, The South western Pahlavi or

(Parsik) and the North - eastern Pahlavi or Pahlavanik. 8

3. Modern Period The term new Iranian is applied to the language and dialects which have been prevalent in the vast land of Iran from the beginning of the

Islamic period till now and have been in use in conversation or writing among the various Iranian communities . Most important all of them is Dari Persian which has been and still is the official, administrative literary and academic language during this long period and has served and is still serving as the means of mental and spiritual communication for all the Iranians.

8. Dr. N.H. Ansari; A History of the Persian Language VoL- 1, PP-149, ISO X ii)Map of present Iran

map o r i»k i:s i :m iu w 9 ift What is Indo-European

The term Indo - European is used to denote a hypothetically reconstructed language whose existence has only been hypothetically established without any factual findings of this language in any form in this world ; but whose existence can only be hypothetically equated after a careful comparison of some languages , such as

Sanskrit, Avestan , Old Persian , Albanian , Armenian , Lithuanian , Latvian , Old

Prussian , Old Church ,Slavonic, Russian , Greek , Latin , Germanic , ( Gothic ) ,

Celtic and Tokharian . All these languages were in flexional and synthetic at the beginning and their descendants gradually became analytic. These languages are akin to each other in linguistic structure, and therefore their phonological, morphological, syntactical and semantic equations are possible. Their similarities are so strong indeed that scholars have become unanimous in grouping them into one common family which perhaps no longer exists. The common name of the family as suggested by scholars is Indo-European. It is true that these languages have undergone a change and have developed in their own way, but still they have followed some definite laws in the course of their developments and changes. 9

9. Prof. Satya Ranjan Banerjee, A Handbook of Sanskrit Philosophy, P- (Vi) iv)Diagram of world languages 11

(V) Pre - Islamic Ancient languages of Iran

One of the important groups of the Indo-European family o f languages is

Ayran or Indo-Iranian. From the oldest times, the word Arya was applied by the ancestors of both the Indians and Iranians to their race. But, in Iran, the groups of the people which had settled here in the beginning o f the first millennium B.C. and spoke an Indo-European language called themselves Arya. Later on, their country was also called Eran or Iran in accordance with their own name. 10

Regarding the Medians who founded'the first Iranian Empire , the Greek historian Herodotus writes that they are called Arioi ( Aryan or Iranian) throughout the world .The relation of the Persian people to the Aryan race is also recorded in the stone inscriptions of the Darius , the Great who calls himself Iranian and of the

Iranian race , As regards the race of the people who spoke the Avestan, the name of their original settlement Aryana Vaejah meaning 4 the abode of the Iranians’ its a good indicator. 11

The Scythians , Saramatians , Alanis and some other nomadic tribes of the

Central Asia should be regarded among the people of the Iranian race because their descendants in Khotan and Tumshuq or the Cencasus ( Ossetic ) spoke and are still speaking the Iranian language . The names of the Scythians and many of the

Saramatians are undoubtedly Iranian . Similarly , the word Alani, which is the name of the ancestors of the present Ossestic , is related to the word Aryan . There have been other groups of people belonging to the Iranian race which had at least oral literature .Among them may be mentioned the Sogdians and Parthians who produced considerable literary works in the later period,

10. Lexicon Universal Encyclopaedia (vol - 2 ), P -145

11. Dr. Mzahar Asif, (tr) Tarikh - e - Assam ( preface) 12

Similarly , the Bactrian’s and some other peoples were probably Iranians as the rock inscription of Ashoka discovered at Qandahar is addressed to them. But no specimen of their language, as it existed in the ancient period, seems to be extant.

The most ancient language of Iran as well as the Zarathusthrian scriptures, written in that language are the both known to us ‘Avesta ’ , it is erroneous,though common , to name the Zarathustrian scriptures as ‘ Zend Avesta ’ or commentary upon i t . Its another very common mistake is to consider Zend as a language. Zend is not a language at all, but the word, derived from the Pahlavi ‘ Azintf means commentary or exposition. Hence Zend Avesta means the Avestan scriptures together with the commentary.

The languages of Iran during the Achaemenian rule has been named by scholars ‘Old Persian’ from which Pahlavi arose in later times . Old Persian is a corrupt from the Avestan language. Unfortunately no literature written in Old Persian has been come down to us ; only the rock records of Achaemenian kings, written in cuneiform, have survived. 12

An analysis of the documents and writings in the Old Persian languages that have come down to us will throw light on the topic in proper perspective.

12. Firoze Cowasji Davar, Iran and Its Culture, P - 282 1. The Median Language:- In the beginning of the first millennium B.C., the entire region lying between the valley of the Oxus and Syr River had been abode of the Aryans. To the north <>i this land, near the Aral Sea, was the country of Khawarrizm which was probahK the first centre of Zoroastrian religion and, at any rate, it was regarded as an important religious and political centre. On the South eastern side laid Sogdiana in the v emit of Samarqand. On this side of the Oxus river were . Ayra( ) and Bactnn 13

It was probably from this North eastern religion that the Aryans descended to the Western Iran . In the beginning in the first millennium, the Medians and Persian-, had taken position on the borders of . Their power was constant K rising It was in 610 B.C. that the Median king Huvaxshatra ( Cyaxares)colluded with dv rulers of and overthrew the Assyrian government. The Median empire is the first Iranian government about which -ome information is provided by the annals of the Mesopotamians government and tlv writing of Herodotus, the Greek historian. However, no writing in the Median language has come down to us and we do not know exactly whether the Medians had a written languages or not. The Achamaenan empires preserved the government and administrative records in Higamatana (Hamadan ) also , the former capital ol Media in addition to Pasargadae, Shush and . 14

13. Encyclopaedia of Muslim World, Vol. -10, P- 74 14. W. N. Weech , History of the World ( Vol. -1 ), P - 260 T £34 14

In all probability, the Median government also, had a treasury for the government and official records but it can not said definitely that this records written by the Median kings who ruled in the beginning of the 7th century A.D. had set the custom that a summary of petition and claims was written down and sent in to the palace before the king who after issuing his orders returned them.

However, there are indications to presume that the alien secretaries translated the subject of the claims and counter claims for the king into Median which are originally written in their own current language . Some scholars believe that the

Medians used the Cuneiform Script of the Old Persian also. They rather think that the of writing Old Persian is the continuation of the style originated under the

Median Empire. But it appears from the Bistun inscription of Darius that he was the first person to record something in the Iranian language, and this point goes contrary to the view of the above scholars. 15

N ow , our entire knowledge of the Median language is limited to a few words which have come down to us indirectly . Most of these words are the proper name recorded in the Greek or Persian writings.

2. The Scythian Language: -

The Scythian were the Iranian people, some of whom had settled in the east of the Caspian Sea and the north of the abode of the Parthians and Sogdians. Others groups of Scythian lived in the West of Caspian Sea and the palace situated to the north of the Black Sea . The Western Scythian had overpowered the Median dynasty and taken the reigns of the government in their hand but after wards the Medians regained the control of the country and put an end to their domination. 16

15. Dr. NJEL Ansary, A History of the Persian Language ( Vol. -1), P -151

16. Ib id ,P -152 15

The stone inscription of the Darius mentioned two groups of the Scythians. One of them is called the ‘ Sharp- helmated Scythians’ and other, the ‘Scythian beyond the Sea’ . Each of them had settled in a particular region of the Achaemenan empire of that time . The Old Scythian language was not exactly similar to the Medians and

Old Persian languages but it was not much different, too . Herodotus writes that the

Median king Huvaxshatara treated respectfully a group of the Scythian warriors who had taken refuge with him and entrusted the Median children to them so that they may teach their language to them.

The some historian narrates some national stories and traditions of the

Scythains regarding their origin, race and .

Strabo, the Greek geographer of the first century A.D. refers to the exceeding similaritiy existing among the Scythian, Median and Old Persian languages . 17

3. Avesta

The origin and meaning of the Avesta are obscure. The term Avesta(or in its older from Avistak , modem persian , Apastak) is a cognate with Sanskrit . But in meaning it is applied to a collection of writings which was popularly known as Zend or Old Bactrian . The word was used for , ‘ Scriptures’ in the Pahlavi version of the

Sassanian time . Later on the word came to signify ‘wisdom’ , ‘knowledge’ or the book of knowledge . From the Pahlavi Avistak Va Zend , the term Zend Avesta was wrongly coined by Antequetil du Perron in 1771 . Zend literary means ‘explanation’ , and so Zend Avesta would mean ‘the scripture and commentary’ . 18

17. Prof. Satya Ran jan Banerjee, A Handbook of Sanskrit Philology, P - Lvi

18. Dr. Rezazade Safaq, Tarikh - e- Adabiyate Iran ( Persian ), P - 7 16

The most ancient language of Iran contemporary to Sanskrit in India is known as

Avesta . The Avesta is also the sacred book on Zoroastrians which is written in

Avestan language . 19 There are controversies about the word Avesta , some imporatnt historians are o f the poinion that the word Avesta is Awestak meaning the

Quranic verses . Some other like the author of Tarikh - e- Tabari has written as

Avistak , but it has been recorded as Awesta or Ust in Dari language .20

This language was spoken during the Peshdadian period in the Northern part of Iran . It was written from left to right in Avestan or Din Dabireh script . This languages has Vrab like. Arabic and changes according to its sound unlike the Modem

Persian. It has both masculine and feminine gender . This language had 44 consonant and vowel in the alphabet, which was invented by Azar Padma Raspond during the reign of Sapur - 1 , the Avesta written in this script is called Zend later on when

Avesta was transformed into D ari, it was named as Pazand 21 and is considered to be one of the most perfect and scientific alphabets of the world .

This language has two dialects (1) The first dialect is called Gahani dialect or ancient dialect. (2) and the second dialect is modem dialect.

19. UrTMuhamniad !5ahar Taqi, Sabak Shenasi ( Persian) , Vol -1, P - 6

20, Ibid, P -7

21. Ibid, (Vol -1), P -15 17

4. Old Persian:-

This language is also known as Farsi Qadim. This language was spoken by the people of Paras who lived in the South -west part of Iran. This language written from left to right in a Cuneiform script ( Khatta Mekhi) .This script was one of the toughest scripts of the world , which was invented by the Samarians who lived in Southern before 3000 B.C later on this script was adopted by the Ashorians and the Elamids . Around 18000 B.C. when this script was passing through its second and third developmental phases then it was adopted by the Mades . They brought so many changes in the script.22 Mean while when Cyrus the great king of Achaemenian dynasty, captured Babul in 1538 B C. Cuneiform script was very much used by the

Ashorians and the Elamids in the graphic style .

Old Persian like Avestan language has both masculine and feminine genders and it changes according to its Frab . It has 42 alphabetical as well as pictographical letters. This language is corrupt form of Avesta, unfortunately no literature written in this language has been come down to us except the rock records of the Achaemenian kings which have survived so that all may read and understand the Achaemenian records. They were curved in three languages namely Old Persian,

Babylonian and Elamids. 23

22. FirozeCowasji Davar, Iran and its Culture, P -282

23. Ibid, P-283 CHAPTER-2

ORIGIN & EXPANSION OF ISLAM 18

CHAPTER - 2

ORIGIN AND EXPANSION OF ISLAM A. What is Mam?

Definition of Islam

Literally Islam means submission, surrender, obedience and peace. Islam

stands for complete surrender and submission to God. Islam envisages that the way to

peace and progress for man lies in submission to God. The message of Islam

enshrined in the declaration of faith. There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His

messenger”. 1. It is a revolutionary message which makes a man aware of his origin

and his destiny. Islam establishes the link between man and his creator, and thereby

lifts him in the scale of values. Islam endows man with the purpose of life makes him

the vice-regent of God, and confers on him the status of the crown of creation. 2.

Islam stands for peace - peace for all, not for the Muslims alone. In fact,

Islam, when defined, incorporates in its fold, safety and security for the whole

. mankind. The Holy Quran addressed all human beings, not only the Muslims. Prophet

of Islam, Hazrath Muhammad (peace be up on him) is known as the benefactor of

mankind. 3. Thus, Islam’s message is for the whole universe and Allah is the Lord of

all the worlds. Islam is universal in its nature, essence, belief, philosophy, ideology

- and practice. 4.

1. T.P. Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, p-232.

2. Prof. Masudul Hasan, , (VoL-IO), p-4

3. D.M. Matheson (tr.), Understanding of Islam (o f Frithjob Schuon), 1963, p-13.

4. Dr. (Mufti) M. Mukarram Ahmed, Science in Islam, p-1. 19

The word ‘Islam’ stands for submission to the will of God, the name of the religion originating in Arabic during the 7th century through the prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The followers of Islam are known as Muslim, and their religion embraced every aspect of life. They believe that individuals, societies and governments should all be obedient to the will of God as it is set forth in the Quran, which they regard as the word of God revealed to his messenger, Muhammad (S:A). 5. The Quran teaches that God is one and has no partners. He is the creator of all things, and holds absolute power over them. All persons should commit themselves to live gratefol of

Resurrection, they will be judged. Those who have obeyed God’s commands will dwell for ever in paradise, but those who have sinned against God and not repented will be condemned eternally to the fires of hell. Since the beginning of creation God has sent prophets, including ‘Moses and Jesus’ to provide the guidance necessary for the attainment of eternal reward, a succession, culminating in the revelation to

Muhammad of the perfect word of God. 6.

There are five essential and compulsory religious duties in Islam known as the prayers of Islam:-

1. The SHAHADAT (Profession of feith) is the sincere recitation of the twofold

creeds. There is no god but God and Muhammad(S:A) is the messenger of God.

2. The SALAT (Formal prayer) must be performed at five times in a day (varying

with time of sunrise and sunset) while feeing towards the Holy Kaba of .

3. The (it is alms-giving through the payment of Zakat purification) is the duty of sharing one’s wealth out of gratitude for God’s favour according to the uses laid down in the Holy Quran.

5. Maurice A. Canney, An Encyclopedia of Religions, p-194

6. David Crystal (ed.), The New Penguin Encyclopeadia, pp-785,786. 20

4. The SOUM (Fasting) is a duty to fast during the month of .

5. The (Pilgrimage) is to be performed at Mecca if at all possible at least once during one’s life time.

Shariah is the sacred law of Islam, and applies to all aspects of life, not just religious practices. It describes the Islamic way of life and prescribes the way for a Moslim to fulfill the commands of God and reach heaven. 7.There is an annual cycle of festivals, including the feast of sacrifice I’dul, Azha, commemorating Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice Issac, when comes at the end o f the Hajj pilgrimage, and the I’dul Fitr, making the end of the month of Fasting in Ramadan. There is no organized priesthood, but great respect is accorded to descendants of Muhammad and other publicly acknowledged holy men, scholars and teachers, (Mullahas and Ayatollahs). 8

There are two basic groups within Islam.

1. The Sunnis are the majority group in the Islamic world and they believe

correct religious guidance derives from the practice or of the prophet

Muhammad (S:A). They recognize the first four Caliphs as Muhammada’s

legitimate successors.

2. The Shi~ites are the minority group in the Islamic world. They believe that

correct religious guidance obtains from members of the family of the prophet

Muhammad as the prophets legitimate successors.

While the Sunnies have through history believed that just government could be

established on the basis of correct Islamic practices, the Shiitis believe

government could be established on the basis o f inherit, that is unjust, particularly

since the last recognized member of the line of Hazrat Ali, the twelfth Imam,

became hidden from view in A.D. 873

7. Katherine Watson George(tr.),Classical Islam 600-1250 (of GE VON GRUNEBAUM), p-22.

8. S. Khuda Bakhsh, Politics in Islam, p-70. 21

There are a number of sub sects of Islam and in 2002 A.D. there were ever 1150 million Muslims throughout the world. 9.

MANY PATH TO ONE GOD:-

When speak of their religion, they call it or the Judaic tradition.

When speak of their religious traditions, they often refer to Judeo-

Christianity. In the same way, Muslims refer to their religions as part of the

Abrahamic or Monotheistic tradition, since Islam shares the history, basic beliefs and values of Judaism and . Muslim considers Jews and Christians to be their sibling within the Ahl-e-Kitab (People o f the Book). This is the family of monotheists, those who believe in One Supreme God (Allah, the Arabic word of God). The book is revelation contained in scripture; Muslim believe all revelation came from the only

God, Who revealed his will to humanity repeatedly by in various times and places to different groups. 10.

The Quran (Koran is archaic spelling) is Islamic scripture, the book containing

Islamic revelation. It reiterates, confirms and completes Jewish and Christians scriptures referring often to the Jewish Torah and the Christian Gospels. The Quran calls all people of the world to remember and respect the truth carried in those earlier books.

Doing the will o f God is not a simple task. It includes following the law concerning prayer, charity, fasting, pilgrimage, proper diet and cleanliness. Those rules have been clearly established in revelation and are not subject to reinterpretation. But simply following the rules is not enough to fulfill the will of

God, in Islamic perspective.

9. Tamarra Sonn, A Brief History of Islam, p-t,2.

10. Ibid, P-3. 22

The Quran warns “those who pray but then are neglectful of their prayer”

“those who pray but then mistreat orphans and scarcely work toward feeding the poor”. These people, says the Quran, make a mockery of their faith. The Quran also describes itself not as a law book or code, but as guidance for humanity. 11.

According to Islam, there are five original strong pillars in Islam.

1. Towhid (Profession of faith).

2. Salat (Formal Prayer ).

3. Sown (Fasting in Ramadan.

4. Zakat (Alms-giving).

5. Hajj (Pilgrimage at Mecca). 12. l.Towhid or S h a h d a t:-The first pillar of Islam is Towhid, the pledging of commitment to God and the teaching of his prophet Muhammad(S:A). “I bear witness that there is no God (ilah) but Allah and Muhammad(S:A) is the messenger of Allah”.

Anyone who sincerely commits to five according to this pleadge is considered a

Muslim.

2.Salat or Namai: -The second pillar o f Islam is Salat (prayer). Muslims pray five times daily at sunrise, midday, mid-afternoon, sunset and night time. The prayers consist of recitation of verses of the Quran performed in a series of submissive postures (including Ruckus and Sajidah) i.e, bowing low from a kneeling position. So that, forehead touches the ground. Many people perform their prayers in the

(Place of prostration) although prayers may be performed anywhere that has been swept clean.

11. SM, Zakir Hussain, Quraner Aioke Dharmo Ki-Islam Ki (Beng.) p-1,7. 23

The prayer rug, a small carpet usually with a directional indicator to be pointed toward Mecca, is often used for this purpose. On Friday the midday prayer should be performed communally in the Mosque. At that time, the prayer leader i.e, Imam often offers a sermon () on the topic o f his choice.

3JSoum or R u z a The 3rd pillar of Islam is fasting (Soum). All healthy Muslims are directed by the Holy Quran to fasting Ramadan from sunrise until sunset during the 9th month of the i.e, month o f Ramadan. This is very spiritual time during which Muslims pray regularly and read the Holy Quran and focus on the equality of all people in their utter dependence on God. At the end of the month of fasting comes the festival by name I ’dul Fitre (Festival of breaking of the fast) All the

Muslims celebrate this festival with great joy religious fervour.

4. Zakat or Charity:- The 4th pillar of Islam is Zakat or Charity is obligatory order to all rich Muslims. All wealthy Muslims must spend some definite portion of their wealth annually for the support of the poor and for the cause of Islam.

5. Haii (Pilgrimage):- As noted, the Hajj is the 5th pillar, Muslims are obliged to make the pilgrimage at least once in their lifetime if they are physically and financially capable during the designated month of pilgrimage. During that time pilgrimage dress in simple cloth, removing any indicator of social rank and together perform ceremonies designed to remind them of founding of the Ka’ba.

The pilgrimage culminates in the feast of the sacrifice (I ’dulAzha), of animals, symbolizing Abraham’s sacrifice; the meat is then consumed and any excess is given to the poor. 13.

13. Tamarra Sonn, A Brief History of Islam, pp-20,21,22. 24

FAITH OF ISLAM

Islam is primarily a matter of faith, such faith stands for certain beliefs. Such beliefs are:-

1. Belief in the Unity of God.

2. Belief in the finality of the prophet hood of Muhammad(Peace be up on him)

3. Belief in the prophets that Allah commissioned from time to time.

4. Belief in the Holy Quran and other holy books revealed to the prophets from time to time.

5. Belief in the angels.

6. Belief in the life after the death

7. Belief in the Day of Judgement.

Such beliefs are intended to include in man belief in himself and belief in his destiny. Motivated and fortified with the faith of Islam, man can visually move mountains and rise to any height. 14.

Discipline of Islam:- In order to enable man to fulfill his mission as the vice regent of God, Islam seeks to discipline man through the offering to God five times a day; through the observance of fast for one month in a year, through the giving an

Zakat on their assets for the welfare of the poor, through undertaking pilgrimage to the Ka’ba at least once during life time and through readiness to undertake in the cause of God. Such disciplined people are to establish a social order characterized by social justice, public welfare and a high sense of social moral virtues. In the Holy

Quran, Allah refers to the Muslims as the best of community among mankind and

Islam seeks to build up the Muslims as the model of humanity. 15.

14. Syed Amir Ali, The Spirit of Islam, p-15.

15. T.W. Arnold, The Legacy of Islam, p-59. 25

Characteristics of Islam:- The characteristics o f Islam are its universally, its comprehensiveness, its rationalism, its positivism, its pragmatism, its egalitarianism and its simplicity. Islam is universal in scope and seeks to set up universal brotherhood among man. It is most rational in concept. It has liberated mankind from superstitions which characterized the ancient religions. It takes a positive and not a negative view of life. It stands for progress and self development. It is practical, it is frilly equipped to meet the challenges and overcome them. It stands for equality among the people. There is no priesthood in Islam, one can have communion with

God without the intercession of any human agency. It is conspicuous for its simplicity. Islam stands for no elaborate ritual; its message appeals to the heart as well as to reason.

Ideals of Islam:- Islam is a way of life. This means that Islam is not concerned with mere religious rituals; it seeks to regulate human conduct in all fields of life and spheres of action, it has set certain ideals, and the aim of Islamic socio-political order is to provide the necessary climate for the blossoming of such ideals of fruition. Such ideals are religious, social, intellectual, cultural, political and international. The religious ideal of Islam is to establish belief in the unity and the oneness of God and the prophethood of Muhammad (peace be upon him) throughout the world. The social ideal is to create a pattern of social order where under there are no distinction of caste, creed, colour, the rich and the poor. The moral ideal is to make every person an embodiment of moral virtues. The intellectual ideal is to promote the acquisition of knowledge. The cultural idea is to bring about a wholesome, synthesis between the material and spiritual aspects of life. The political ideal is to build up a welfare and prosperous state. The international ideal is to establish a universal state based on the brotherhood and friendships of men and women. 16.

16. Wahiduddin Khan, Islam and Peace, p-37 26

Islam a Religion:- Like other religion, Islam is also a religion. In his lectures,

Allama has quoted with approval the following definition of religion by professor Whitehead:

Religion is a system of general truths which have the effect of transforming character when they are sincerely held, and vividly apprehended. Islam is the powerful and potent instrument for transforming the character of the believers and as such it is religion par excellence. The equivalent of “religion” under Islam is DIN.

According to dictionary o f technical terms is defined as “A divine institution which guides rational being by their choosing it to salvation here and hereafter and which covers both articles of belief and action”.

The Holy Quran itself declares

Religion of Allah is Islam. 17.

Islam vis-a-vis other religion:- The Holy Quran says, “This day we have perfected the religion for you, Islam” Islam is thus on the testimony of Allah, the most perfect religion. Among the religions of the world, Hinduism, , Jainism,

Zoroastrianism, Confucianism and Christianity are more of philosophers than religions proper. Whatever foundation literature exists about these creeds is based on human speculation, and is not divinely revealed Judaism , alone are revealed and they alone have the title to be called as religions. Judaism is deficient to the extent that the concept of God there under is that of tribal and not that of universal God .In Christianity the concept of God has been distorted by making

Jesus Christ and Holy Ghost share godhood in ‘Trinity’. Islam also presents God in proper perspective. While comparing Islam to Judaism and Christianity in his book

‘Three Great Religion’. Clarke has observed Islam as follows:-

17. M. Marmaduk Picktal, Glorious Koran, p-61. 27

“It is the distinctive characteristic of Islam, as taught by Muhammad, that it combines within itself the grandest and the most prominent features in all religious compatible with the reason and moral intuition of man. It is not merely a system of positive moral rules, based on a true conception of human progress, but is also the establishment of certain principles, the enforcement of certain disposition, the cultivation of a certain temper of mind, which the con-science is to apply to the ever varying exigencies of time and place.

Social and Political orders of Islam:- In view of its dynamic character, Islam provides for the best social and political order. In this connection, H.G. Wells observes as follows:

In his book “A History of the world “ And if the reader entertains any delusions about a fine civilization, either Persian, Roman, Hellenic or Egyptian being submerged by Islam, the sooner he dismisses such ideas the better. Islam prevailed because it was the best social and political order. Islam was the boardest, freshest and cleanest political idea that had yet come in to actual activity in the world, and it offered better terms than any other to the masses of mankind.

Vitality of Islam:- About'the vitality of Islam, the great literary figure of the 20th century, Bernard Show observes as follows:

“I have always held the religion of Muhammad in the highest estimation because of its wonderful vitality. It is the only religion which appears to me to possess that assimilatory capability to the changing phase of existence which can make itself appealing to every age. I have studied him the wonderfulman in my opinion far from being anti-Christ, he must be called a saviour of humanity. I believe that if a man like him were to assume dictatorship of the modern world, he would succeed in solving the problems in a way that would bring it the much needed peace and happiness. I 28 have prophesied about the faith of Muhammad that would be acceptable to the Europe of tomorrow as it is beginning to be accepted by Europe of today. 18.

Islam as a scientific religion:- Islam is a scientific and progressive religion, but most people do not know about it authenticity. Contrary to the common belief,

Islamic ideology is based on reason and logic. Muslims have contributed a lot to the growth of science and technology, but it remained a lesson know or fact. This comprehensive and exhaustive study is an effort in the direction of revealing the veiled facts and unveiling the truth. It brings to light Islam’s radical approach to science and knowledge. 19.

Islam, as faith and disciplines is based on science and logic. Islam is the only faith, which binds its followers to gain knowledge and attain education. It believes in promotion of all sorts of knowledge and science. That’s why in the early era, followers of Islam, who had emerged as the standard bearers of wisdom, reason and logic, apart from culture and civility made great achievements in all areas.

Islam directs all its followers to earn, gain knowledge and master the arts and science o f the contemporary world. Islam, as a living faith stands for spreading light and eliminating darkness from the world. This is a well known fact now that Muslims were leading the world of knowledge and wisdom, when Europe was still a dark continents, far behind in education and science.

In the early era of Islam, the Muslims were in full command of the science and technology of the times. They not only unearthed, adopted and preserved the lost treasure of the Greek wisdom, but also promoted it to new height. Muslim academics

and scientist were among the leading lights o f that period of history.

18. Sir. Muhammad Iqbal, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, p-SO.

19. M.H. Sayeed, Islam and Science, p-1,2. 29

They contributed a lot to the growth of all branches of Science, be that Physics,

Chemistry, Mathematics or Medicine.

This is all recorded in history, but the hard facts are least known to common people, as there is no comprehensive book on the subject with an aim to cater to general readers. After careful study of the history of Islam, Canon Isac Taylor came to the definite conclusion that :Islam had done more for civilization than Christianity.

Before the advent of Islam, learning was confined to the chosen few. The masses had to blindly accept whatever was placed before them as their religion and they were not permitted to use their intellect or judgment. In fact, before the promulgation of Islam, religion was synonymous with dogma and doctrines, rites and rituals; and bigotry had placed an embargo on freedom of thought and enquiry, whenever anyone conceived any new idea, propounded a new theory, he was condemned by his co-religionist as a heretic.

History bears witness to the feet that it was Islam that raised some of the most backward nations to the highest pinnacle of moral and material progress.

Europe’s indebtedness to Islam for her scientific progress is much greater than she cares to admit. 20.

In conclusion, we want to express that Islam is the only religion of the world which was bom in full light of history. It is the only religion which has established a proper equation between God and man. Islam is the only religion which is universal in concept. It is the only religion which caters to both this world and the world hereafter.

Islam is not a matter of yesterday and today; it is mankind’s hope for tomorrow.

20. Ibid, p-6 30

B. EXPANSION OF ISLAM

Islam was bom in Mecca of Arab. From Mecca to Medina, and to all comers of the world, Islam was spread. Islam Has a magnetic power, where Islam goes, it attracts the people with its magnetic power. But the expansion of Islam is indeed the most miraculous of all miracles.21.

From the historiographic point of view, the miracle of Islam is that electrified with faith of Islam, the Muslims emerged from their desert homeland and within 10 years of the death of Holy prophet Muhammad (Peace be up on him) bursting across the horizon, overthrew the Sassanian empire in the east, and overpowered the

Byzantine in the west. Within the first hundred years of the rise o f Islam, the Muslims were able to build up an empire which spread from Sind to , extending over three continents-Asia, Africa and Europe. The Islamic empire was much larger than all empires of the world. The achievements of Islam have been unique and unparalleled in the annals of mankinds.

A member of the noble family of , by the time he attained the age of

25, he became well known for his integrity and honesty which earned him the title of

‘Al Amin ’ and Al Sadiq (the honest and upright). After the age of 25, he spent most of his times in solitary, meditation in a cave, called Hira in Jabal-e-Nur(Mow& of fight), a hill about 3 miles north-east of Makkab, It was during the course of meditations in this cave that one night he received the divine revelation, ‘Recite thou in the name of

Thy Lord who created’ (the whole universe), which gave him spiritual illumination on the truth of Tauhid (Monotheism) and conveyed the message that Allah have chosen him to be his messenger.

2^. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Mam in Modern History, p-68. 31

The momentous revelation opened a new chapter in the history of mankind.

Henceforth, the prophet’s life was entirely spent in weaning Arabia from idolatry. The fruits of his labour were gathered even during his life time. The greatness of the prophet lies in the tremendous force and enthusiasm with which he imparted his creed which may be called the rationalistic approach of Islam. 22.

The Muslim Conquests:- The concept of Tauhid commented the Arabs into one nation, which they had never been before, and the country quickly left its “Age of

Ignorance” far behind. Moreover, the domination of the world was soon to pass over into the hands of the Arabs whose chief traits were bravery, truth, munificence, characteristic high mindedness and hospitality.

The prophet Muhammad (S:A) was able to lead a force to Makka. The Quraish could offer no resistance and Makka was conquered by the Muslims without firing a shot. All the Quraish who had at one time been inveterate enemies of the Holy prophet now submitted to him and occupied Islam. That was the vindication of the truth of Islam. In this hour of triumph of the Holy prophet forgave the Quraish for the sins of omission and commission. The idols in the Holy Ka’ba were broken. Verily with the coming of the truth, falsehood had been vanished. At one time the Quraish of

Makka had offered the Holy prophet the crown of the city provided he desisted from preaching the new cult of the unity of God. 23.

After the conquest of Makka, the stage was set for the islamiising of Arabia.

During 631 A.D. deputations from all the tribes flocked into Medinah and accepted

Islam. On the occasion of the Hajj-Pilgrimage in 631 A.D., the Holy prophet was in position to announce that henceforward the Holy Ka’aba was no longer to be opened to the non-Muslims.

22. Zainuddin Ahmed, Influence of Islam on World Civilization, pp-1,2. 32

In the following year the Holy prophet himself conducted the Hajj ceremonies. On that occasion God revealed that he had perfected the religion and chosen Islam as the religion for them. The Holy prophet wanted the people to bear witness that he had fulfilled his mission, and delivered the message he had been commissioned to give.

Having completed his mission the Holy prophet passed away in June 8, 632 A.D.

On the death of the prophet Muhammad, the task of preaching Islam was offered upon the Caliphs, the most eminent among his companions. They took the duty in order to preach Islam in the world and reach to the mankind respectively.

They are by name , Umar Faruq, Usman Gani and Ali (R:A). 24.

Expansion of Islam during the time of Abu Bakr:

Hazrat Abu Bakr became the Caliph on the 6th June 632 A.D. and he died on the 23rd of August 634 A.D. His period of Caliphate extended over two years and two months. Judged by the usual standards this was certainly too short a period to make an

impact on history. Surprisingly enough, the Caliphate of Abu Bakr not only made an

impact on history. The suppression of apostasy, the unification of Arabia, and the

conquests of Iraq and within the short space of two years are the extraordinary

marvels of history.

At the time of his accession, Islam stood at the brink of a precipice, and any

wrong step on the part of Abu Bakr would have led to the disintregation of Islam.

That he not only averted the process of disintregation, but made Islam a world face

that could successfully entered against the giant empires of Byzantium and Persia,

speaks for the dynamics of the leadership. According to assessment of Muir, author

of the Caliphate Its Rise, Decline and Fall.

24. Abdur ltakib (tr) ,Islam Pracherer Itikata(Beng.)of T.W.Arnold, p-50. 33

“But for Abu Bakr, Islam would have melted away in compromise with the

Bedouin tribes or likelier still would have perished in the throses of birth”

Abu Bakr proved to be the saviour of Islam. He launched Islam on the course of his destiny.

Expansion of Islam during the reign of Umar Farna

Hazrat Umar Faruq was an extraordinary genius and he occupied an important place in the world history in general, and the history of Islam in particular. The caliphate of Umar Faruq lasted from ten years from 634 to 644 A.D. This decade saw the high water mark of the Muslim rule. During his reign, the Muslims became the masters of Iraq, Persia, Syria and . Such conquests were most spectacular, dramatic and unprecedented. Soon after assumption of office of the caliphate by

Umur Faruq, the Muslim conquests began. At Damascus the Roman army was defeated in the month of September, 635 A.D. Heraclius saw the complete overthrow of his Roman army at the battle of Yarmuk in August, 636 A.D., which caused him finally to abandon Syria 25,

Jerusalem was the next objective, caliph Umar journeyed from Madinah to take formal possession of that historic city in 638. Tripolis, Tyre and Caesarea fell next. The sailor of equipped the Saracenic fleet which drove the Roman navy into the Hellespont. The Muslims now gained the command of the Sea.

Cyprus(649) and Rhodes(654) fell and the army of the caliph lay in front of

Constantinople, but it was not till the year 1453 A.D. that the Turks captured it.

During the time of the conqueror of , all Syria from south to north was completely subdued. The fate of Persia were settled at thf battle o f Qadisiyah in the month of June, 637 which forced the Persians to abandon all their western possession

25. Mohammad Manzar Naomani, Basics of Islam, p-27. 34 and withdraw o f Persia proper leaving the Muslim, the masters of Iraq, including the

Persian capital of on the . In 635 Damascus had already fallen and

Caliph Umar Faruq had established two new cites of Basarah and Kufah, which became great centres of learning and knowledge.

The last of the chosroes was defeated in the battle of Nihawand in 641A.D.

Magianism receiving a heavy blow. The country beyond the Oxus was reduced. We next see the banner of Islam flying on the bank of Indus, and the Emperor of China seeking the friendship of the caliph at Madinah. The caliph now turned his eyes further to the west. Memphis soon fell and Alexandra was invested. After the capture of this famous city of the by the veteran troops of Syria, the Muslim movement took an intellectual shape.

Egypt was the material and spiritual stronghold of the Byzantines, and when

Heraclius received the sad news of the fall of Alexndira (646 A.D.) in this place at

Constantinople, the emperor was so overwhelmed with grief that he lived scarcely a month after the fall of the city. It was not the intention of the caliph to limit his conquest to Egypt.

Expansion of Islam during time of Hazrat Usman Gani (R: A):-

Hazrat Usman was eighty years old at the time of his death. His caliphate lasted for 12 years from 644 to 656 A.D. Among the rightly guided caliphs this was the longest period of rule. During his rule, Islam was flying east and west. In the east

Yazdgird the last sassanian emperor was killed and in the west, the Byzantines were defeated both on the land and sea and greater part of North Africa was conquered by the Muslims. 3 5

H is general A bdullah set out from M em phis and besieged Tripolis. Tw enty

years afterw ards, the M uslim arm y forced its w ay from the N ile to A tlantic. 26.

The caliph ‘Abdul M alik’ resolved on the reduction of Carthage

(Q artajannah). H is general conquered the great rival o f R om e. T he captured C hristian

capitals num bered three by now : Jerusalem w hich w as the birth place of the

Christianity; A lexandira w hich w as the hom e o f G reek C hristianity and lastly

C arthage; the hom e o f St. A ugustine and L atin C hristianity. In little m ore than one

generation all the population o f N orth A frica had becom e M uslim and their children

w ere speaking A rabic. The new religion conferred up on the converts a sense o f

dignity, self-reliance and self-respect w ith w hich they had been totally unfam iliar. It

gave hope to the so called slave, and a w onderful sense o f brotherhood to its

follow ers, a brotherhood w hich allow ed the w ater carrier o f the caliph to stand on the

sam e prayer m at on w hich stood his m aster to pray w ith him to G od.

Invasion of H azrat A li (R :A ):

H azrat A li (R :A ) w as the fourth caliph o f Islam . H e w as a superm an, a m an o f

m any qualities and virtues. H e w as a m an o f great personal valour, w ho enjoyed the

distinction o f being the “L ion o f G od”. H is caliphate lasted from 656 to 661 A .D .

D uring caliphate, Islam spreading slow ly because o f the process o f foreign conquests

cam e to a grinding halt, and the M uslim instead o f fighting against enem ies o f Islam

fought them selves to the p e a t disadvantage age o f the cause o f Islam .

T he Invasion of E urope:

The caliph A l-W alid next authorized the invasion of Europe, and the

conquests o f A ndalusia. M usa bin N usayr, ably aided by his lieutenant, general T ariq

pushed northw ards and finally com pleted the reduction o f the Spanish Peninsula in

7 1 1 A . D . 36

But for Charles Martel, the Muslims would have run over the whole of the France also. 27. A study of the Muslim conquests shows how large a measure of their success was due to the marvellous enthusiasm that had its roots in their religion. 28.

Expansion of Islam during the Umavvad Period :

The Umayyad period of Islamic history lasted for ninety years from 660 to

750 A.D. This period is overshadowed by Khilafat issue and the grim of

Kerbala. That is certainly a negative aspeet of the Umayyad rule. But there was positive side of their rule as well and we should not be oblivious of this aspect of their rule. After 650 A.D. the process of Muslim conquests had come to a halt. When the

Umayyad won the caliphate they once again led the Muslims to conquests. Under

Mu’aweeyah-I the Muslims advanced in North Africa and Uqba bin Naafi founded the town of Qairown in North Africa.The Muslims captured the island of Rhodes and they raided the island of Sicily. In the north east the Muslims crossed the Oxus. In the west they laid siege of Constantinople. After the death of Hazrat Mu’awiyah in 680 there was once again a halt in the process of Muslim expansion. The process of expansion was resumed in the reign of Abdul Malik. It received further momentum during the reign of Waleed-I. The years711-713 were crowded with momentus victories in Spain in the west; in Sind in the east; and in Transoxiana in the north. In the reign of Hisham, the Berbers were completely subdued. In Europe the Muslims crossed over to France and occupied South France. Under the Umayyads the Muslims dominions constituted the largest empire of the world. The Umayyads organized administration on sound lines. They constructed numerous buildings.

27. K. Ali, Islamer Itihas (Beng.), pp-38,39.

28. W. M. Watt, The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe, p-87. 37

Expansion of Islam during the Abbasids(750-1258 A.D.):

The Abbasid ruled for 508 years from 750 to 1258 A.D. It is one of the longest rules in history. The Abbasids dynasty produced 37 caliphs, .29.

Hitherto the Arabs had played a dominant role in the Muslim community.

Now the tables were turned. We pass from the period of Arabian ascending to one of

Persian ascending or persianised Abbasids and cosmopolitan culture. A1 Mansur, the caliph transferred the seat of Islamic Governments to . It was not a mere casual circumstances that the Abbasids favoured the Persian element and they transferred the seat of Government to where it was in olden times under the

Achaemenids, Araeids and Sasanids, in the plains of the lower Euphrates and Tigris.

Damascus could never have suited them. A1 Mansur established schools of and law in Baghdad. His grandson Harun Al-Rashid (786-809) placed all his schools under the superintendence of a Nestorian and ordered that to every mosque in his dominion a school should be attached. But the golden age of Muslim learning was during the caliphate of Al-Mamun (813-833) A.D. He made Baghdad the centre of science and learning, collected great libraries, and surrounded himself with learned man. Under the influence of Indians, Greeks, Nestorians and Jews, the Muslims

Advanced in the realm of science and philosophy as quickly as they had overrun the provinces of the . It less than a century after the death o f the great prophet of Arabia, the works of the chief Greek and Indian philosophic authors had been translated in to Arabic. It must be brone in mind that the Muslims cultivated science after the manner of Alexandrian Greeks that is, they preferred the inductive method of , as suiting a young and virile race, to the reveries o f . 30.

29. K. Ali, Islamer Itihas (Beng.), 2003, p-345.

30. Ibid-p 38

The main springs of Muslim learning and science were the teaching of the prophet

Muhammad who emphasized the search for knowledge to harness the forces of nature for ameliorating the lot of suffering humanity.

When the Abbasids rule was extinguished the Abbasids dominion did not extend beyond Iraq. During these five hundred years numerous petty states had risen and fallen both in the east and the west. Islam stood for unity, but unfortunate by the

Muslim fell victim to disunity. Among the Arabs there were acute differences among the northern and the southern Arabs. When the overthrew the Abbasids, they had the support by the Shias.

C.Advent of Islam on Iran and its Impact:

During the rule of the last Sassanian king Yazdgird-III, When Omar Faruq was the caliph of the Arabs. Islam entered into Iran. Hazrat Omar wanted to invade

Iran in order to conquer and also to separate it from the capture of the other foreign country. He exercised his extreme power and strength. That is why two grim battle were fought between the Iranians and the Arabs. One at Qadissiya in 636 A.D. and other at Nihawand in 642.31.

The Battle of Qadissiya:

After the Battle of Buwaib, both the sides of the Arabs and the Persian made preparation on a large scale for a big show. Omar reinforced the Muslim army on the

Iraq front and appointed Sa’d bin Abi Waqqas as the commander of the Muslim forces.

The Persian mastered a very large scale force under the direct command of the

Persian commander-in-chief Rustom. Rustom was determined to defeat the Muslims and drive them to the desert. The forces met at Qadissiya in 636 A.D.

31. K. Ali, Islamer Itibas (Beng.), p-116. 39

The battle lasted for several days with varying fortune. Ultimately Rustom was killed. That demoralized the Persians and they suffered a heavy defeat.

The battle of Qadissiya was a battle of great historic importance which opened the gates of Iraq & the Muslims, and marked the retreat of the Persians from

Iraq.

The Battle of Nihawand:

The fell of khozistan alarmed the Persians. They mobilized all the resources at their disposal in another bid to stem the tide of the advancing Muslims. A large

Persian army was assembled at Nihawand to give battle to the Muslims.

The battle of Nihawand was fought in 641 A.D. It was a bloody battle in spite of the stiff resistance put up by the Persians, the Muslims won the battle though the commander of the Muslim forces Nu’man bin Muqaran met his martyrdom at the battlefield.

At the battle of Nihawand the rout of the Persians was complete. They left as many as thirty thousand Persians dead on the battlefield. That was a decisive blow to the Persians, and after this battle the Persians were no longer in a position to take a firm stand anywhere else. The battle o f Nihawand indeed sealed the fate of Persia.

In both of these battles the Iranians were badly defeated and the rest country of

Iran passed over to the Arabs. Excepting the northern provinces of Gilan and

Mazandaran protected by the great Alburz ranges. Thus Iran became an integral part of the new Islamic state. 40

Impact of Islam on Iran:

Towards the close of first half of the 7th century A.D., the Arabs changed the whole outlook of Iran and whole course of her history. This memorable change was the invasion of Iran by the Arabs, a people who had suddenly been transformed by the magnetic ideology of Islam and being put at the heat of the moment, took merely the whole of the world in its strides and gave a new and revolutionary conception of life to people and a magnificent civilization to humanity as a whole.

It is also noted that after the two skirmising battle of Qadissiya and Nihawand, the Muslims armies spread out in all directions of Iran. Gradually the Persian started to adopt the religion of Islam and after this within a very short time Iran was islaminized and came under the Islamic Government. The Persians were influenced with the Muslim faith. They followed . Their culture, tradition, conduct, cloth, meal, education and society all things were adopted with the adaptation of Islamic philosophy and ideology. 32.

The domination of the Arabs over Iran by the implication of Islam, marks a turning point in Plato’s history, political, social, economic and literary. The ideals of

Islam were simple and so very appealing to human nature. These teachings were diametrically approached to the complicated and dualistic teachings of Zoroastrianism and to highly corrupt practices of the Zoroastrian Perishood. Moreover the Arab conquerors were not motivated by the lust of conquest and plunder but by a firy religious zeal, which had prompted them to carry the redeem message of Islam to the down-troden humanity and thus relieve people from the exploitation of those in power. This is why the Arab conquerors meated out a very benevolent treatment to their Iranian subjects and that, quite naturally,

32. M.H. Sayeed, Impact of Islam, p-102. 41 endeared Islam to the oppressed Iranian masses and also the intelligentia, who had been a victim, for centuries together, of a highly oppressed and intolerant priesthood and government. That treatment and not the sword, as stated by some, caused the wholesale conversion of Iranians into Islam, so much so that Zoroastrianism became a stronger in its own land. 33.

The influence of Islam asserted itself not only in the domain of politics, culture and economics but also in the field o f language and literature. Islam diverted the attention of Iranian from mundane subjects to religious sense. By giving a simple and easy-to-leam way of writing in the form of Arabic script, the Arab conquerors relieved the Persian people of the cumbersome Pahlavi script, and thus facilitated

Persian writing and paved the ground for the spectacular development of the Persian literature. The Arabs also gave new vision and mode of expression to the Iranians and that also went to enrich the Persian language.

Now Islam is the official religion of Iran.w vmd .When the name, surname, lineage, religion and language of an Iranian convert were all Arabic and coloured by

Islam. It is at^all astonishing that the whole age should be designated as that of Arab civilization. 34.

33. George-E-Kirak, A Short History of the Middle East, p-60,61.

34. F.C. Davar, Iran and Its Culture, p-93. CHAPTER-3 ISLAMINIZATION OF PERSIAN SPEAKING REGIONS 42

CHAPTER-3

ISLAMINIZATION OF PERSIAN SPEAKING REGIONS

Islam is reckoned as the absolute, magnetic and chosen religion in the world.

It has positive force, sublime moral and magnetic ideology as because where it goes the people there started to accept Islam or got converted in to Islam. Now there are four major regions in the World where people speak the Persian language in different styles. As we start writing the islaminisation of Persian speaking regions, we should remember the region of Persia i.e, Iran, thereafter its branches .

l.IRAN

Islaminization of Persian speaking regions began with the letters written by

Hazrat Muhammad (peace be upon him) to the king of Sassanian dynasty named

Kesra(but his real name, Parvizin Hurmuzin Nawshirwan) in which he had requested him to embrace Isalm. It is to be mentioned that this was the second letter of prophet

Muhammad (S:A) to Kesra Pervez of Persia and given to Abdullah bin Huzaifa. It reads as follows

1. Moulana Hakim Abul Barkat Abdur Rauf Kadiri, Asah-e-Siyor (Urdu), P-391. 43

1. e,- “With the name of Allah, the most merciful and the benevolent”

From Muhammad, Messenger of Allah to Kesra, the chief of Persia. Peace be upon him who follows the guidance and believes in Allah and his Messenger, And I do bear witness that there is no deity but Allah. I do bear witness that I am the messenger of Allah to all men that I may warn him who is alive (spiritually).Become a Muslim (and) you will be at peace. But if you refuse then the sin of the Magians be on you. 2.

Kesra of Persia was not accustomed to be addressed in such a curt manner. He was used to oriental pomp and ceremonies. He considered Muhammad’s letter as an insult to his august person. He became hot with anger and said, “Being a slave of mine, how dares he address me thus” and unfortunately he not only refused to accept

Islam but also he tored his letters in to pieces. When this incident was brought into the kind notice of Hazrat Muhammad (Peace be upon him), he stated “May God tear his kingdom in to pieces”. 3.

It may be mentioned that at that time king Kesra ruled over the half western part of the world with pomp and proud. His feme and reputation was spread far and wide in the world like king Kaisar. All the political parties were under the both king

Kaisar and Kesra.

Thereafter Kesra Parvez sent messengers to Adhan, Governor of Yamen, asking him to send men to Hejaj to capture Muhammad and bring him to Persia.

Badhan sent men to Muhammad asking him to obey the Emperor of Persia on pain of his being over run by Persian armies. The prophet said, “Go and tell him that the kingdom of Islam will soon reach his capital.

2. Dr. (Mufti) M. Mukarram Ahmed, All the Prophets of Islam, P-323.

3. Prof. Muhammad Siddiq Quraishi, RasuI-e-Akram Ky Siyasat-e-Kharijah (Urdu), P-45. 44

The Messenger returned to Yamen and received news of the death of Kesra.

Kesra was killed by his own son Shiwah. His kingdom was ended and Pars was tored into pieces. The whole Iran was captured and occupied by the Muslim armies.

Conquest of Iran:- Later on during the reign of the second caliph of Islam, Hazrat

Omar Faruq (R:A), Islam entered into Iran. Hazrath Omar Faruq (R:A) started invasion on Iran. His intention of invasion was to conquer commonly Iran. He had only purpose to vanquish particular regions o f Arab in Iran in order to separate it from the capture of other foreign country. He exercised his extreme power so that the country would be converted.

After received victory, he did not play any difficult rule. At best he called for the people, although the mountain of fire walled between the Muslim and the Iranian.

They could not come to go each other.

Iran was not regarded as China. It was the centre of collision and revolt, subsequently the battle of Ahwaj and Nihawand was held. Hazrat Omar wanted to cut off this revolt and conspiracy. According to Ahnaf bin Qais, he wanted to break Iran i.e, to kill the king of Kesra.

The battle of Oadessiva:- It was the battle fought between the Arabs and the

Persians. Hz. Omar Faruq wanted firstly to reinforce the Muslim armies in order to capture Iran from the foreign capture. 4. The Muslims armies under the commander in chief S’ad bin Abi Waqqas advanced towards Qadessiya where the Persians armies under the direct commander in chief Rustom, were already determined to defeat the

Muslims and drive them to the desert. The two forces met at Qadessiyah in 636 A.D.

The battle lasted for several days with varying fortune. Ultimately Rustom was killed.

4. Glubb, The Great Arab Conquests, p 27. 45

That demoralized the Persians and they suffered a heavy defeat. This battle was of great historic importance which opened the gates of Iraq for the Muslims and unfurled the flag of . 5.

Conquest of Madain:- From Qadessiyah, the Muslim forces marched to

Madain, the capital o f the Persians in Iraq. In the way encounters took place at Babal,

Kutha and Bahra Sher. The Persians suffered from set back and steadily withdrew.

The Muslim crossed the Tigris and appeared before Madain. There was no regular army at Madain to oppose the Muslim and the capital of Persia in Iraq fell to the

Muslims without much fighting.

The battle of Jalula:- After the fall of Madain, the Persians forces gathered at Jalula. The Muslim force advanced to Jalula and laid siege to the city. The siege dragged on for some months and ultimately towards the fall of 637 A.D., Jalula fell to the hand of Muslims. With the fall of Jalula the conquest o f Iraq was complete and the Muslims were now the master of the whole of Iraq.

The battle of Nihawand:- After the battle of Jalula, Omar Faruq was inclined to- let the Persians be at rest, and to undertake no further campaigns against them. At this time, Yazdgird-III, the Sassanian king went to Rey, but as the chief of Rey he show at fickleness and arrived Khursan through Isrfahan and Kerman and also selected a place to stay there. In Khurasan he built up a and kept the Persian fire in that temple. Yazdgird adorned the kingdom with musical instrument and also began to protect it from the Muslim’s capture. During this time, Khozistan was seized and was reported the death of Harmuzin to him. It was very unsteadiness for him. So, he at last with armies decided to break the Muslims invasion in to pieces. 6,

5. Hazrat Moulana Sayed Muhammad Mea Sb/-,Tarikh-e-IsIam (Urdu), P-114.

6. Qazi Zainal Abedin Miroti, Tarikh-e-Millat (Urdji), Part-II, P-147. 46

Yazdgrid -III had sent letters and messengers to all chiefs, leaders and relatives

border to help him. So the leaders who are related to ‘’, Sindh, Khurasan and

Halwan. They with their soldiers came out to help him. Yzdgird assembled at

Nihawand with his strong minded soldiers. As and when this incident is reported to

the kind notice of second caliph of Islam, Omar Faruq by Sa’ad bin Abi Waqqas. Hz.

Omar Faruq consulted with the noble companions after uniting them. The view point

' of Hz. Usman (R:A) is that Hz. Omar Faruq would lead the

Islamic soldiers in their important battle. But Hz. Ali (R:A) disaggreed to this.

On the other way he proposed for this person who is residential local leader. At last,

Omar accepted Hz. Ali’s proposal and issued an order to Nu’man bin Muqaran.

Proposal of Ah is also accepted by all the companions.

Nu’man bin Muqaran, a tax-collector of keskar, who liked more to sit on the

horse than to sit on the throne. He wrote to Hz. Omar that a man in keskar is

considered as a battle cruiser amongst the young soldiers but he was not skilled in

fighting then Hz. Omar sent 30,000 troops under the commander in chief, Nu’man to

defeat Yazdgird-ffl. 7.

As per decision and suggestion of Hz. Omar Faruq, Nu’man bin Muqaran with

30,000 soldiers advanced towards Nihawand. After reaching there he trained the

soldiers and taught the discipline and process of battle. He posted his brother Nayeed

bin Muqaran in Maymana, Shahid bin Muqarran (another brother) and Hazifah bin

Yaman in Maysor. Another person by name Qahqah was posted at Mazandaran, and

Mazaisha bin Masud at Saqah. On the contrary, the Iranian posted Zardaq at

Maymana and Bahman at Maysor.

7. Ibid-P-148. 47

At last, the Muslim soldiers beat on the drum o f battle with the slogan of

Takbir(Slogan) and came forward at the Maidan. Two days skirmishing of fierce battle was fought between the Muslims and the Iranians. In the 3rd day, the Iranians army was completely routed and they fled away and took shelter in the safer place.

The Muslim party did not want long term battle. So, Qahqah entered in the safer place. When they faced the opposition sever fighting took place .But gradually the

Iranians conceding defeat began to run away from the battlefield.

The battle was such battle that was considered as the most deadly skirmishing \ battle in the world history. Bloody river was flowed at the battlefield. And the horses were slipped due to heavy blood, even the legs of horse of N’uman bin Muqarran was slipped and fell on the ground. Immediately N ’uman stood and were his cap and cloth and set for journey. It was his purpose to show the soldier that he would lead the army as unwounded.

Martyrdom of N’rnnan and his victory:

Turmoil of the battle was continued till night. Due to darkness of the night, the

Iranian fled away and the Muslims ran after them to get advantage. Thousand of escaped Iranians were killed at the time of escape. The Iranian flamed the fire for worship. 8.

Islamic commander in chief N’uman bin Muqarran was severly wounded.

After having victory, a person went to him. At that moment, his heart was heaving up and down seriously, opened his eyes and asked him what was the result of battle. That person replied that Muslims had won the battle.

8. George-E-Kirk, A Short History of the Middle East, P-62,63. 48

In this battle, innumerable booties and wealths were taken by the Muslims to their hand. Huzaifah distributed the booties and its portion of booties was bestowed to

Sa’ab bin Aqrah and he was sent to Madinah in order to inform the good news of victory.

At that time, Hz. Omar Faruq was writing message of victory. He asked as soon as he had seen the messenger. “Tell me what is the result of the battle” Sa’ab reported,O’ Amirul Mu’minin, Allah conquered more and more, but unfortunately

N’uman was killed. Hazrat Omar Faruq, firstly offered patitudenes of Allah and wept for long time for death of N’uman.

The battle of Nihawand was held in 641 A.D. It was a bloody battle. In this battle, the Muslim left as many as thirty thousand Persian dead. That was a decisive blow to the Persians. Iranians were demolised and the Muslims were mobilized. The

Arab named this battle as FATHUL held at 19 A.H. in the month of

Muharram. After this battle Persians were no longer in a position to take a firm stand anywhere else. The battle of Nihawand indeed sealed the fate of Persia. 9.

Confrontation at Rev:-

After the battle of Nihawand the way was open for the Muslims to advance further inland in Persia. As the Muslims penetrated further into heart of Persia there was another confrontation of the Muslim with the Persians at Ray. Here the Persian forces were led by Isfandar, a brother of Rustom, a former commander in chief of the

Persians foras. Here again the same story o f disaster for the Persians was repeated.

The Persians suffered a heavy defeat. There were heavy causalities in the ranks of the

Persian forces. Infandiar fled to Azarbaizan.

9. Tarikh-e-Millat, P-150. 49

After the battle of Ray, there was complete paralysis in the government of i Persia. Yazdgird, the Emperor o f Persia, was forced to fly from pillar to post and post to pillar. In the first instance he fled to Isfahan, and to kerman from kerman he fled to

Balk, and then to Mery.

In conclusion, it may be mentioned that after two grim battles -Qadessiya

(638) and Nihawand (641 A.D.), Iran was completely islaminized and Islam changed the whole outlook of Persia.

After the M l of Ray, the Muslim forces spread in all directions in Persia

Conquest of some regions of Iran is picturised bellow.

I) Conquest of Hamadan:-

A famous Iranian leader named Firuzan fled away from Nihawand to Hamadan.

Huzaifa sent a section of army to set ft)r journey in order to pursue them. This section of army approached to him and killed too near Hamadan. Thereafter, the inhabitant of

Hamadan sought through application for agreement of peace and they accepted Islam.

Having heard of this, the inhabitant of Mah granted their agreement of peace. 10.

Huzaifah with his soldiers came to know that the treachery was survived in

Hamadan. He ordered N’uman bin Muqarar to advance forward of it. He reached

Hamadan and besieged the town. The arrested persons requested for agreement of peace which was immediately approved. Nohim intended to drive out them from there, Rome Duailam, an inhabitant of Azarbaijan and the inhabitant of Ray made all preparation for facing the battle unitedly. In Wad-e-Raud, serious fighting was fought.

At last the opposite party (Infidelity) was defeated.

10. J.A. Boyle, The Cambridge History of Iran, P-39. 50

This good news of victory was reported by Nohim to Hz. Omar who was very willing to fight against the opposite party.

Hz. Omar Faruq (RjA) summoned Nohim to capture Ray which was situated on the eastern side of Tehran. After he arrived Ray. Nohim had seen that Siadash, governor of Ray maintained all his needs for fighting with full vigour. A sever battle was fought. It continued until Abul Furkan, a leader of Ray met Nohim. Abul Furkan told Nohom to transfer a section in my army so that he may enter the city. Therefore

Nohim started to invade and the companion of Abul Furkan shouted with the sound of

Takbir from inside. Siadash escaped secretely and Ray was captured by the Muslims.

Nohim appointed Abul Furkan as Governor of Ray, 11.

Conqaest of :- After the conquest of Hamadan, Suhaid, brother of Nohim started his trip for Qaumas, a tour between Khurasan and Bilad-e-

Zabal. The inhabitants of Qaumas were unable to face the opposite army. The town was conquered without battle. From there, Suhaid turned up his trip towards Zarzan.

The governor of Zarzan wrote an application for agreement of peace which was accepted. The application seeking restoration of peace in Tabaristan reached the governor of Tabaristan. The petition that reached governor was approved. It ran as follows. 12.

“Governor of Tabaristan was consolidated on the condition that the inhabitant of Tabaristan would not prepare to fight with us and they would not provide any shelter to rebellions and has to pay five lakhs per annum.

11. D.E. Smith, History of Iran and Turkey, P-59.

12. T. Houtsma and others,(Ed.) Encyclopaedia of Islam, P-230. 51

This agreement will be continued till the governor of Tabaristan maintains & the agreement. We are not willing to become governor of that country. On the contrary we will enter the country with permission. In this way the inhabitant of Tabaristan would come to our land. If the governor of Tabaristan provides any shelter to the rebels or flatters with our enemies, it seems that the governor of the country has broken the treaty”.

Conquest of Isfahan:- Hz. Omar Faruq (R:A) sent Abdullah bin Uthban, a governor of Basarah, towards Isfahan and Abu Musa Ashwari was directed to help him. Arrived there Abdullah came face to face o f Isbizan. A sever battle was fought between both parties. Finally the Muslims conquered and Isbizan requested for peace and safety. This request was accepted. Thereafter Abdullah inclined towards Zee, a chief centre of Isfahan. Fazdasqan, governor of Isfahan, himself declared to him to come forward for battle. When the turn of Abdullah Fazdasqan told him that you would not come out for fighting with him. On the contrary, I want for agreement of peace in which either whoever wants to stay here by paying tax or to leave that place.

This condition was recorded and agreement of peace was written by Abu Abdullah.)3'

Conquest of Azarbaiian;- Azarbaijan is situated in the coast of

Caspesian Sea. Its prior centre name was Maragah and present name is ,

Bukhair bin Abdullah and Utbah started journey for Azarbaizan. From the Khilafat, an order was issued to Nohim, eonqurer of Ray that he would help him by sending

Sammak bin Kharshah. When Bukhair approached to the mountain of Zarmindan, conqueror of Waa-e-Roud invaded to defeat Isfindiar. Isfindiar who was killed in the battle of Qadessiya. The Muslims captured him alive. Isfindiar told Bukhair

13. Ibid, P-155. 52

“You like peace or war. Bukhair replied that he liked peace. Isfindiar requested him not to kill me”.

When I will not come back in a pact of peace, the inhabitant of Azarbaijan will not take the same. The words of Isfindiar were approved by Bukhair. He, then, advanced towards Azarbaijan, the inhabitant of the country packed the agreement upon tax on saying of Isfindiar.

The message of joy o f Azarbaijan was sent to Hz. Omar Faruq. They ordered that Uthban bin Farqad would be Governor of Azaibaijan. Conquest of Azaibaijan was accorded in 643 A.D. 14.

Conquest of Khursan, Kerman and :

After the loss of fars, the Persians under the directions of Yazdgird-III made the last bid for power in Kerman, Sistan and Khurasan. Abdullah bin Amir as the viceroy on the eastern provinces was required by Othman to take the field.

A Muslim force led by Abdullah bin Amir, and Ahnaf bin Qais marched to

Nishapur. A column led by Majashah bin Masud to kerman, Another column led by

Rabia bin Zaid marched, to Sistan.

Reaching , the Muslims besieged the city. The Muslims cut off all supplies to the city, and the citizens of Nishapur ultimately surrender. Thereafter the cities of Heart and Tus were conquered.

Thereafter Ahnaf bin Qais invaded and subdued Merv, Roz and

several other cities. After the fall of Merv, Yazdgird was deserted by his host and

killed by his own people.

14. Sir Muhammad Iqbal, The Development of Metaphysics in Persia, P-43. 53

This was the end of the rule of the Sassanids, whose empire was at one time the greatest empire in the world.

Militarily operations were successfully carried in Kerman and Sistan. The

Persians were thoroughly defeated and the Muslims became the masters of Kerman and Sistan. 15.

15. Prof. Masudul Hasan. History of Islam, P-119. 54

II. Islam in Afganistan and Siadh

Afghanistan occupies a strategic place of variety o f cultures. The Afghans were first mentioned in a Muslim source under the modem name in A.D. 982. The area was part of Persian Achaeminan empire of Cyrus-II, the Great during the 6th century B.C. Alexander-Ill, the Great. After Alexander’s death, part of the area came under Seleucid control and part under the of Northern India. The

Seleucid Satrapy of (Balk) forged its own kingdom and created a unique fusion of Greek and Indian culture. 16.

During the 2nd century B.C. Afganistan became part of the empire of the

Kushan King Kanista (A.D. 78-114). Hindu influence entered Aganistan by the way of the Hepthalites and the Sassanians; during the rule of the Saffarids, in about 870

A.D. Islam became firmly entrenched in Afganistan to Kabul, Khaled bin Waleed, then was carrying flag of Islam in Afganistan and during was calling the people to come under the flag o f Muhammad (Peace be up on him). 17.

The Mongols under Cenghis Khan invaded Afganistan in 1219 A.D. The dissolution of his empire resulted in the rise of mostly independent principalities existed partly within the of India and the Safavid of Persia.

Before discussing the Arab conquest of Sindh. It sees desirable to describe the condition of India in the beginning of the 8* century. As regards political condition, there was no permanent power in the country. India was a congeries of states, each one of which was independent of sovereign. Afganistan was part of India from the time of Chandragupta Maurya. Hiuen Tsang tells us that in his time a Kshatriya prince

16. Abdur Rakib, Islam Pracharer Itikata (Beng.) (translation from the Preaching of Islam of T.W. Arnold) P-224.

17. V.A. Smith, Early , P-25. 55 ruled over the Kabul valley and his successors continued to do so till the end of the

9th century. A.D. It was then that a Brahman dynasty founded by Lalliya was established. The new dynasty was called by the Muslim writers as the kingdom or the kingdom of Kabul and Zabul. The exact name of ruler who was ruling in Afghanistan at the time of the Arab conquest of Sindh is not known. 18.

It is true that Sindh was actually conquered by the Arabs in 712 A.D. but it is does not mean that no efforts had been made earlier in that direction. We are told that in 636 A.D. during the Khilafat of Hz. Omar Faruq a naval expedition was sent for the conquest of Thana near Bombay, but it failed. Another attempt was made in 644 A,D, by land through the coast into western Sindh. The expedition was sent by

Khalifa Hz. Usman under the leadership o f Abdullah bin Amar. The latter conquered

Sistan and then advanced towards Makran.

It is stated that Arab was provoked to undertake the conquest of Sindh in 711

A.D. The real cause of the Arab invasion of Sindh was the determination of the Arabs to conquer Sindh with the object of spreading of Islam.

It was Muhammad bin Qasim who conquered Sindh in 712 A.D. At that adventure later on, Afghanistan embraced Islam after overthrowing the Budhihism concept gradually. Among the Turkish slaves whom the Samanids delighted to honour with high governmental posts was one Alptigin, who started his carrer as a member of the body guard. Soon he rose to the headship of the guard thence was promoted in 961 to the governorship of Khurasan. 19.

Shortly afterwards, however, he fell out of favour with the new Samanid ruler and be took himself of the eastern boarder of kingdom Here in 962 A.D. he captured

18. Abdul Qayum Raflqi, Sufism in Kashmir, P - 1,2,3.

19. The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol.-I, Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc, P-129 56

Ghaznah in Afghanistan from its native ruler and established an independent realm which developed in to the Ghaznawid empire of Afghanistan and Punjab (922-1186

A.D.). The real founder of Ghaznawid dynasty, however, was Subuktigin (976-997

A.D.0, a slave and son in law o f Alptigin. The sixteen Ghaznawid who succeeded him were his lineal descedents. Subuktigin widened his territory to include Peshawar in

India. 20.

About half of the Afghan people are of Pashtu ancestry, followed by Tadzhiks,

Uzbeks and Hazaras. The Pashtuns are mainly inhabitant the southern and eastern part o f the country. Most Pashtuns are sedentary, though some remain nomadic. The

Tadzhiks, mostly farmers and artisans, live mostly in the north east and in the west around Hirat. The are mainly farmers living northern of Hindukush. The

Hazaras are nomads who inhabit the central mountains.

The official language of Afghanistan is Pashto (Pushtu) and Dari (a form of

Persian) both Indo-European languages, Pushtu is spoken by about half of the population. Dari is spoken by about a third of thepopulation mainly the Tadzhik, the

Hazara, Chahar Aimak and Kizilbash people. Uzbek is spoken in northern Afganistan and Turkeman in the same general Area, both belong to A1 taic language family.

Some three fourth of peoples are Sunni and about one fourth are Shiite Muslims.

20. M.H. Syeed, History of Muslim in India edited, P-9. 57

III .Islaminisation of Tadzhikistan:

The area of Soviet Tadzhikistan also includes the Gamo-Badakhshan autonomous ablate. The capital of the Tadzhik S.S.R. is Dushanble. Tadzhikistan is located in the extreme south of the Soviet Union and is bounded by China to the east,

Afghanistan to the south and Soviet, Uzbekistan and Kirgiziya to the west and north.

It is mountain country, and more than half of its territory lies above 10.000 feet (3,000 m).

Tadzhikistan is named after its principal inhabitants, the Tadzhiks, who speaks a language that is closely related to Persian. The Tadzhiks is closely related to their

Muslims Coreligianists and neighbours the Uzbeks.

The Tadzhiks was descended from the Persian speaking Iranian stock that once predominated in central Asia. They were part of the empires of the Persian and of the Alexander, the peat and his successors, and in the 7th/ A.D. they were conquered by the Arabs and were thus islaminized. Successive migration of

Turkic peoples into the region over the countries also influenced the Uzbek Khanate of from the 15th to mid 18th century, at which time the Afghans conquered those Tadzhiks living south of the Amre-Darya. Russia took over much of

Tadzhikistan in 1860 A.D. Now it becomes independent in Dec, 1991 A.D. Its capital is Dushanble. 21.

21. The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol.-l, Encyclopedia Britannica Inc, 1968, P-129 58

IV . Islaminisation of Uzbekistan and Central Asia:

! ■ f ’1 ^ ’

Uzbekistan was formerly one of the republics of USSR, but it became independent in 1991, located in central Asia. The capital of Uzbekistan is Tashkent.

Boardered by Kazakhstan on the north and west, Turkministan on the south west.

Afganistan on the south, and Tadzhikistan and Kyrgyzstan on the east. The country extends from the Tian Shan mountain system to the ARAL SEA.

The Arab conquest in Uzbekistan began after the conquest of some regions of central Asia. The Arab conquests of Sind and south western Punjab was complete by

96 A.H. (714 A.D.), but for nearly three centuries after there was no further extension of Muslim dominion. The second phase of Muslim expansion began with establishment of Turkish Moslim dynasty in , and followed the north-western routes traditional for the invasion o f Indian sub-continent. 22.

In 21 A.H. (642 A.D.), the Arabs had defeated Yadgird, the Sasaned ruler and become master of Iran. After this operating from Fars by way of Kirman, they set about conquering the eastern provinces of the Iranian empire. They followed two main lines, the northern through Nishapur to Heart, Merv and Balk and the southern by way of Sistan to the Helmond and Bast. They progressed rapidly under Qutaibah bin Muslim who conquered Transoxiana (Mawara al Nahar) as far as Khwarizm and

Samarqand (97 A.H., 711-712 A.D.) and within a century of the death of the founder of Islam, the Arabs were masters of Khursan, Balk and Mawara-al-Nahar. They did not subjugate Kabul or any part of the Sulaiman Mountain Area, but operating through Sistan, exerted constant pressure on the non-Muslim rulers of Kabul and are even stated to have raised areas as far as Banu and some others areas on the north west frontier.

22. M.H. Sayeed,(Ed.) History of Muslim in India, P-9. 59

There are also indications of considerable traffic of a peaceful nature between Muslim and non Muslim area.

Arab geographers give detailed accounts of the north western areas of India sub-continent, which would not have been possible if the Muslim and non-Muslim areas had been separated by an iron curtain. According to the author of Hudu-al-

Alam, written in 372 A.H. (982 A.D.), some Muslims were even settled in Hindu cities such as Waihind (Ohind). 23.

The Arab occupation of Transoxiana paved the way for the Muslim conquest of Indian sub-continent. It established a link between the Turkish homelands and the

Muslims and from then onwards the Turks were to play an important role in the

Muslims world, and were the main force behind the conquest of the sub-continent.

The first inroads into the heart of the Area which is now Afganistan was made by Yakub bin laith, the Saffarid, who became the ruler of Sijistan in 247 A.H. (661

A.D.). He captured Kabul nine years later and (according to Caroe) founded Ghazni about the same time. Kabul was however lost by Yakub bin Laith’s successor to the

Hindu Shahis. Meanwhile the Samanids (261-389 A.H., 874-999 A.D.) established sway upon the greater part of the area to the east of Baghdad. In the beginning of the

4fl7lOth century, the Saffarids gave way to the Samanids, who established a great and patronized the Persian language.

After this, the Muslim invasion was started to capture Uzbekistan.

Subsequently the Arabs conquered the Uzbekistan and thus was islaminised. But the

Uzbek speak Turkic language and 71% of the Uzbeks are Sunni Muslims. 24.

23. Ibid-P-11.

24. GROLIER Encyclopedia of Knowledge, Gloier, 1999, P-105. CfiAPTER-4

PO O LlTlCA L a n d CU LTU RA L H ISTO RY O F TH E

A BD A SID PER IO D (750-1258 A .D :) '•>5 CHAPTER - 4 Political and Cultural History of Abbasid Period. ( 750 to 1258 A.D) 1. A brief description of Prior situation of Abbasid period:-

After death of prophet Hazrat Muhammad (Peace be upon him) in tin \eur 632 A.D., four successive caliphs : ( I ) Hazrat Abu Bakr, (II) Hazrat Omar Faruqu., III) Hazrat Utman Gani and ( IV ) Hazrat Ali (R:A.) were chosen by the people Atiei the martyrdom of Hazrat Ali in 661 A.D., Hazrat Moaweeya founded the Umawao dynasty at Damascuss. The last Umayyad caliph was defeated in 750 A f) n tlx battle o f‘ZAB’ and the famous commenced its way.

Weakness of the later Umawads The fall of the Umayyads was caused t>\ many factors, of which the weakness of the latter Umayyad Caliph was a mair one With the exception of Marwan -II, all the successors of Hisham were weak a no inefficient rulers.They were neither soldiers nor statesmen .They neglected the at fair of administration and indulged themselves in comfort and pleasure of life. A luian empire , distracted and disturbed by many troubles can not be preserved b\ the weak persons. It needed the hands of strong and talented ruler like Abdul Malik v> the Umayyads could not produce* an able personality of that calibre . their disturbed empire collapsed. 1

1. Dr. A. Rahim , Islamic History , PP - 185 - 86. 61

Irreligion of the Umawads Hie irreligious and immortal way of life some of the Umayyad caliphs greatly offended the honest Muslims of the time, who considered them unscrupulous and worldly minded. The Umayyad were the last to accept Islam and the idea prevailed among the Muslims that they accepted Islam in consideration that paganism was a lost cause and the new faith would promote the worldly gains.

Degeneration of Umayyad Society Due to luxury,wine and women the

Umayyad society lost its vigour and energy. The Umayyad caliphs lived in luxury and they were imitated by the ruling Arab People .As a result they were degenerated and lost simplicity and Purity which had preciously accounted for their prosperity.

Revival of tribal spirit :-The revival of the old tribal spirit of the Arabs fostered by the Umayyad caliphs to suit the interests of their policy o f ‘divide and rule’ greatly undermined the . Because internal strifes of the -Arabs and

Yeman-Arab added fuel to the flame of the troubles of the latter weak Umayyad rulers

Absence of definite rules of Succession :-The absence of any definit rule of hereditary succession to the Khilafat was another cause of the weakness and fall of the Umayyad dynasty.2 The Alids and Shiaites, who never acquiesced in the rule of the Umayyads and never forgave them for their wrongs to the family of Ali who ougmented their down fall.

2.1bid, P - 191 62

Dissatisfaction of Mawaiis

The dissatifaetion of Mawaiis against chauvinism and aristocracy of the Arab in the Umayyad dynasty was one of the important causes of the downfall of the Umayyad dynasty . The Iranians looked back to their glorious tradition and could not submit themselves to the aristocracy of the Arabs . They looked for an opportunity to rehabilitate their position by overthrowing the Umayyads.

The collapse of the Umayyad dynasty was brought about by the master organiser , the leader of the Abbasid propaganda . By his organising capacity Abu Muslim effected an alliance of all the anti-Umayyad forces and destroyed the House of Umayyad and built the House of Abbas in the Khilafat. When the Abbasids raised the standard of revolt, the people flocked to their standard as they were given to believe that under the new regime , belonging to the House of the Holy prophet would appear who would usher in a new era of peace , prosperity and justice.

2. Foundation and expansion of the Abbasid period

The third act or contribution in the great political drama of Islam is the

Abbasid dynasty which is established by Abul Abbas Saffah. He was the first and also greatest Khalifa of the Abbasid dynasty that ruled from 750-1258 A.D(132-656 A H) for 508 years, which was established after the overthrowing of the Umayyad dynasty.He was the founder of this dynasty and he had a terrible vengeance or retribution on the decline of the Umayyad family on account of their execution of his brother Ibrahim. 3

I ...... ' ...... 1 3. JVJpfti Shoukat All Fahmi, Makammal Tarikh-e-Islam (Urdu), Chapter-8, P-472 63

The Abbasid period ,at the zenith of its power,extented from the shores of

North Africa to Indus .from to the Caspian Sea ,and in to vallyes of the North

Western slopes of the Himalaya.

This dynasty of 37 caliphs reigning in Baghdad from 750 -1258 A.D.(132 -

656 A.H.) descended from the prophets uncle,al Abbas ibn Abd al Muttalib set up its rule on the ruins of the house of the Umayyads (661-750 A.D.) starting with subversive propaganda against the Umayyad , the Abbasids Came into Power in 750

A.D. The Abbasid was brought to an end in 1258 A.D. when Caliph Al- Musta’sim was put to death by Halaku.

Here, genealogy of the Abbasid dynasty be given accordingly.

1 l.As-Saffahf 2. Al-Mansur T 3. AlMahdi r 4.A1-Hadi 5. Harun-al-Rasid __ L_

6. Al-iWnin 7. Al-Miamun 8. Al- Mutasim■Mi

4 MuhammadT 9. Al-Wathiql 10. Al-Mutawakkil 12.Musta’in 14.A1-Muhatadi 11. Al-Muntasir 13.A1_ Mu’tazzL_ 15.A1. Mu’tamid

16. Al. Mu’tadhid 1 64

f T

17. Al-Muktafi 18. Al-Muqtadir 19. Al-Qahir

22.4dustakfi i i 2G.Ar-Razi 21. Al-Muttaqi 23. Al Muti

25. Al- 24. ACTai

26. Al-^a’i

Muhammadi

27. Al-lsAqtadi

28. Al-isii stazhir 1 i 29. Al-Mustarshid

30. Al- Rasjud

31. Al-Mustafi

32. Al-liu stanzid

33. A1-1V ustadi

34. Al-Njsir

35. Al-

36. Al-Mfestansir

37. Al-Mu^stasim 4

4. Philips K. Hitti, , P-289. 65

The rule of the Abbasids lasted for over 508 years. The Abbasids are among the longest lived dynasties of history. The rule o f Abbasids may be divided into two main periods

1. The early Abbasid period (lasted from 750 - 945 A.D.)

2. The second period i.e. (The later Abbasid period lasted from 945 - 1258 A.D.)

The year 945 is the dividing line as it was during this year that power was captured by the Buwayhids and the Abbasid Caliphs lost their independence. The period of the early Abbasid extends to 195 years, while the period of the later Abbasid extends to 313 years. During 508 years of their rule, the Abbasids produced 37 rulers.

During the period of the early Abbasids, there were 22 rulers during 195 years, while in the period of the later Abbasids, there were 15 rulers in 313 years. l.THE PERIOD OF THE EARLY ABBASID (750-945 A.D.i

(A) The great Abbasid Period (750 to 833 A.D.) from As -Saffah to Khalifa A! Mansur (7 rulers) 1. Abul Abbas As-Saffah (750 - 754 A.D)

On the fall o f the Umayyads, Abul Abbas, the leader of Abbasids bee arm the caliph. He claimed descent from Hazrath Abbas, an uncle o f the Hole prophet

Peace be upon him ). Once upon a time , prophet Muhammad (S.A.) told Abbes tha

Khilafat would be inherited from his ancestors.

It is also narrated by Abu Said Khurdi (R.A.) that Hazrath Muhammad (Peace be upon him) said that “when calamity will come to our 'Ummat' . a person named

As- Saffah’ will appear and he will bestow property to the people". The \oicc

Hazrath Muhammad (S.A.) later on was proved exactly when As Saffah who w e. very kind and soft minded person ascended the throne after destroying the Bam

Umayyad dynasty.As Saffah and his followers occupied throne and established tin

Abbasid dynasty. 5

Nobody was doubtful about the conflict o f Khilafat and Imamat a. Inch occured amongst the Muslims. Such kind o f conflict and calamity started just alter sin demise o f Hazrath Muhammad (S .A .). It continued upto the reign o f Ha/rat Mi and till today also.

S. Prof. Masudul Hasan, History of Islam, P- 195- 96 67

It is also narrated that after the death of Hazrath Abbas, the leadership of the family developed on his son Abdullah. There after it developed by his son Ali.

After Ali, the leadership of the family passed on his eldest son Muhammad,the leadership developed on his son Ibrahim. Ibrahim was killed by the Umayyad caliph

Marwan 11, After death of Ibrahim , the leadership passed on his brother Abdullah

Abul Abbas As-Saffah.

Here, diagram of genealogy of the Abbasids upto As-Saffah be given below:-6

Hashim

▼ ▼ Abdullah Abu Talib Al-Abbas

Probhet Mohammad HzAAii Abdullah

Al-Hasan Al-Hussain a :

Muhammad

Abul Abbas As-Saffah Al-Mansur

6. Islamic History, P-194. 68

Why he was called As - Saffah

After accession, Abu Abbas refered to himself as “As- Saffah” - the blood

shedder and this became his sobriquet. The idea was to terrorise the people into

-submission, and make them understand that the Abbasids would rule through force

and would not tolerate any opposition. In order to consolidate their rule, the Abbasids

followed the policy of blood and iron. He killed a large number of people in his reign

to destroy the victory of the Umayyads in cold blood. Thousands of persons were

locked up in prison on the charge of rebellion, thousands lost their heads on the

charge of the partisanship towards the Umayyads and the people in general were terrorised into submission .By dint of enormous blood shedding , he earned his nick

name as ‘As- Saffah’ ( The blood thirsty or the blood shedder). It is by this name that

he became welknown and famous in the history of the world.

Character:- As - Saffah was a mixture of opposities , cruelty and generosity. He

was vindictive and mercilessly cruel to the Umayyads and the enemies of his family .

But on the otherhand, he was humane, compassionate and also generous to his friends

and his supporter. He was very effectionate fether and a devoted husband.

T 1" Change of Capital The Umayyads had their Capital at Damascus but the

Abbasids did not make damascuss their capital. Abul Abbas began his rule at .

Kufa was the capital of Hazrat Ali, and the aim of the Abbasids was to restore the

position as it existed before the usurpation of power by the Umayyads. Most of the

people of Kufa had a soft comer for the Shias. The Abbasids , therefore, did not find

the atmosphere at Kufa congenial to their rale. Khalife As- Saffah built his residence

a few miles away from kufa. So he accordingly shifted his capital from kufa to

and named it Hashimiah as his capital. Another name of its capital is Madinatul

Mansur. Hashimiah was a place where after Hashim, an early ancestor of the family

dwelt in Al- Anber , which stands on the left bank of the Eupharates in the north of 69

Iraq. Today this site was quite waste. The sister city of Kufa , Al- Basara was abandoned for the same reason , because of his southern situation which made it unsuitable for a centre of Kingdom.

Massacre of the Umavvad Princes As Saffah appointed his uncle

Abdullah, the victor of the battle o f ZAB as the Governor of syria. Abdullah invited all the Umayyad Princes in Damascus, about 80 in number, to a banquet. At a given signal, a band of executioners entered the banquet hall and clubbed all the Umayyad princes to death. Abdul Rahman, a grandson of the Umayyad Caliph Hashim was the

Umayyad prince to escape from this massacre . He had fled to and then to

Spain where he set up an Umayyad state. In a revengeful mood, the Abbasids broke open the graves of some of the Umayyad caliphs and burnt the dead bodies.7

Revolts At the beginning of his rule the Abbasid had to face revolts in various comers of the country . These revolts were sponsored by the partisans of the

Umayyads , by the partisans of the shias and by the . But all the revolts against the Abbasids at different part of the country were crashed ruthlessly.

Capitulation of W a s i t The short reign of As-Saffah was particularly spent in fighting the Umayyads and insecuring the Abbasid Khilafat. For the first time, in the history, the Caliphate was not conterminous with Islam. Spain, North Africa, Uman,

Sind and even Khurasan did not fully acknowledge the New Caliph , Egypt’s acknowledgement was more nominal than the real. Marwan’s viceroy of Iraq, Yazid bin Hobaira who held the governorship of Wasit, the Umayyad capital of Iraq for eleven months.

As Yazid bin Hobaira refused to acknowledge the Abbasids,He put up an

Alid, Abdullah a grand Son o f Imam Hasan as a rival caliph.

7. Prof. Masudul Hasan, History of Islam , P -195. 70

Abbasid caliph sent a force to Wasit under the command of his brother Abu Jafar

Mansur.Ibn Hobaira offered stiff resistance,but as he did not any help from outside,he was seized by Abu Jafar and Hussain bin kahtaba.So,he agreed to capitulate on the grant of lull amnesty.After occupying the city,Abu Jafar ,under the direction of As

Saffah went back on his Pledge and Ibn Hobaira was put to death.

Administrative policy of As Saffah:- Khalifa As- Saffah executed a new modem policy in the administration of the khilafat. He discarded the Arab policy in maintaining the Arab Aristocracy in the government and society . He adopted international Policy in his administration

As Saffah appointed all Muslims , Arab and non-Arab in the important departments and offices on the basis o f their merit. He also rewarded all those persons who had rendered services for the cause of the Abbasid Khilafat. Abu Salmah Hafs bin

Sulaiman was made the first chief ministers of the Khilafat. Abu Muslim Khurasani whose valuable services had obtained Khilafat for the Abbasids, was appointed as the viceroy of Khurasan Khaled bin Barmiak, a Person who devotedly fought for the

Abbasid Khalifat, was appointed as a chancellor of the exchequer.Many other persian scholars and the other Muslims were rewarded with high distinct offices for excellent services. 8

Murder of Abu Salmah:- The two most powerful nobles at the court of As-

Saffah were Abu Salmah and Abu Muslim.On coming to power ,As-Saffah appointed

Abu Salmah as the minister ,while Abu Muslim was appointed as the commander in

Chief and Governor of Khurasan. Abu Muslim and Abu Salamah felt jealous of each other.Abu Salmah had great influence over Khalifa As-Saffah.

8. Ibid, P - 196 71

He became jealous o f his influence. So one night when Abu Salmah was returning from the court of Khalifa to his home,he was waylaid and assasinated by the men of

Abu Muslim ,Khaled Barmaid was,thereafter,appointed as the Minister..

Death of As-Saffah:- After a short reign of five years,Khalifa As-Saffah died in

754 A.D.at an early age of 30.Before his deathfre nominated his brother Abu Ja’far

Mansur as his successor to the Khalifet.lt is also mentioned As -Saffah died of small pox in 754 after a short rule of four years.

Criticism Abul Abbas Saffah waded to power through slaughter and he maintained power through blood shedding. As a ruler,he was cruel,vindictive and treacherous.In spite of his ruthlesss, blodly and iron polices , As -Saffah assumed the rule of a relilgious leader.He is a mixture of cruelty and generosity.He used to lead the friday prayers and on such occasion he donned the mantle of the Holy prophet.In private life he had pleasant manners and was generous.He had only one wife and led a pious life.

Writing of poems and songs were attractive peculiar to the khilafat of As-

Saftah.Some renown historian says that any one expert in any literature or music was awarded by As-Saffah.The following and scholars of Islam breathed their last during the period of As-Saffah.Some are mentioned. 9

1. Za’id bin Aslam.

2. Abdullah bin Abu Bakr bin Hizm.

3. Abdul Malik bin Umaien Yahyah.

9. Makmmal Tarikh - e - Islam (Urdu), P- 480 72

2. Abu Ja’far AI-Mansur (754 -775 A.D)

Accession of Mansur As-Saffah was succeeded by his brother Abu Ja’far

Abdullah who assumed the title of Al-Mansur.Although Abul Abbas Saffah was the founder of the Abbasid dynasty but the real founder and builder of this dynasty was

Abu Ja’fah Abdullah Mansur.He was the son of Muhammad,a great grandson of

Hadrath Abbas,an uncle of the Holy prophet-He was also son of a Berber mother

Salmahi le was forty one years old at the time of ascending the throne in 754 A.D.

The accession of Al-Mansur is regarded as a landmark in the history of

Khilafat.His reign introduced an era of exceptional splendour and glory in the history of Arab.He was regarded as a brilliant,scholar,literate and also a gifted ruler who established the greatness and glorious of the Abbasids in the field of culture and civilization. By dint of his remarkable skill and dexerity,khalifa Al-Mansur consolidated the Abbasid Khilafat and prepared the way and method for the greatness and glorys of his successors, Although As-Saffah was the first Khalifa of his family,he had a short reign and didnot get sufficient time to consolidate the Abbasid

KhilafatThis important work of consolidation was done by Al-Mansur and hence he is counted as the Practical and real founder of the Abbasid dynasty. 10

Revolt of Abdallah bin A l i At first, Al- Mansur devoted himself to the task of cosolidating the Abbassid Khilafat. He resolved to reform all rivals and pretenders to secure his throne and dynasty in the khalifat of Islam. To achieve his aim and object he spared no pains and stopped no means, fair or foul.

10. R.A Nicholson, A Literary History of Arabs, PP-254,55 At the outset of his reign Al-Mansur had to face the revolt of Abdullin hi'

Ali, Governor of Sam i.e Syria and victor of the battle of ZAB as a rival tin ttu

Khilafat and was determined to remove him. Abdullah was a elaiment for the Pnom and he rebelled when A1 Mansur succeeded to the khilafat. So, Al-Mansur sent ion., to Syria under the command of Abu Muslim. In the battle of NIS1B1N (754 Vl)> \h

Muslim inflicted a crushing defeat on Abdullah.

Abdullah fled with his family to where his brother Sulaiman was the governor

Al-Mansur deprived sulaiman of his charge and imprisoned Abdullah. Abdullah we loged in a house built over the foundation of Salt, when rains began . the fal oi heavy shower demolished the house and Abdullah was crushed to death.

Influence of Abu Muslim in the empire Khalifa Al-Mansur considered

Abu Muslim Khurasani as a very dangerous and poisonous to himself and his lanuo

Abu Muslim was the most powerful man in the Abbasid dynasty. He was the national hero of the Iranians and was looked upon a prophet by many people o f Khurasan .phi

Iran that he could destroy the house of Abbas as he had built it by simple raising tm finger.

The conduct and behaviour of Abu Muslim Khurasani towards the Khalifa was unregarded . Khalifa Al-Mansur sent a messenger to make a list of the spoiK which had been obtained by Abu Muslim Khurasani in the battle of Nasibm. \h

Muslim used abusive and vulgar language towards the royal messenger and the

Khalifa. He was so powerful that the Khalifa could not take any action against him his show of disrespect.

When Abu Muslim was transfered from Khurasan to the province of \\n a. his great and vast power began to weaken . He was returning from the lie id N asibin to Khurasan. B y lavish prom ises , he w as induced by the Khalita to no

visit to the court. H e w as received w ith great h on ou r and respect at t h e court 11 wm

favoured in m any w ays. B y these the suspicions o f A bu M u slim w as rem oved anu ' u

w as throw n o f his guard. O ne day w hen he w as in audience of t h e Khalifa m u

unguarded w ay, he w as killed by som e m en engaged by A l - Mansur in “77^ \. )

Thus M ansur unscrupuously rem oved a very pow erfu l m an, w ho m ight be in fuuirc <

th reat to th is K h ila fa t.

The m urder o f A bu M uslim caused an insurrection among his follower^ i n

K huras. T h ey w ere defeated . M asu di says that the follow ers of Abu Muslim lonneo a

sect o f their ow n called Khurram is . Th ey acknow ledged him as their Imam tint

saviou r . O n e section o f the K h u rram is taught that he w as s t ill alive and would soon

re-appear to do ju stice on earth . A n oth er section believed that he was dead and the

Im am ate passed to his dau ghter. 11

Shi’ite r e v o l t T h e m em ber o f A lis’ fam ily cou ld not forget that the\ weie the

truthful and rightful claim ents o f the K h ilafat . Th ey thought that the Vbhasid^

deceived them and usurped .Popular tw o great grandsons o f Im am Hasan mined

M u ham m ed and Ibrahim , had am bitions for the K h ila fa t. In M adinah and Mecca the

had great influence . M uham m ed declared him as K h alifa in M adinah .The neopie >'

M adinah offered him allegiance M uham m ad as caliph declared the deposition v

M ansur. M ansur’s deputy in M adinah w as rem oved and im prisoned .The whole

H ejaj and Yam en accepted M uham m ed as the K halifa . Im am Abu Hanifa and I man

' ...... ■>

M a lik , tw o prom in en t Jurist o f that tim e ga ve th eir verdict in favou r of Muhammad

11. Ibid, P-260 75

Mansur sent a force under the command of his nephew Isa bin Musa to attack

Madinah . The cause of Muhammed was betrayed , and only 300 persons were left with him to defend his cause . In the battle that followed , Muhammed and his

followers were killed to a man and Madinah was restored to the Abbasid rule . Even

his old fother Abdullah was treated by Mansur with great severity,

Muhammad’s brother Ibrahim raised the standard o f revolt at Basrah .Mansur

sent a ft>ree to Basrah . In that battle that took place outside Basrah, the Abbasids

were defeated . Ibrahim, there after marched with the force from Basrah to Kufa . In

the meantime Madinah had fellen, and Isa bin Musa was commissioned to take action

against the advancing forces of Ibrahim. In the battle that took place outside Kufa in

the closing month of 762 A.D. Ibrahim was defeated and killed .After this the Alid’s

rebellion which continued for three months, came to a close.

Repressive measures of Al-Msnsur:- As an aftermath to Abbasid -Alid civil

war,Al-Mansur adopted repressive measure on an intensive scale.Most of the

surviving members of the families o f Muhammad and Ibrahim were arrested and

lodged in Prison,and their properties were confiscated.Those who had espoused the

cause of Muhammad and Ibrahim in any way, were subjected to torture .In

Madinah,Imam Malik was flogged. In Baghdad Imam Abu Hanifa was arrested and

Put in Jail,where he died.

Byzantine raids The Byzantines invaded the Muslim dominions and penetrated

for some distance in the Muslim territory causing considerable havoc. In the mean

time Khalifa Mansur had to deal with raids of the Byzantines. He repulsed them and

forced the Byzantine emperor to sue for peace . By the peace treaty that followed , a

truce was declared for a period of seven years. 12

12. Ibid, P-2&. 76

Disturbances of Rawaindhas In the reign of Mansur , a sect of Fanatics arose in persia known as Rawaindhas . The Rawaindhas had a peculiar belief; they believed that the Khalifa was God incarnate . They came to the Khalifa’s palace and shouted , “ It is the house o f our lord, he giveth us food to eat and water to drink.”

This caused agitation among the people and Mansur took strong action against the

Rawaindhas. Mansur had arrested 200 leaders of the Rawaindhas and lodged in prison

. They stormed the prison and rioted all around and also they wanted to kill Mansur .

Troops however, came in time to deal with the situation . People shut their doors to the Rawaindhas and they were massacred.

Khurasan Khalifa Mansur had face some troubles in the eastern part of his empire. The governor of Khurasan rebelled in 758 A.D. Mansur sent Prince Mahdi, who suppressed the rebellion of Khurasan.

Tabaristan In Tabaristan , the ruling Ispahend cast off subordination to Islam.

Prince Mahdi defeated him in several engagements, making captive of many men and women. After this successful campaign , Tabaristan was annexed to the Arab empire in 760 A.D.

Daylam After this time the turbulent people of Daylam rose in revolt .Being a

Mountainous country the royal forces found some difficulty in overpowering the people of Daylam. Ultimately the revolt was successfully suppressed and Daylam was annexed to the Abbasid empire.

The Khazaras and of and gave much trouble to the

Abbasid Khilafat. Mansur appointed khaled bin Bermek as governor of Mosul who succeeded in restoring peace in that locality. 77

Foundation of Baghdad Being relieved of rivals and rebles Khalifa Mansur felt free to build a worthy capital of his great empire . He felt that Kufa and Damascus would not be safe for his family, there were Alid’s influence in the former and Umayyad influence in the latter. He selected ‘Baghdad’ , the summer garden of the Persian emperor Anushirvan as the site of his new capital. The construction of the capital began in 762 and by 766 A.D. a magnificent city rose on the on the Tipis. Mansur’s son Mahdi extended the city in the east of the river . In beauty, splendour and magnificence, Baghdad was counted the first city of the world at that time, Baghdad soon rose to importance and in the medieval Period, all roads led to Baghdad which became a big trade emporium. According to the story of Alif-wa-Laila ( Thousand and one night) , the peat splendour , prosperity and refinement reflect this city. Being situated in the Persian territory , Persian influence and culture predominated in the Abbasid capital as well as in the Abbasid Khilafat. Death of Mansur Khalifa made untiring attemps and hard labour to build the Abbasid Khilafat . Feeling his weak health , he nominated his son , Mahdi as his successor and instructed him in the affairs of administration . He , then , left for Makkah to spend his last days in peace and devotion in that Holy land. He breathed his last at Bir Maimun in 775 A.D. (148 A.H.) and was buried in Makkah. Good qualities of Mansur Khalifa Al- Mansur was considered as a deeply religious peWon ak^ of Kingship . He considered, lfrs Khilafat as a tRik kM aiM, Wetted tilhiSblf fo tfebhaige it feWllilly . bib 78

Mansur looked after every minute details of administration himself and laboured untiringly for the welfare of the people and prosperity of the empire. 13

Sense of Justice Mansur has high sense of Justice . He himself set an example of strict obedience to the court of law . Summoned by the Qazi of Madinah on the complaint of some camel - owners , Khalifa Mansur appeared as an ordinary litigacy before the court. Though the judgement went against him , the justice- loving Khalifa admired and rewarded the Qazi for his fearlessness and impartiality in dispensing justice.

Defects of Mansur But there are some glaring defects which are the serious on his character .He was considered sometimes as a cruel,unscrupulous and vindictive.His of Abu Muslim and Abdullah and his severities to the member’s of Ali’s family are the dark spots of his character and Khilafat.The famous historian Suyuti Says,Mansur was the first who occasioned dissensions between the

Abbasids and Alids.

A sa ruler and stateman,Khalifa Mansur was without a rival in his time.He was the real and Practical founder of the Abbasid Khilafat. He removed all possible rivals and made the Abbasid dynasty safe and secure in the Khilafat.Mansur founded the sunni church in Islam and it became the source of strength to the Abbasid dynasty.

Khalifa Mansur introduced an era of liberal administration and progress in the

Arab empire.He abandoned the scheme of conquest and devoted himself to the welfare and progress of the people .He constructed canals,wells and roads and established sarais,hospitals and madrassa throughout the empire.He set up a translation bureau called “Dar al Hikmah”for the translation of valuable works of the ancient scholars into Arabic.

13. Islamic History , P - 205 79

He gave liberal patronage to scholars and men of letters.Mansur encouraged the people to study of history,philosophy medicine and astronomy.Scholars held high ranking position and post at his courtKhalifa Mansur, in this way,prepared the way for the great intellectual life under his worthy successors.

At last, it is found that name of some eminent scholars and men of letters lived during his reign are mention below— 14

1. Imam Abu Hanifa.

2. Imam Malik. t

3. Bustami and others.

14. Makammal Tarikh - e - Islam. P - 495 80

3. AI Mahdi ( 775 - 785 A.D.)

Accession of Al- Mahdi Khalifa Mansur was succeeded to the Khilafat by his son Muhammad who assumes the surname of Al- Mahdi in 775 A.D. Khalifa

Mahdi was very humane and generous in character and mild and amaiable in disposition . He was fatherly to his people . Due to his mild and generous rule , he healed the injuries caused to the people during his father’s administration . His talented viezier Yakub helped him in his work. 15

Policies of Al- Mahdi Mahdi’s character and rule are best reflected in his administration policy .He began his reign by releasing all prisoners except those who were convicted to treason,felony and dangerous crimes,Mahdi was kind to the

Alids.He also released imprisoned Alids, restored their properties, gave them suitable allowances and treated them with sympathy. Mahdi restored to Makkah and Madinah the privileges with drawn by his father. He also returned the confiscated properties and fines of the dismissed officers of his father’s time.He gave away in charity a large sum of money to the Poor of Makkah and Hezaz.He fixed Pensions for the lepers and the imprisoned poor debtors.On the occasion of his first Hajj after accesion, he distributed over one crore in charity. These measures made him popular.

Public works Mahdi constructed and rebuilt many , schools and roads in the empire .A wide metalled road was constructed from kadessia (near Baghdad) to

Makkah.Inns and wells were provided for the convenience of pilgrims and travellers.

15. K. Ali, A Study of Islamic History, P - 187 81

He enlarged the building of Haram-e-Ka’aba. He also established a postal service of mules and camels.

Kindness to the enemies

Mahdi was generous to the Mien Umayyad family . A son of Marwan -II attempted rising in Syria. He was defeated and captured. Mahdi kept him in custody for sometime and then released him with a suitable Pension. Marwan -IPs widow Mazuna was treated with kindness and honour. Mahdi’s queen Khaizuran gave her an appartment in palace.Queen Khaizuran was a very talented lady . By virtue of her wisdom, sagacity and generosity, She distinguished herself in politics and administration. She had great influence over her husband . Her audience hall was crowded with courtiers, grandees and seekers for office or patronage .

It is narrated that in the reign of Al- M ahdi, a false prophet named

* Hashim’ appeared in khurasan . He was so called * Makanna’ because he put a veil arround his ugly countenance . Makanna taught that the Deity from time to time incarnated himself in man and Adam , Noah , Abu Muslim and himself were God incarnated. He also started to preach immoral and wild doctrines and obtained a large followers . He defied several imperial forces but in the end he was defeated and killed in 779 A . D. 16

It is also narrated that Al-Mahdi was devoted to Hazrath Muhammad (peace be upon him) as because once upon a time , a person brought a pair of shoe covered with the cloth and said that this pair of shoe belonged to Hazrath Muhammad (S.A).

On hearing i t , Mahdi lifted the shoes and kissed it and put to the eyes and bestowed ten thousand valued prizes to that person . The people questioned him, “ How have you come to know the shoes that belongs to Prophet Mohammad and have you any belief on the shoes of the prophet 7

16. Ibid, P -1 9 0 82

He replied that he had seen prophet Muhammad (S.A) in the time of using i t . So I should show due respect and honour towards it.

The Zihdiqs Another heretic movement broke out in the country. These heretics were called ‘Zindiqs’. They did not believe in Allah. , and favoured incestuous marriages.They preached immoral doctrines and became notorious for stealing children. Stem measures .were adpoted against these heritics . They were hunted o u t, and subjected to severe punishment.

Campaigns against the Byzantines In violation of previous treaties , the

Byzantine Romans raided Asia Minor , ravaged and destroyed properties and lives and took a large number of women and children prisoners . Khalifa Mahdi himself advanced to punish the Romans accompanied by his generals and Prince Harun . The

Romans were defeated and the Muslims forces advanced as far as the Bosphorus . In fear , Queen Irene sued for peace . A treaty was made The Roman Queen paid an indemnity and agreed to pay annual tribute to Khalifa M ahdi. Harun was appointed viceroy of the western provinces of the empire.

Death and a ssessm en tWhile proceeding to Jurjan, Al-Mahdi died on the way at Masandan in 785 A.D (169 A.H ) at an early age of 43 . Before his demise he nominated his sons Hadi and Harun to succeed him to the Khilafat one after another .

Al-Mahdi was only 43 years at the time of his death. He ruled for ten years only and during this period the country was prosperous . During his reign , agriculture , trade and commerce flourished a good d eal. He promoted arts and learning . During his reign the society acquired a cosmopolitan character . The Persian costume became the fashion of his court. 83

The following scholars survived during his period 17

1. Subah bin Abu Za’b Sufian Souri.

2. Ibrahim bin Adham.

3. Dau’dJaihi Zahed

4. Ibrahim bin Tahzar and others.

17. Makammal Tarikh - e- Islam , P - 502 84

4. A1 Hadi ( 785 - 786 A.D/I

Accession of Hadi A! Mahdi was succeeded by Ms eldest son Musa, During

Ms cMldhood he was known as Musa Atbik . His upper lip was contracted . His father placed a servant in charge over Mm who whenever he saw Ms mouth open would say,

“ Musa draw your lips together ( atbik ), whereupon he would compress his lips on accession he assumed the surname of A1 -Hadi. 18

Alid revolt in M adinah Mansur had been severe to the Alids. Mahdi reversed the policy of Ms father, and behaved generously with the Alids . Hadi reverted to the policy of Mansur, and revoked the Privileges o f the Alids wMch had been allowed by

Mahdi. In Makkah , the Abbasid Governor ill- treated some of the members of Banu

Hasan on a false charge of drunkeness . This led to a revolt headed by Hussain bin

A li. The rising was quickly suppressed and Hussain was killed in an engagment of

Fukh, six miles outside Makkah. The head of Hussain was cut off and sent to Hadi at

Baghdad.

Convenant of Succession Hadi was a head- strong and hard -hearted youth .

He did not appreciate Ms brother’s loyalty and wanted to exclude Mm from succession to the Khilafat in favour of his own son Jafar . As Ms mother Khaizuran was opposed to tMs, he did not allow her to interfere in the affairs of state . Hadi even impresoned Harun’s pricipal adviser, Yahyah bin Khalid , and several other servant.

From Ms behaviour, Harun felt danger and left the court for Ms personal safety .

Idrisid dynasty Hadi was not favourably disposed towards the Alids . Idris , a great grandson of Hasan escaped to Egypt and thence to Africa . With the help of the

Berbers , he made himself master of Mauritoma and established a dynasty there. TMs dynasty was called . It was the first SMa- ite dynasty in Islam .

18 . A study of Islamic History , P - 195 85

Death and a sse ssm e n tIn the midst of family disputes, Al-Hadi died suddenly in 786 A.D. after a short rule of a year and a few month.

The priod of the rule of Al-Hadi was too short to make any impect. He was capable but he was rather self centered and head strong. During his rule , the Persian influence at the court increased . He ordered the celebration of the Persian New year and other Persian festivals .Regarding his death , different accounts are mentioned .

According to One account as given by Suyuti, he pushed one of his courtiers over a

Precipitous bank upon the stumps of a reed bed that had been cu t. The courtier clung fast to Hadi and ultimately both of them fell on the reed bed . A reed penetrated his nostril whereby he died .

According to another account, he suffered from an ulcer in the stomach and died of this malignant disease .

According to yet another account, he was poisoned by his mother who was annoyed with him . 19

19 . History of Islam . P - 207 5. Harim Ar- Rashid (786 - 808 A.D.)

Accession of Harun - Ar- Rashid In 786 A.D. ( 170 A.H.) at the age m

25, Harun the second son o f A1 Mahdi, sat on the throne o f the Khilafat with the ’ it k o f Ar-Rashid. Harun was one o f the most successful rulers in the history o f the worlds. His accession marked the beginning o f the glorious epoch in the hist on o

M u slim rule in Asia.

Harun chose talented men in the service o f his empire . He consulted ho gifted mother Khaizuran in the affairs o f administration . He made good use o il dent ■ o f his Barmekide family . He gave the office o f prime minister to his tutor Vain a bn

KJhalid Barmeki. He also appointed Yahya’s worthy sons . Fazal Ja'far . Musa anc

Muhammad in the responsible and important offices o f the empire . The\ served ik empire with devotion and distinction and contributed to the prosperitv < f hi

Khilafat.20

Alids revolt In the beginning o f his reign , Harun Ar-Rasid had faced some troubles and hardships . A member o f A li’s family named Yahva bin Abdullah declared himself as Khalifa in Dailam , the northern part o f ancient Media Harun sent a force 50,000 men under the command o f Fazal, who induced Yahva to submit with a promise o f high office at the court o f Baghdad . Yahya. however . demanded that the Khalifa should first give him a letter o f pardon countersigned b> high lega authorities . This was given and Yahya submitted . At Baghdad he was accorded with a warm reception . After some months Yahya was accused o f conspiracy and confined in prison again , Khalifa Harun brought Imam Musa, Al-Kazim , son o f imam Jatar as

Sadiq, from Madinah to Baghdad, shortly after Musa also died at Baghdad

20. Sayed Amir A ii, A History of the Saracens , pp- 229,288. 87

Defensive measures in W e s t In the begining of his reign, Khalifa Harun took defensive measures against Byzantine raids in the empire . He formed and other boarder territories in to a military province and named it ‘Al-Awasim’ (The defending fortresses ) He strongly fortified the city of Tarsus . Under his direction , the Muslim forces gained successes against the Byzantines in Asia Minor. About this time Khazar inroads in Armenia diverted his attention.

Khazar inroad In 799 A.D.the from across the Caucasus overran

Azarbaijan and Armenia . For seventy days they ravaged the country and enslaved many Muslims. Harun sent an army against the Khazars and they were successfully dealt w ith.

The Khariii revolt During the reign of Harun-ar-Rashid , the Khariji continued to be a headache for the administration .The Khariji revolt was led by

Waleed bin Al-Tarif. Waleed was killed in an action , and the command was taken over by his sister Laila . She was noted for her beauty as well as bravery . Under leadership the Khariji won some successes . She came to be known to history as the

Arab “Joan of Arc” . The Khariji revolt was suppressed after some heavy fighting , when Laila was prevailed upon to retire to her home .

Syrian trouble In Syria serious trouble broke out between the northern and southern Arabs . It continued for two years . Ultimately, they were suppressed and peace was restored in Syria.

North Africa When Harun came to power , conditions in North Africa were much disturbed . The province had a deficit budget and considerable Funds had to be diverted from the revenues of Egypt to feed the province of North Africa . Harun Ar-

Rashid gave over the charge of North Africa to Ibrahim bin Aghlab on his undertaking to restore law and order , and to pay a fixed amount to the Imperial

/ 88 treasury every year , instead of taking any aid from Egypt . Ibrahim bin Aghlab founded dynasty which ruled over North Africa for about two centuries as a more or less independent power. 21

Nomination of successors Under the influence of Empress Zubaida , Khalifa

Harun nominated his eldest son Amin as successor in 791 A.D. In 798 A.D. he made

Mamun, his second son by a persian Lady, as heir -presumptive . Amin and Mamun were appointed viceroys of the west and the east respectively . The Khalifa used to perform pilgrimage to Mecca and Medinah every year . In 802 A.D. he was accompanied in the pilgrimage by Empress Zubaida and his sons . At that time a document was made with the signatures of Amin and Mamun binding them to the arrangement of the succession. The document was deposited in the House of Ka’ba .

In this pilgrimage Empress Zubaida was greatly touched by the sufferings of the Makkans owing to the scarcity of water . To relieve their distress she constructed at her own expense a canal which still bears her name .

Fall of the Barmekids The glory of Harun’s reign was largely due to the meritorious services of the distinguished family of Barmek . The founder of this family was Khaled, son of Barmek, a chief priest of a Buddhist monastery at .

Khaled helped the Abbasids in obtaining the Khilafat from the range of the Umayyads

.He distinguished himself as a general and served the Khilafat of As- Saffah and

Mansur with distinction as a finance minister . His son , Yahya was a tutor and councellor of prince Harun , when Harun became Khalifa , Yahya bin Khaled was appointed as prime minister . His son , Yahya was a very efficient and enlightened administrator.

21.1bid, p - 290 89

When Yahya became old, Harun gave the office of prime minister to his son

Ja’far.la’far Barmeki was a foster - brother and boon companion of Harun . A wise and liberal, Ja’far greatly added to the glory and greatness of Harun’s reign by his libralism and culture.

Causes of Fall The story tellers attribute the fall of the Barmekids to a secret marriage between Ja’far and Harun’s sister Abbasa. The famous historian Ibn

Khaldun does not believe this story and says that their great power and reputation were the real cause of their fall. They bad seized all authority , civil military and revenue, so much so that Rashid was often forced to the necessity of asking for and obtaining from the chancellor small sums of money . Ibn khaldun writes , “Their influence was unlimited and their renown had spread in every direction.”

The unlimited power of the Barmekids naturally roused the jealousy and enmity of many courtiers and nobles . There was also the party conflict between

Persians and the Arabs at the court . The Barmekids were persians and hence there was Persians ascendency in the empire . The Arab naturally felt bitter and looked for an opportunity to restore their own influence in administration . Moreover, the

Barmekids were Shias; the Sunnis wanted to revive their rightful place in the Khilafat

. There was also personal rivalry and animosity of Fazl bin Rabi, the chamberlain and the leader of the Arab group . Fazl bin Rabi poisoned the mind of the Khilafat against the Barmekids whenever he got and oppoptunity. Spies also brought information that the Barmekids where plotting to overthrow the Abbasid Khilafat. All these factors combined to make the Khalifa suspect the Barmekids .

In suspicion , Khalifa Harun forgot their 17 years distinguished and loyal services . He ordered the execution o f Ja’far and imprisonment of his father and brothers in 803 A. D. Their properties were confiscated . Yahya and Fazl died in prison, Muhammad was afterwards released . 90

Thus, the illustrious family collapsed .With their fall persians influence declined in administration and Arab influence revived . Fazl bin Rabi got the office of

Prime minister.

Death From Rakka, Harun started to deal with the rebellion in Khurasan . He sent Mamun in advance to Merv and himself journeyed slowly with the rest of the army . On arriving at a village named Sanabad near Tus , the illness from which he had been suffering since he left Rakka, took a serious turn . Feeling that his end was approaching, he gave his last advice to the members of family, who were Present in the Army , he advised them to observe their engagements faithfully ; to be faithful their i.e Khalifs and to remain united . He also asked them to take care of

Amin and Mamun and to see that one did not rebel against the other . Khalifa Harun breathed his last on the 23rd of March 809 A.D. after the short reign of 23 years and

Six months.22

Assessment of Harun Khalifa Harun ar-Rashid is considered as one of the greatest rulers of Islamic history of the world . He was deeply religious and sincere in the observance of the rituals of Islam, yet fond of surrounding himself with the pomp and insignia of grandeur , “ Harun impressed his personality on popular imagination and exercised great influence by his moral character on society.

Harun -ar-Rashid lives in history as a brilliant and enlightened ruler . His name became a legend for greatness and grandeur . In the field o f fiction he lives as the hero of the Araban Night. The name of his Zubaida is connected with the cannal that supplies water to Makkah. According to the assessment of Ameer Ali, author of

History o f the Saracens : “ Weigh him as you like in the scale o f historical criticism,

Harun- ar-Rashid will always take rank with the greatest sovereigns and rulers of the world

22. History of Islam,P-212 91

Accoording to P.K Hitti, author of History of the Arabs’ : the ninth century opened with two important names standing supreme in world affairs - in the west and Harun -ar-Rasbid in the east, and out of these two , Harun -ar- Rashid was the most powerful and presented the higher culture .

Solicitude for people Daily he performed one hundred prostration and distributed one thousand Dirhams to the beggers and the needy persons . He also himself led the caravan of pilgrims to the Hajj at nine times , on every occasion he gave away in charity large sum of money to the people. Khalifa Harun was solicitious of the welfare and happiness of his people . He used to travel in the streets of Baghdad by night to remedy injustice and to relieve the oppressed and the destitute . For the benefit of the people , he constructed many roads , canals, wells, bridges and established several hospitals, asylums, sarais, mosques, and madrasses .

As a great soldier Khalifa Harun was a bom soldier , bold and dashing . He personally commanded armies and suppressed rebellions and disturbances . As a ruler, Harun was eminently successful and resourceful person . He maintained the integrity , peace, prosperity of his vast kingdom in the face of many internal and external troubles . His organisation of the postal system was marvel of the time . He encouraged agriculture, industry, and also commerce . As a result, there was unusual prosperity in his famous empire .

Patronage to learning Harun -ar-Rashid attracted to his capital, men of talent and learning . Doctors of law, Philosophers, Poets as well as Musicians, Singers and

Wits flocked to his court. Baghdad became the centre of learning and culture during his liberal patronage. 23

23: Islamic History, P - 221 92

Harun patronized men of letters and also he used to present in the service ,

Ulama and Jurisprudents and obtained himself knowledge from them . For acquiring knowledge, he went to Imam Malik by taking his two sons named Amin and Mamun in Madinah . He organised a centre by name ‘Baitul Hakmaf for composing , translation, writing and printing the books. In this centre, great talented persons and writers worked . Many works and books have been translated into many languages like - Unani, Persian and Sanskrit and other languages.

Scholars and Learned men who adorn the court Harun were

1. Asami, the grammarian

2. Ibrahim M asoli, the musician

3. G a b rie lth e physician

4. Shafei Abdullah bin Idris,-

5. Isa bin Yunus

6. Sufian bin Suri and other learned men flourished in his

reign.24

7. The great ‘doctor of law’ , was his chief Qazi. He gave systematic shape to the Hanaf! school o f law . Khalifa Harun himself was a poet and musician and first ‘ Shatranf player . He elevated music to a noble profession and established a development for its studies . He enlarged the translation bureau of

Mansur and spent money generously for its progress .

8. Hazrat Imam M alik.

9. Hazrat Musa Kazim, son of Imam Ja’far Sadiq.

10. Jarir bin Abdul Hamid

24:Ibid, P-222 93

11. Kisayee, teacher of and Tajweed.

12. Marwan bin Abu Hafsa, Poet

13. Abdur Rahman bin Qasim, student of Imam Malik

14. Ibn -e- Sammak, a student of Imam Abu Hanifa.

It is narrated that one day Ibn Sammak came to forward when Harun -ar- Rashid started to drink w ater. At that time , he said, ‘O’ Harun ! stop for a while as because you became thirsty.’ After drinking a glass of water , what amount of price for water would you pay ?” Harun replied half of his kingdom. There after Ibn Sammak again said to drink remaining water of i t . He drank and was asked again by Ibn Sammak , what amount of price would you pay of i t . He replied whole Kingdom . The mystry of this is the whole empire of his Kingdom spent instead of a glass o f water. On hearing this, Harun began to weep and got a lesson.

G l o r y The glory of the name of Harun spread far wide of the world. The Chinese

Emperor and Charlemagne , the king of his franks sent his envoys and gifts , Harun gave Charlemagne of gift of which was a marvel of mechanical a rt.

Khalifa Harun was really great in character and achievements . The only defect of his character was his occasional out-burst of suspician and temper . On account of this he did some injustice to the Barmekids and the Alids . It can however be said that such instance are few and Harun exercised his autocratic power with great discretion and fairness. 94

6- Amin 809 - 813 A ■ D.f 193 -197 A ,H .)

Accession of A! Amin After the death of Harun , his eldest son Amin ascended the throne of Baghdad . He was bom from the womb of Zubaida who was slave of

Harun . Zubaida was related to the tribe of Hashimi. Due to this reason, parents of

Amin was blood related each other from the blood of Hashimi. Amin was only person in the entire Abbasid empire who was co-related from both side to Hashimi tribe .

Amin was very beautiful and tall in figure that was naturally bestowed on him .25

Fazal bin Rabi, the chief minister of Harun , returned from Tus to Baghdad with the troops which Harun intended for Mamun . But Fazal bin Rabi placed these troops at the disposal of Amin and he was rewarded for this with the office of Vizeir.

Amin was weak-mind , ease -loving and fond of pomp , pageantry and also hunting .

He was interested in poetry , music and dancing . His court became the centre of musicians , songstresses and dancing girls . Amin introduced a wonderful ballet in which a “ hundred beautiful girls in splendid attire docked with pearls and diamonds danced in rhythmical unison to the soft harmony of music.”

For his pleasure trips on the Tigris , he constructed five beautiful barges of different form . He gave himself completely to pleasures and left the reins of government in the hands of his ambitous prime minister Fazl bin Rabi.

25. D.S. Margoliouth, History of Islamic Civilization , p-142 95

It is noted that in his life time , Harun -ar - Rashid distributed his Islamic Kingdom in the hands of his two sons , Amin and Mamun, Eastern part of his Islamic empires i.e

Iraq , Hejaj to Syria , Egypt and Africa bestowed to Amin and western part of his empire i .e Iran , Khurasan to Kabul, ( Afganistan ), Turkistan and Hindustan was handed over to Mamun . Both of them empowered as a supreme authority over specific region.

Mamun was the viceroy of the eastern provinces and was at Merv at that time of his father’s death . He was always loyal to his brother , Amin and when the latter ascended the throne, he sent his sincere greetings and welcomes . Mamun was a man of strong personality and character. With the help of his minister Fazal bin Sahal, he organised the administration of his province on an efficient basis and promoted the welfare of his subjects . Mamun was bom of Persian mother . So, the persians loved him “ as the son of their sister

Quarrel between brothers While Mamun’s province prospered under his benevolent rule , Amin’s empire was drifting to min . Fazal bin Rabi mismanaged affairs of the empire . He also embittered the mind of Amin against his brother

Mamun . This brought about quarrel and fratricidal war between the brothers . Of course , Fazal bin Rabi was principally responsible for this unhappy incident . But other factors also contributed to its progress . One of these was the weakness of

Amin’s mind . He had no will o f his own . He accepted whatever advice , the ambitious minister gave him against his loyal brother Mamun . The quarrel was accented also by the party conflict of the Arabs and Persians for power in the empire .

The Persian’s thought that Mamun’s administration represented their interests . So, when Amin and Fazal bin Rabi’s actions were found to be hostile to Mamun. They rallied themselves to help the son of their sister .26

26. Ibid, P - 203. 96

Fazal bin Rabi continually suggested to Amin to set Mamun aside from the succession

. At first, Amin did not accept this suggestion of violating the will of his father and of being unfair to his brother , for whom he had love and affection.Ultimately he was induced to summon Mamun to Baghdad. Mamun scented danger and excused himself

. Thereupon Amin was persuaded to depose him from the viceroyalty and stop his name from the ‘ Khutbah A few days after, Amin nominated his infant son ‘Musa’ as successor and deprived Mamun of the claim to succeed him . Mamun replied to this breach of faith by drawing a cordon on his western frontiers .No person was allowed to enter his province without an examination . This was done so that Amin’s men might not temper with his subjects. The breach between the brothers was complete .

Amin brought the succession will of his father from the Ka’ba and tore it to pieces .

He also sent against his brother an army o f40,000 under the command of Ali bin Isa.

Battle of Rev and Hamadan:- Mamun had to fight in self defence, He sent his general Tahir bin Hussain with 40,000 soldiers . Tahir bin Hussain defeated and killed

Ali bin Isa in a battle near Rey in May ,811 A. D. In giving Mamun , the news of victory , Tahir wrote , “ The head of Ali is before me ; his ring on me (an Tahir’s finger) ; and his troops under me .” Amin sent another army of 20,000 men under

Abdur Rahman bin Jabala . Tahir defeated his army also and followed his victory by occupying the territories of Hamadan . Mamun despatched two other generals ,

Harathma bin Ayan and Zuhair to fight against the forces of Amin . They defeated

Amin’s generals in every engagement and occupied the whole of persia . About this time Mamun declared himself as Khalifa. 97

The Mamun’s victorious generals pushed on to Syria and

Arabia and established the authority of Mamun in these provinces . Thereafter the three generals advanced towards Baghdad from different directions . They laid siege to the city. The siege continued for several months . Amin’s position became precarious. Many of his soldiers and supporters deserted in his diversity.

The eastern part of the city was occupied by Tahir . seeing no hope, Amin decided to make him over to his brother , in whose fidelity he had great confidence.

So, an aggrement was made with Mamun’s generals that Amin would surrender himself to Harathma who would take him to Mamun at Merv. After a pathetic parting with the children , the unlucky Khaifa left the palace and boarded the boat with

Harathma to cross the Tigris . As the boat proceeded to the east bank, some heartless

Persian soldiers of Tahir threw stones and arrows at i t . It sank. Harathma was barely saved ; Amin swam ashore . Some Persian soldiers seized him and put him in a house.

In the night they killed Amin and his head was cut off. The following morning they exhibited his head on the walls of Baghdad in 813, A.D. (sept.). That was the end of the rule of Amin.

But Mamun did not expect that their quarrel would result in the tragic death of his brother, Amin . He sincerely mourned for him and punished his murderers . He adopted his brother’s son and daughters as their children . He gave them and their grandmother Zubaida all their properties and privileges. When Amin’s sons grew up, they were married to Mamun’s daughters . 98

Assessment A1 Amin was 27 years old at the time of his death and his rule extended over a short period of four years only . Most of this period was spent in the civil war . As a ruler, he proved to be incompetent. He was frivolous and easy going and left the administration of the affairs of the state to others who betrayed him . He was the first Abbasid Khalifa to be killed by his own people.

The following scholars lived during his reign

1. Abu Nawas, the poet.

2. Ismail bin Alia.

3. Sudusi, Historian

4. Abdullah bin Wahab, student of Imam Malik and others. 27

27. Makammal Tarikh - e - Islam ( Urdu) , P - 528 . 99

7 . Mamun , the great (813 - 833 A . D .)

Accession of Mamim On the death of Al-Amin , A1 Mamun was acknowledged

as the Khalifa in 813 A.D. in the entire Abbasid empire . Under the advice o f his

Chief Minister Fazal bin Sahal, Mamun remained at Merv, and did not come over to

Baghdad , Fazal bin Sahal appointed his brother Hasan bin Sahal as the Governor of

Iraq. Fazal bin Sahal was an Ajami and his policy was to weaken the hold of the Arabs

over the administration . He looked forward to shift the capital of the empire from

Baghdad in Iraq to somewhere in Persia.

It is also mentioned that Mamun was bom from the womb of Marazil, a non-

Arabia slave . so Arabia and non-Arabia became a question between Amin and

Mamun . The non-Arabia tried their untiring attempts freely in order to help Mamun

against Amin because Amin was related to Arabia cast. For this reason they got

victory and made Mamun as an Ajami ( Non- Arabia ) Khalifa at Baghdad. 28

Troubles in Syria and Kufa An Umayyad named Nasar bin Sabath rose in

violent rebellion in Syria to restore the Umayyad dynasty . He defined the imperial / troops for five years . A person called Ibn Tabataba took up the cause of the Alids in

kufa and rallied a large fallowing again the Abbasids . An adventurer named Abu

Saraya, joined Ibn Tabataba with his

28. Prof. Masudul Hasan ^History of Islam,, P - 216 100 people .They defeated the force of Hasan bin Sahal; Governor of kufa and brother of

Fazal bin Sahal. After this Abu Saraya poisoned Ibn Tabataba and chose another man of Ali’s family named Muhammad bin Muhammad as chief . He obtained further victories and occupied Basara, Wasit and Madain, Makka, Madinah and fell into the hands of the Alids. Abu Saraya then advanced to capture Kufa . At this crisis, Hasan bin Sahal called in the aid of Harathama bin Ayan , whose timely arrival restored

Abbasid authority in Kufa . Harathama fought vigorously against Abu Saraya and recovered Basara and other places .Facing the difficulties , Abu Saraya fled to

Mesopotamia. He was afterwards captured and executed . After this Abbasid rule was re-established in Iraq and Arabia.

Murder of Harathama and revolt in Baghdad After Harathama had quelled the

Alid revolt and restored southern Iraq to the Abbasid rule , Harathama proceeded to

Merv . He told Mamun with the bluntness of a soldier that in his absence from

Baghdad the empire was drifting to ruin . He criticised the chief minister Fazal bin

Sahal for his anti-Arab polices. Fazal bin Sahal took offence at such criticism and had

Harathama killed.

Harathama’s death led to violent reaction among the troops at Baghdad . They deposed Hasan bin Sahal and chose Mansur bin Mahdi, an uncle of Mamun as the

Governor.

Nomination of Imam Ali- ar-Reza:- Mamun , who was the ignorant of these developments in Baghdad , took a decision at Merv that fell like a thunderbolt on the

Abbasids. He released that the members of the house of Ali had legitmate claim to that Khilafat. Desiring to restore them the Khilafat, Mamun nominated Ali Reza as his successor in 817 A.D. He also ordered the use of the ‘Green’, the colour of the house of A li, in place of the ‘Black’ , colour of the Abbasids. At this , the Abbasid 101 were enraged . They declared the desposition of Mamun and elected Ibrahim bin

Mahdi as Khalifa . Disorders broke out in Baghdad and people had to form vigilant socities to save their life and property . Troubles and disturbances in Syria and Iraq continued in full swing and it seemed that the empire of Mamun would fall to pieces.

29

Fazal bin Sahal could not deal regarding the situation . Still he did not inform anything to Mamun . At this critical moments , Imam Ali ar - Reza informed the

Khalifa the real state of affairs in the empire . Mamun came to know his mistakes . He immediately set out for Baghdad . Arrived at Sarakhs, Fazal bin Sahal was found murdered in his bath. When the Khalifa and his court had halted at Tus, Imam Ali

Reza died suddenly in 818 A.D. Mamun lamented for the death of his friend and built a mausolum over his grave at Tus .

Personal Rule of Mamun:- Mamun arrived at Baghdad in 819 A.D. and assumed the reign of government himself. All disorders disappeared and peace and prosperity were restored in the city with his arrival at Baghdad . The vigilant committees were dissolved and the ravages were repaired . Mamun reorganised the administration on an efficient basis.

Marriage with Buran:- In 826 A.D. Mamun married Buran , a daughter of his

Chief minister Hasan bin Salmi . The marriage was conspicuous for its lavish expenditure and gorgeous splendour . The festivities held in connection with the celebration of the marriage cost over fifty million dirhams. 30

Babek:- A brigand by name of Babek made himself the master of Mazendran. He was a follower of the Khurramiya sect, and believed in the transmigration of souls

29. K . A li,Islamic History, P - 229

30. Mufti Intazamulla Saheb Hahabadi, Tarik -e-Millat, ( Urdu) , pp - 209 -10 i

and oth er h eretic doctrin es . H e adopted gu erilla tactics and in the m ou ntains detinue

the various arm ies sent against him by the Abbasids. H e allied him self wit I

B yzan tin es and becam e a m enac for the A bbasids . H is terrorist activities continued

throughout the reign o f M am un .

The Mu’tazilites In 827 A .D . M am u n pu blished an edict by w h ich the M u 'ta/tlitc

doctrine w as declared to be the religion o f the state . The M u'tazilites w ere

rationalists. In place o f orth od ox b elief o f pre-destin ation that m an is a tree ageni m

the ch oice o f good or e v il. T h e orth odox held that the Q uran is uncreated and eternal

; the M u ’tazilites held that the Q u ran is created . T h ey also held that there w ou ld x

no corporeal sig h t. E m inent Islam ic scholars like A h m ed bin H am bal disagreed w nh

the M u ’tazilites doctrin e and w ere arrested and lod ged in Prison .31

Byzantine Campaigns W h en the A bbasid forces w ere engaged against B abek. the

B yzan tin es w h o had allied w ith the B abek attacted the M u slim territories to create i

diversion . M am un built a strong m ilitary cantonm ent at and from there

undertook cam paigns against the B yzantine every sum m er from 829 to 833 V I) In .

cam paign against the B yzan tin e w h ile cam pin g by the side o f a stream in A sia M in or

M am u n cam e to su ffer from m alignant fever as a result o f w h ich he died

Assessment of Mamun:- K h alifa M am un w as estim ated as the m ost distinguished

ru ler o f the A b b asid fam ily and his reign w as cou nted as the m ost gloriou s age m the

h istory o f K h ilafat . A con tem porary annalist says , “ N on e w iser than he ever ruled

the K h ila fa tM a m u n possessed m any em inent qualities and noted for his prudence

determ in ation , clem en cy J u d gem en t, sagasity , m ajesty and liberality H is tact mu

w isd om silen ced even the K h ariji fanatics .O n ce a kh ariji leader cam e to m eet k h a l i f a

M am un and asked him by w hat right , right o f election or hereditary right >x.

occu pied the K h ila fa t. 31.Ibid ,P - 213 103

Mamun replied that by neither of these rights he came to the Khilafat ; but his predecessor had left him in charge of the Khilafat; and if the Muslims agreed to the election of a khalifa, he would gladly retire from the responsibility of the Khilafat.

As a benevolent ruler As a benevolent rule , Mamun had fatherly care for his people , peace, happiness and progress of the people were the ideals of his administration. In his reign, agriculture, industry, and commerce flourised and many benevolent educational institutions were established for the benefit of the public

Toleration and council of state Mamun’s toleration to other religion was commendable . He appointed non-Muslims in important offices . He also set up a council of state composed of the representatives of all communities to advise and aid the Khalifa in state affairs. This council o f state was the first regular constitutionalism in the history of Khilafat.

A Scholar statesman Khalifa Mamun was a scholar statesman . He was the most accomplished learned man of the time . A versatile genuis, Mamun had extraordinary knowledge of the Quaran , Hadith , jurisprudence . philosophy and many other branches of knowledge.

Progress of learning and culture It is the great intellectual awakening in his reign that has made his khilafat memorable in history . Himself a great scholar, Mamun gave liberal patronage to scholars and men of learning . His court became the resort of philosophers , astronomers , physicians , scientists , poets and other men of letters of every cast and creed .32

Mamun considered that true happiness of his people consisted in education and culture . He enlarged translation bureau and raised it to a great for study and research. This was known as ‘Baitul Hikmah’ or the ‘’

It had various departments and they were placed under great scholars of the time .

32. Allama Shibli Nu’mani ,A1 Mamun (Urdu),Lucknow, P - 3 104

1. Costa , son of Luke , was in charge of Greek and Syriac works . under his supervision , books of Plato , Aristotle , , . and were translated into Arabic.

2. Duban - a Brahmin scholar, was given the work of rendering the Sanskrit books, mathematics, astronomy and others into Arabic.

3. Yahya bin Harun, who was in-charge of the translation of the ancient

Persian works in Arabic .

4. A1 kindi - a famous philosophers who was employed as a professor in Baitul

Hikmah.

5. Abbas - a well-known poet and the founder of Modem persian poetry who was considered as the great traditionalist Bukhari

6. A1 Waqidi - a celebrated historian who flourished in the reign of Mamun.

Mamun established an astronomical observatory on the plain of Tadmore and engaged scholars for the study and research in astronomy and geometry. His astronomers made valuable contribution to knowledge . They discovered the roundness of the earth and many valuable informations about the solar system Abul

Hasan invented the telescope from a tube .

Because of this momentous intellectual and cultural life. Mamun’s Khilafat is rightly regarded as the most glorious epoch in saracenic history and has justly called the Augustan age of Islam.

Some other scholars are mentioned below who lived during his reign

1. Imam Shafeyee ( His real name is Muhammad bin Idris, was burned in the palace of Farakeh ).

2. Hazrat Ma’ruf Kurkhi. He was slave of Imam Ali Reza . He was new Muslim .

He was very much devoted to God . His grave was situated in Kurkh . 33 33.Makammal Tarikhe - Islam , P - 539 . 105

(B) The of Amir ul Umara peroid ( 833-945) from Mu’tasim to Mustakfi. (15) rulers.

8 . Ai Mii’tasim 833 - 842 A .D. (218 - 227 A. H.)

Accession of Mu’tasim Shortly before his death , Khalifa Mamun nominated his brother Ishaq as his successor. He did not nominate his son Abbas, though he was an efficient and able young man and also popular with arm y, because he thought that the interests of the empire would be better served by his brother, who was an experienced and matured man . Moreover , he believed that brother would follow his policy more faithfully than his son . Ishaq came to Baghdad from Tartus , where he had accompanied his Khalifa brother , and ascended the throne in September , 833 A.D with the name of Al Mu’tasim. Abbas swear allegiance to him ; But his army held aloof. He ‘however’ persuaded them to recognise Mu’tasim as Khalifa. 34

Policy Khalifa Mu’tasim was not a brilliant ruler like Mamun . But he faithfully followed the policy of his great brother . He took keen interest in the improvement of learning and knowledge and gave liberal patronage to teachers and learned . Science and philosophy flourished under such distinguished professors as Al. kindi, “ the philosopher of the Arabs “. Mu’tasim continued also his brother’s religious policy.

He believed in Mu’tazila doctrine and maintained it as a state religion . He appointed

Mu’tasim in high offices of the state. His chief Qazi Ibn Abi Dawud was a Mu’tazila

34. C. Brockelman, History of Islamic People,, P - 287. 106

Under his influence , Mu’tazilite ideas dominated the life and thought of the empire.

Imam Ahmed bin Hambal who still refused to accept Mu’tazilite doctrine , was mercilessly scouraged.

Like Mamun, Mu’tasim devoted himself to the welfare of the people . Under his benevolent rule , agriculture , industry and commerce prospered and people lived in peace and happiness -In one respect, Khalifa Mu’tasim did not follow the policy of his brother. He did not fullfil the building of the fort of Tyana which Mamun had started.

Recruitment of Turkish Bodyguard : - Mu’tasim made a fatal blunder in forming a new bodyguard consisting of the Turkish slaves . He thus added a new element in the amy which was hither to composed of Arabs and Persians . The newly recruited

Turkish. Soldiers were commamded by their own officers and were directly under the

Khalifa. Insolent in behaviour and heedles of life, they caused terror in the city when they rode in the streets . People raised hue and cry and the Khalifa shifted himself to

Samarra with his favourite troops in 836 A. D. From this policy Samarra became his capital. Mu’tasim’s policy of maintaining the Turkish corps proved the ruin of the

Abbasid Khilafat . In the reigns of his weak successors these Turks became king­ makers, making and unmaking Khalifas .

The Jats In the reign of Mu’tasim , the Jats of India appeared on the bank of the

Tigris, and caused much trouble to the people o f Baghdad and adjoining territories .

The Khalifa sent forces against them and after seven month’s fighting , they

surrendered themselves to the Muslims generals . They were brought to Baghdad for the Khalifa to see the costume of the their women . Then they were settled on the 107 frontiers of . The Roman raiders killed many of them and carried the rest as prisoners.

The kill of Babek Mu’tasim had to deal with Babek , who reappeared in

Mazendran and ravaged Azarbaijan . The Khalifa sent his Turkish general Afshin against him . After three years fighting , Afshin defeated and captured Babek . He was carried to Sammarra and executed .

Defeat of Theophilus While the Khalifas forces were engaged against Babek,

Byzantine emperor Theophilus attacked Muslim territories and killed several thousand people . He burnt to ashes Zibatra , the birth place of Mu’tasim . Mu’tasim advanced against the Byzantines . He crushed their forces at Ancryra and raged to ground Amorium wanted to advance further in Byzantine territory ; but the discovery of a plot to asassinate him obliged him to abandon the idea.

Revolt of Maziar When the Khalifa returned to Samarra , he got the news of a dangerous rebellion under Maziar,a Magian prince of Tabaristan . After much fighting , Abdullah bin Tahir crushed the forces of Maziar and captured him . Maziar disclosed that Turkish general Afshin had instigated him to rebellion . On investigation his statement was found to be correct. Maziar was executed .Afshin was confined in his house and starved to death in 841 A. D.

Death and Assessm entMu’tasim died on the 15th January 842 A .D. at the age of

48 . He was a formidable figure , a man of gigantic physique and great personal courage , devoted to war and hunting , a keen polo-player , but devoid of all cultural interests . He had grown almost uneducated . He was the last great Khalifa of the

Abbasid dynasty. Gibbon remarks, “ the glory of Abbasid family and nation expiered during his re ig n 35

35.1bid, P-290 108

He was oetonary , and the figure “8” was of particular significance in his life and career . He ruled for 8 years , 8 months and 8 days . He was the 8th child of

Harun -ar- Rashid . He was survived by 8 daughters . During his Khalifat he undertook 8 expedition. He left 8 million in the state treasury . 1 0 9

9. Wsiq 842 - 847 A. D. ( I l l - 232 A. H )

Accession of Wsiq Wasiq , son o f Mu’tasim ascended the throne of Khilafat at

Baghdad at the age of 32 after the death of his father . He was an able and enlightened ruler who patronized art and letters and encouraged industry and commerce. He was the son of a slave named Qaratabas.

Revolt of the Arabs The pro-Turkish policies of the Abbasid led to Arab revolt in various parts of the country. The Bani Qais raised the standard of revolt in Damascus

. Wasiq sent a force under Raja bin Ayub Farazi to suppress the revolt . The revolt was suppressed with some difficulty.

In , a revolt was led by Abu Harb ,the veiled one . After suppressing the revolt in Damascus . Raja bin Ayub Farazi led his troops to Palestine . Abu Harb was taken captive and sent to Samarra . This has serious repurcussions in Arabia .

Deprived of the opportunities to serve in the army and gain booty , the Arab tribes restored to pillage and plunder .

At last the revolts were suppressed and law and order was restored but it had created bettter feelings of discontentment among the Arabs .

Problem of Khala -e -Quran There was dangerous sedition and conspiracy by

Mamun regarding the Khalq e - Quran in Isalm . After Mamun , the believer of

Khalq - e - Quran empressed to abandon the concept of it . So, during the time of

Khalifa Mu’tasim, Imam Ahmed bin Hambal tried his level best so that this concept did not rise in Islam . But just after beginning of the reign of W asiq, the sedition of

Khalq -e Quran again started in Islam.36

36.MakammaI Tarikh - e - Islam , ( Urdu), P - 545,46 110

In 231 A .H . Wasiq asked Hazrat Ahmed bin Nazr who was a scholar of that time , about the concept of Khalq - e - Quran. In reply to that, he said “Quran is uncreated”

. There raised disput and conflict amongst Islamic scholars about i t .

Wasiq once asked to know the Islamic judgement regarding Khalq -e -Quran

from the Islamic scholars. He immediately declared Islamic judgement to execute

him who believed Khalq - e - Quran i.e Quran is created . On hearing this

judgement, Wasiq murdered Ahmed bin Nazr . After killing him Wasiq hung up

his dead body on the national high way of Baghdad .

The guard who was assigned to the dead body , expressed that at the time of death ,

Ahmed bin Nazr was reading ‘ Sum Yasirt ‘ of the Holy Quran . Besides him , innumberable Ulams were sentenced to death and was put in jail due to the same reason of Khalq -e - Quran .The historians express that famous traditionalist Abu

Abdur Rahman , teacher of Imam Abu Daued , and Abdullah bin Razi, teacher of

Imam Nisai, were captured on the point of Khalq - e - Quran . They were asked about it. They were telling the people that knowledge of Khalq - e - Quran was known to

Hazrat Muhammad ( S : A ) . They were asked again, why did Hazrat Muhammad

(SA) not express the meaning the Khalq -e - Quran ? In response to that, Imam Ibn

Abu Daued told that knowledge is possessed by Hazrat Muhammad ( S : A ).

Abu Abdur Rahman asked a question that if it is said that prophet

Muhammad ( S: A) had sound knowledge on Khalq - e - Quran , instead of sound knowledge on it , why did prophet Muhammad not disclose the mystery of it ? How it is possible to declare it as legal? On hearing this logical argument , Hazrat Abu

Abdur Rahman exh austed all o f them and Wasiq started laughing placing his hand on his face . He started saying that the point on which the Prophet Muhammad kept silence , the people must keep silence on the same point. After words Wasiq ordered Ill to bestow 300 to Abu Abdur Rahman . Then after Wasiq did not harass any ulamas on the point of Khalq -e - Quran.

Wasiq was generous and kind - hearted . His Charity was unbounded and in his reign there was not a single medicant in the empire . Wasiq flavoured the Trunks and appointed a Trank named Ashnas as or lieutenant.

Death and Assessment Wasiq died in 847 A . D. after a brief rule of five years. He patronised literature , science and encouraged commerce and industry. He was a poet as well as a philosopher . He requested Hunain bin Ishaq , notable and efficient in

Medicine and also Philosophy to write a book on this subject. So he wrote a book on medicine by named ‘ Kitabul ‘ Masai’I - e - Tibbiyah’ .

Fazal bin Yazid says that in the entire Abbasid dynasty . Wasiq’s name is esteemed as memoriser of poetry . He was well- versed in music and also author of many melodies.He could play with skill on the lyre . He was generous , liberal and enjoyed the reputation of the being second Mamun . By following rationalist polices he became unpopular with the orthodox circles . 112

10* Mutawakkil (847 - 861 A . D.)

Accession of Mutawakkil Khalifa died without nominating a succeessor . The

Chief Minister and other Amirs favoured Muhammad the minor son of Wasiq as the next claiph . The Turkish Generals favoured the nomination of Ja’far , a brother of

Wasiq. The will of Turkish Generals prevailed and Ja’far became the caliph . On assuming power, Ja’far assumed the title of Mutawakkil . He was bom from the womb Khuarzmi slave.

Policies of Mutawakkil:- He had not been on good terms with his brother Wasiq.

During the rule of Wasiq , Mutawakkil had been ill treated by the chief minister and other official dignitaries . On coming to power , Mutawakkil decided to reverse the policees to the previous regim and to take his revenge from such persons who had ill treated him in the previous regime. 37

Restoration of Orthodoxy:- Immediately on assuming power , Mutawakkil restored

foundamentalism and banned rationalism. He interdicted the so called the doctrine of

the creation of the Holy Quran, and proclaimed that the Holy Quaran was not created

. The rationalists were expelled from public offices , and discussions on science and

philosophy were banned . All the foundamentalist scholars who had been held in

coustody by the previous regime for opposition to the dogma of the created Quran ,

including Imam Ahmed bin Hambal were set free . On the other hand Qazi Abu

Daud, his son and prominent Mu’tazilites were put in prison and their properties were

confiscated.

37 . Qazi Zainul Abedin Miroti,Tarikh - e - MiUat ( Urdu) Part - H , P - 167. Anti- Shia Policies Mutawakkil also oppressed the Alids , He was hostile n.

Shias . He Seized their property of Fadaq . The of Imam Hussain a>

Kerbala was destroyed by him . He banned pilgrimage of and Kerhala

Him’s and Armenias troubles The early year of his reign was disturbed rebellions in Armenia and Hims and the inroads of the Byzantine . The rehe lions were suppressed after some killing . But the Byzantine inroads in Egypt and Asia minor were dangerous and serious . In 852 A . D. they ravaged the Egyptian eoast destroyed all the fortification near Tunis and carried many prisoners and ho< tie

From the side of Asia minor, they raised as far as Diarbakr and returned w it h It j m x prisoners.

MutawakkiPs weak and oppressive rule greatly undermined the integrt\ o! the empire . His reign saw the rise of the ascendancy of the Turks in administration

This continued in the reigns of his successors who were mere puppets in the hands o: the Turks.

Jews and Christians Mutawakkil ordered the Jews and Christians to neat distinctive dress . They were forbidden to ride an animals other than donkev. and mules . They could not build new churches or synagogues .

Dhun Nun In Egypt the Sufi Dhun Nun profounded the doctrine of gnosis tlu communication of man with God . The foundamentalist scholars held sic It doctrine to be a heresy and wanted that punitive action should be taken against tfo

Sufi . Dhun Nun was summoned to Samarra and presented before Mutaw tkkit

Mutawakkil put him many questions but found nothing wrong with his belief He honoured him and allowed him to return to Egypt. 38

38.1bid , P - 170 114

Earthquakes and other natural calamities During the reign of Mutawakkil, a greater part of the country suffered heavily from earthquakes and other natural calamities. Mutawakkil undertook relief measures on a large scale .Special prayers were held to get divine mercy against such calamities.

Succession Mutawakkil had originally nominated his eldest son Muntasir to succeed him . He was to be followed by his step brother Mutaaz . Mutazakkil was very much under the influence of his wife Qabiha . She prevailed upon Mutawakkil that her son Mutaaz should be nominated as his successor in preference to Muntasir.

Mutawakkil asked Muntasir to renounce his right of succession . Muntasir refused .

Thereupon Mutawakkil disgraced and humiliated Muntasir and revoked his succession on his own authority. That created bitemess between Mutawakkil and his eldest son Muntasir.

Death of Mutawakkil The disinherited prince Muntasir , and the discontented.

Turkish general Wasif and Bugha entered into a conspiracy to do away with the caliph

. In a palace revolution, Mutawakkil was killed in 862 A .D. Mutawakkil was the first caliph to be killed by his own army . Thereafter there was an unbroken succession of the caliphs becoming helpless tools in the hands of military adventures . Mutawakkil is a controversial figure in history . Some Sunni writers praise Mutawakkil for the restoration of foundamentalism . Some Shia historians like Ameer A li, for obvious reasons, rate him as ‘the Nero of the Arabs’ . 11. Muntasir (861 - 862 )

Accession of Muntasir On the assassination of Mutawakkil . The Turkish

Generals raised Muntasir , the eldest son of Mutawakkil to the throne He uas i

Partner in the conspiracy that had culiminated in the assassination of his father His mother was a Greek Slave - Habshiyah . He is described as a man of middling status robust of body and of engaging exterior .39

Shia policies of Muntasir On coming to power Muntasir reversed the anti *hia policies of his father . He rebuilt the mousoleum of Hadrat Ali and Hadrat Hussain that had been destroyed during the reign of his father . He removed the prohibition- that had been imposed by his father on the pilgrimage to Najaf and Kerbala !h restored the property at Fidak to the Alids .

Policy towards disabilities of non-Mnslims He withdrew all disabilities and restrictions that had been imposed by his father on the non - Muslims . He permitted the reconstructions of the-churches and synagogues of the Christians and the Jews that had been closed down by Mutawakkil.

His guilt:- Throughout his reign , Muntasir was hunted by the spectre of his guilt ot murdering his own father . At one of the state functions , an inscription on a persiun carpet attracted his attention . The inscription read .

“ I am Shiruyah, the son of khusrow . 1 slew my father and did not enjo\ the sovereignty for more than six months

39. Tarikh -e- Millat ( Urdu ), P -195 1 - 116

His death The Turkish Generals brided Ibn Tayfur , of Muntasir to pbfeon the caliph. tbh Tayflir prbpdsed to Muntasir that in order to ward off maladies

, he should be bled when Muntasir submitted to the bleeding process, Ibn Tayfur bled him with a poisoned lancet , and Muntasir died of that poison in 862 A . D. like

Shiruyah.

Assessment The Muntasir ruled for Six months only , and this period was too short to make any impact -Muntasir is sl controversial figure . Shia writers like Amir

Alf describes-him- a,s a pious just sovereign, forbearing and generous in character , possessing keen intellect a»4 honestly desirous of the welfare of his subjects .

Sunni writers reproach him for being the murderer of his father . In view of this henious crime, his other qualities, howsoever gooef ^pd^into insignificance . 117

12. Miista’in (862-866 A .m

Accession of Musta’in Muntasir did not nominate anybody as his successor.The

Turkish Generals and leading official dignitaries met to decide the question of succession. Mut’azz and Muwaid , the sons of Mutawakkil and the brothers of

Muntasir were the rightful hiers to the throne . As the Turkish Generals had been responsible for the assassination of Mutawakkil in collusion with Muntasir they were afraid that if any one of the sons of Mutawakkil was raised to the throne he was likely to take revenge for the murder of his father. The Turkish Generals accordingly chose another prince Ahmed bin Muhammad bin Mustain as the caliph . On coming to power prince Ahmed chose for himself the title of Mustain. He was a brother of

Mutawakkil. His mother was a slave concubine named Mukharik .40

House arrest of Mut’azz and Muwaid Soon after the accession of Mustain, a plot was discovered , where under Mustain was to be deposed , and Mut’azz was to be installed as the caliph . The minister Ahmed bin Khasib was involved in the conspiracy. Mustain removed Ahmed bin Khasib from his office , confiscated his property, and exiled from him to Crete . Mut’azz and Muwaid were put under house arrest . They were confined to a part of the palace and restrictions were placed on their movements.

Scholars of his reign:- During his reign , Imam Bukhari , Haris bin Miskin ,

Abdullah bin Humaid and Abu Tahir bin Sarhe died.

» 5 >n '• 1 40. John Bagot Gtabb ,A Short History of the Arab Peoples, P - 170. iis*-

..A* ,V.4\ W . , ' .{* \V'- V,- , u 118

Murder of Atamish:- There were soon differences among the Turks , Mustain made

Atamish in charge o f Finance . The other Turkish Generals and dignitaries came to be dissatisfied with the financial policies of Atamish. Mustain was asked to remove him from office , but when he hesitated , Wasif and some other Turks had murdered

Atamish.

Mutder of Bashir Difference arose among the Turks General . The Turkish minister Atamish had already been killed . Thereafter differences arose between

Wasif, Bugha, and Baghir. Wasif and Bugha had killed Baghir . Baghir was the man who had actually assassinated Mutawakkil.

The Turks considered that Mustain was also involved in the murder of Baghir. They, therefore , revolted against Mustain . Mustain was a cative in the hands of Wasif and

Bugha.

A doggeral got current: 41

A Caliph in a cage,

Between Wasif and Bugha,

He says what they tell him ,

And speaks as a parrot.

Disgusted with the state of captivity and unable to withstand the tyrannies of the Turkish Generals. Mustain fled from Samarra, but he refused.

41. History of Islam. P - 237 119

Death and Assessment On the refusal of Mustain to return to Samarra , the

Turkish Generals declared Mut’azz, a son of Mutawakkil as the caliph . The Turkish army under Mut’azz marched to Baghdad, The people of Baghdad were no match for the Turkish army . The cause of Mustain was betrayed and he agreed to his disposition. He retired to Wash where he died in obscurity .

He was a nonentity with no will of his own . He was a mere puppet in the hands of the Turk Generals . During his rule , the caliphate lost its prestige . 120

13. Mut’azz (866 - 869 A. D. >

Accession of Mut’azz :-Onthe abdication of Mustain, Muta’zz became the Abbasid caliph . He was a son of Mutawakkil and was bom of a Greek mother Qabiha . He was only nineteen years old at the time of his accession. Among the Abbasid caliphs, no other caliph came to the throne at such a young age . The Governors of Syria and

Egypt did not offer allegiance to him . He sent forces to Saria and Egyp .The rebels were defeated and they offered allegiance to Mut’az.42

Succession Mut’azz had originally nominated his brother Muwaid as his successor .

Muwaid was involved in conspiracy . Mut’azz set aside the succession of Muwaid , scourged him and Put him in prison where he died.

The Khawarii revolt:- The Khawariji rose in revolt in Mosul. A greater part of the region of Mosul was occupied by the rebels . The Abbasid forces sent against the rebels were repeatedly defeated . During the reign of Mut’azz , the Khawarij held most of the Mosul district under their control.

The Alid revolt:- In Tabaristan , the Zaidis consolidated their power and defied all efforts on the part of the Abbasids to overthrow their rale.

In Makkah there was an Alid revolt under Islamil bin Yusul . The Abbasid rale was expelled from Makkha . The Alids took possession of the town, and put the citizens to ransom . Then they marched to Madinah and occupied it . The Abbasids sent a force against the Alids but the situation could not be brought under control and a state of anarchy continued to prevail in the holy cities.

42. A Short History of the Arab Peoples , P - 179 121

Autonomous states During the reign of Mut’azz , the Saffarids rose to Power in

Seistan , Kirman and Fars , and the Tulurids rose to power in Egypt . The establishment of these autonomous states encouraged centrifugal tendencies , and the

Abbasid empire began to shrink .

Abdication and death of Mut’z z The murder of Wasif and Bugha did not ease the situation for Mut’azz. There was no money in the treasury, and no salary was paid to the army for four months. After murdering Wasif the army besieged the palace of the caliph and clamoured for the payment of arrears . The Caliph approached his mother to lend an amount o f50,000 .

She refused to lend any money , although she had ample amount with her .

When Mut’azz foiled to meet the demand of the army , he was forced to abdicate .

Then he was led to a hammam and forced to take bath under hot w ater. When he felt thirsty, water was denied. When his thirst grew, he was given snow water to drink .

He drank the water and fell dead.

A ssessm entMut’azz ruled for a period of three years only. He is reported to be the most beautiful person among the Abbasids. This beauty did not stand him in good stand. As caliph he proved a failure .

Accession of M u h ta d iOn the abdication of Mut’azz ,the Turk - King -makers offered the throne to Abu Abdullah , a son of Wasiq . Abu Abdullah was pious by disposition, and he said that he could not accept the throne untill he had seen Mut’azz

, ami he absolved him of the oath of allegiance that he had taken to him . The Turk

Generals produced f^ut’^zz befqrp Abu Abdullah . Abu Abdullah offered to act as a mediator between Mut’azz and the Turks , and get him restored to power . Mut’azz said that he was no longer competent to carry the burden of the caliphate . He 122 absolved Abu Abdullah of the oath of allegiance that he had taken to him . Thereafter

Abu Abdullah assumed the office of the caliph and adopted the surname of Muhtadi.

Reforms of Muhtadi Muhtadi was chaste , pious , just and firm . As a ruler he tried to emulate the example of the Umayyad caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz . He followed an austere way of life and forbade all extravagant practices at the Abbasid court. He put down all wanton pastimes and forbade singing . He administered justice with an even hand, and took stem measures to prevent the oppression of the people by the functionaries of the state . 43

At this stage there were two main factions among the Turk . One faction was led by Salih bin Wasif who was in charge of finance . The other faction was led by

Musa bin Bugha . Musa bin Bugha was at the time operating against the Alwis in

Tabaristan . Qabiha, the mother of Mut’azz apprehended harsh treatment at the hands of Salih bin Wasif. She went into hiding appealed to Musa bin Bugha to come for her help . Salih bin Wasif sacked the palace of Qabiha and recovered considerable wealth all of which was confiscated .

4 3 . Ibid, P -191. 123

Death and AssessmentThe Turks besieged the capital, and no help could come from outside . The Turks wanted Muhatadi to abdicate . He rebuked them for their faithlesness . Some non - Turkish troops chose to defend Muhtadi. The loyal forces were however, outnumbered, and Muhtadi died fighting . The rule of Muhtadi lasted for barely a year . Muhtadi was wise and generous , and had his life been spared , he was likely to prove a capable ruler . It is unfortunate that he fell a victim to intrigues , and died fighting against his own army . That shows the sorry state of affairs to which the Abbasid empire had been reduced. 15. M’utamid (870-892 A . D .)

Accession of M ’utamid After the death of Muhtadi, Abul Abbas Ahmed . s in >1

Mutawakkil and a brother of Mut’azz who was in prison was released by the I urkixh

Generals and installed as the caliph assuming the title of M’tamid . He was bon <>) i>

Greek mother , Fityan by name . He was twenty five years old at the time i t ho accession.

Change of C a p i t a l He shifted the capital from Samarra to Baghdad 1 le chose i< be a constitutional ruler , and vested all executive authority in his brother Mimailiq

Because of the change of capital, and the strong government set up by Muwal'fiq < he

Turkish guards , who ted been so aggressive in the previous reigns were kept in restraint.

The Saffarids In 870 A.D., the year of the accession of M’utamid . Yakub bin

Laith founded the Saffarids rule in Sistan , Kerman and Pars . In 873 A.l> 3 ikuh conquered Khurasan and Tabaristan as well . Thereafter he marched to Baghdad in the confrontation that took place at Hulwan , Yakub was defeated and he had u retreat to Seistan. He died soon after . His successor , Amr bin Laith made peace w it I, the Abbasid government, and obtained the authority to rule over the lands he held

The Samanids In Transoxiana , the Samanids came to power. A Turkoman horde from across the Jaxartes invaded Transoxiana . The Samanids expelled the imadoo from their territory . The caliph invested the Samanids with the government <>}

Transoxiana and Commissioned them to check the inroads of the pagan Turks 125

The In the w est, the Tulunids came to power in Egypt and Syria , and they became an autonomous power . bin Tulun , the founder of the Tulunid rule died in 844 A.D and was succeeded by his son Khummaruwayh .

Mu’tamid’s escape to E g y p t M’utamid was a nominal ruler and real power vested

in his brother Muwaffiq . M’utamid chafed under the strong rule of Muwaffiq. In 883

A .D ; the caliph left the capital with the intention to escape to Egypt and seek asyleum

with the Tulunids.

Death and A ssessm ntMuwaffiq died in 891 A.D. and was succeeded by his son

Abul Abbas . The death of Muwaffiq brought no relief to M’utamid in the matter of

the exercise of authority . Abul Abbas proved stronger than his father Heretofore ,

M’utamid had nominated his son as his successor. Under the pressure of Abul Abbas

, M’utamid was forced to revoke the nomination of his , and appoint Abul Abbas

instead as his successor.

M’utamid died suddenly in 892 A.D. It was suspected that he had been

poisoned. He ruled for 22 years, but his rule was nominal.

Scholars of his reigna) Imam Muslim

b) Imam Abu Daud

c) Imam Tirmidhi

d) Imam Hasan Askar

e) H z. Ibrahim Adhem Balakhi. 44

44. Makammal Tarikh - e - Islam , P - 130. 126

16. M’utazid (892 -902 A . D .)

Accession of M’utazid M’utamid was succeeded by his nephew Ali Abbas who assumed the title of M’utazid on accession . He was bom of a Greek mother. Sawab.

Saffah . the second M’utazid was active , bold , intrepid , wise and vigorous. He had a grave exterior which inspired awe . He was very fierce and knew no mercy for his opponents. For his ruthlessness, he came to be known as Saffah, the second .

He set up a strong administration and ruled with a firm hand . He expelled vagabonds and bad character from the city of Baghdad who had become a menace to the city. He forbade booksellers to sell books of philosophy and polemics . He prohibited un-Islamic practices . He enforced the Islamic law of inherilance and abolished the escheat office.

He prohibited the practice of the celebration of the Magian New Year Day .

He changed the New Year Day from March to June , which came to be kncwn as the

M’utazid New Year’s Day. 45

45. Hasanuddin Ahmed, A Brie f History of Islam , P - 253 127

Oatrun Nida M’utazid married Qatr- un- Nida , a beautiful Tulunid princess, a daughter of khummaruwayh. Like the marriage of Mamun to Buran, the marriage of

M’utazid and Qatr-un-Nida also became a legened conspiciousLY for its superb magnificence , gorgeous splendour and lavish expenditure . The dowry among other things included 4,000 jewelled Waistbands.

Death and Assessment M’utazid died in 902 A .D. His rule lasted for ten years.M’utazid was a man of prowess and great personal courage . He had the reputation of engaging a lion single handed . On his death- bed , he kicked his physician who fell down dead . He introduced reforms and made efforts towards strengthening the administration.

If M’utazid would have come to power before the assassination of

M’utawakkil, he might have been able to restore the prestige of the Abbasids 128

17. Muktafi ( 902 - 907 A . D . 1

Accession of Muktafl M’utazid was succeeded by his son Muktafi. Muktafi was bom Turkish mother Jijak. He was 26 years old at the time of accession.

Reforms of Muktafi Muktafi reformed the administration and adopted liberal polices , He destroyed the underground prisons of his father , and converted them into places of worship . He restored to the people the lands and the gardens that his father acquired for building his palaces . All who had any grievance against the administration could apply to him for redress . He looked into all complaints personally , and made an earnest effort to redress the grievances of the people , these measures made Muktafi popular and the people blessed his rale .46.

The Oaramatians During his reign , the menace of the Qaramatians grew in magnitude. Campains taken by the Abbasids against the Qaramatians proved inconclusive . In one of the campaigns , Yahya bin Zakaria , the leader of the

Qaramatians was killed .The command of the Qaramatian was thereafter taken over by Hussain, a brother of Yahya . Hussain had a mole upon his face which he pretended to be the token of his “ M ahdihoodH e declared himself as the Mahdi and took over the title of Al- Muddaththir . He declared that there was a reference to him in Surah Lxxiv “ A Muddaththir ” of the holy Quran . In Syria a greater part of the province was occupied by the Qaramatians . Muktafi took the field in person against the Qaramatians . In an action, Hussain was killed , but the fury and violence of the

Qaramatians did not abate thereby.

46.ibid , P - 255 129

On the otherhand , the Qaramatians stepped up their subversive activities in Iraq as w ell. In 906 A. D. The Qaramatians captured Kufa and came to threaten Baghdad .

Death and Assessment Muktafi died in 907 A , D. after a short reign of five years only. He was a just and wise ruler, but the general conditions were so much disturbed

. The Qaramatians continued to be a great menace during his reign, and in spite of his best efforts, the Qaramatians could not be suppressed by him . 130

18. Muqtadir (907 - 932 A . D . 1

Accession of Muatadir Muktafi was succeeded by his brother Muqtadir. He was bom of a Turk mother Sa’ab . He was only 13 years of age at the time of accession .

He was the youngest person among the Abbasids to come to the throne 47

The chief minister Abbas bin Hasan favoured the succession of Muqtadir, but most of the other nobles opposed the succession on the ground that Muqtadir was too young to hold the throne . These nobles decided to depose Muqtadir , and installed

Abdullah ,son of M’utazz as the caliph . When Abdullah was offered the throne , he said he would accept the offer subject to the condition that there was no bloodshed ,

He was,assured of a peaceful accession.

Abbas bin Hasan who was opposed to the deposition of Muqtadir was murdered. Thereafter Muqtadir was deposed and Abdullah was installed as the caliph who assumed the name of A1 - Murtaza. Murtaza now asked Muqtadir to vacate the palace . There was now a sudden change in fortune . When the men of Murtaza entered the palace to turn out Muqtadir, people of Murtaza were defeated and driven out of the palace . The people of Baghdad rose in favour of Muqtadir and rushed to the palace , Murtaza was deposed , and Muqtadir was restored to the throne . The nobles who had sponsored the caliphate of Murtaza were hunted out and put to the sword.

47, F . Cajori ,A History of Muslims, P - 502 131

The Hambalites During his reign , the Hambalites , the followers of Imam

Hambal created a law and order problem for the administration . They interpreted a verse of Sura xvii of the Holy Quran to mean that Allah would place the Holy

Prophet of Islam on His Throne beside Him .Others said that this merely means that the Holy Prophet would have the authority of intercession . The controversy led to blow between the Hambalites and others. Many persons were killed . The special hatred of the Hambalites was directed against philosophical works . The Hambalites seized such works from the libraries and book -shops and burnt them in public .

The Byzantines Across the borders the Byzantines became aggressive . In a confrontation against the Byzantines in 926 A. D. the Abbasids forces met a reverse, and the Byzantines - captured in Egypt , slaughtered the Muslims and converted the mosques into churches . In 928 A . D. the Byzantines advanced into

Armenia, and captured the city of Khalat where they tore down the pulpit in the main mosque, and set up the cross in its place .

Death and assessment When Muqtadir was restored to the caliphate, Munis fled to Mosul. Here he gathered strength and invaded Baghdad in 932 A . D. Muqtadir was advised that he would lead the Baghdad force in person for seeing him at the helm of affairs most of the men in the army of Munis would join the Baghdad force .

This expectation did not materialise and Muqtadir died on the battle field . Muqtadir

enjoyed a long reign of 25 years .

Muqtadir was weak and he had little hold over power . Political power during

- his period came to be wielded by his ‘haremt’ , Sha’ab the mother of Muqtadir ruled

like a Queen Regent, and held regular audiences to redress grievences and decided

cases . Muqtadir established a hospital at Baghdad which was known as the

Muqtadiria Hospital. 132

19. A1 Qahir (932-934 A . D .)

Accession of Qahir On the death of Muqtadir , Amir Munis wanted to make

Ahmad, a son of Muqtadir as the caliph . This was opposed by other nobles who installed Abu Mansur Ahmed ,a son of Muathadid as the caliph . On assumption of office he took the title o f A1 - Qahir. He was bom of a slave mother, Fitnah.

Mistreatment of the family of Muqtadir He was cruel and merciless by nature.

He was of a vindictive bent of mind , and he with violenty with those who were favoured by his predecessor . He scourged the mother of Muqtadir , confiscated the properties of the prominent nobles of the time of Muqtadir.

Chastiser of the enemies of God At the court one faction was led by Ibn Yaqut while the other faction was led by Ibn Muqlah . Qahir supported Ibn Yaqut. That won for him the hostility of Ibn Muqlah . He conspired with Munis and another dignitary

Amir Baliq to depose Qahir and install Abu Muhammad , a son of Muktafi as the caliph. When Qahir came to know of the conspiracy, he enticed Munis and Baliq and put them to death. Ibn Muqlah concealed himself but his house was burnt . The properties of the conspirators were confiscated . That gave Qahir sufficient money to disburse the pay of the troops.That made him popular with the troops who conferred on him the title of “ Chastiser of the enemies of God ”. This was engraved on the coins . The son of A1 Muktafi who was proposed to be installed as the caliph by the conspirators was immured by Qahir between two walls .

Ban on Music and drinking Qahir issued a decree banning music and prohibiting the use of wine . He arrested all singers , and forbade the employment of 133 infamous people. He broke aE instruments of idle diversion . In spite of such decree he did not himself relinquish intemperance, nor desist from listening to music. 48,

Assessment The violent and blood thristy nature of A1 Qahir made him unpopular .

He carried a javelin with him which he never cast aside till he had slain a man with it

. When he was asked by Army to abdicate the palace , he refused to abdicate .

Thereupon he was blinded and deposed. He was lodged in prison for some year.

Qahir’s rule lasted for barely two years . His reign was marked by turbulence , conspiracies and bloodshed . The affairs of the state were sadly neglected and the

Abbasid state came to slide downhill on the path of disintegration . After deposition

Qahir lived for 16 years and died in 950 A . D. He was the first Abbasid ruler to be blinded and reduced to beggary.

48.1bid, P-505 134

20. Ai - Radi ( 932 - 940 A . D .)

Accession of AI - Radi On the deposition of Al - Qahir, Abul Abbas Muhammad

, a son of Muqtadir was installed as the caliph . On assuming office, he adopted the surname of Al R adi. He was bom of a Greek mother, Dahalum.

The Abbasid empire With Al Radi disappeared the vestiges of whatever dignity and prestige had been left to the caliphate . The Abbasids empire once a mighty state was now a mere ghost of its former self.

The Umayyads ruled in Spain.

The Fatimids ruled over Egypt and North Africa.

The Hamdanities ruled over Mesopotamia.

The Qaramatian ruled in Yamama and .

The Buwayhids raled in Persia.

The rated in Tabaristan and Jurjan.

The Samanids ruled in Khurasan and Transoxiana.

The Abbasid rule had come to be confined to Baghdad and its environs. 49

Ibn Abil Azakir In 935 A . D ., a heretical movement under Muhammad bin Ali

Al - Shalmaghani commonly known as Ibn Abil Azakir became a headache for the

Government. He claimed to possess the divine power to bring the dead to life . When his claim was proved to be a fraud he was executed along with his prominent followers.

49. Prof. Masudul Hasan .History of Islam P - 255. 135

Amir - ul- Umara A1 Radi had no hold on power , and he became a puppet in the hands of military adventurers . By a coup Muhammad bin Raiq , the Governor of

Basara and Wasit seized power, and Radi was forced to confer the title of Amir - ul -

Umara on him . All executive authority came to be vested in the Amir - ul -Umara , and the caliph was reduced to the Status of a Phantom. In 938 A .D. by another coup

Ibn Raiq was overthrown and power was captured by another Turkish General Bajkan who was in turn vested by A1 - Radi with the title of Amir -ul-Umara,

Main events daring his reign During the reign of A1 -Radi, Abdur Rahman III, proclaimed himself as the caliph in Spain . Now there were three caliphs in the

Muslim world - the Abbasids in Baghdad , the Fatimids in North Africa and the

Umayyads in Spain.

In.Hejaj , the Qaramatians continued their ravages and during a greater part of the reign of A1 - Radi, the annual pilgrimage to the Holy remained suspended .

In the east the Buwahyids rose to importance in Persia.

Death and Assessment Al- Radi died in 940 A . D. He was hardly 32 years old at the time of his death. His rule lasted for 6 years only. He is described as a beneficent and liberal ruler who patronised learning and led the army in person . Because of the turbulence of the period , whatever good qualities he had, could not come into full play, and the peace of disintegration of the Abbasid power could not be arrested. 1 3 6

21. M u ttaai ( 940 - 944 A . D .)

A ccession of M uttaa! A1 R adi w as succeeded by his brother A bu Ishaq Ibrahim

w ho assum ed the surnam e o f M uttaqi on accession . H e w as bom o f a slave m other

Zohra. The entire Period o f his rale w as m arked by turbulence , coups and counter

c o u p s . 5 0

C o u p s and C ounter C onns A t the tim e o f his accession, pow er vested in B ajkam

as A m ir - ul- U m ara . In 941 A . D . B ajkam w as assassinated , and another Turk -

G eneral K urtakain becam e A m ir - ul -U m ara . Ibn R aiq w ho had in the m ean tim e

consolidated his position at W asit attacked B aghdad , overthrew K urtakain , and

becam e the A m ir - ul - U m ara . A nother G eneral A bul H asan A li A1 B aridi led a

counter rev o lt. In the confrontation Ibn R aiq w as defeated . Ibn R aiq fled to M o su l,

and he took the caliph along w ith him . In the absence o f the C aliph , the royal

palaces in B aghdad w ere ransacked.

Soon there w as another outbreal led by a Turkish general . The

H am danid ruler w as driven aw ay from B aghdad , and M uttaqi w as forced to confer

the pow ers o f A m ir - ul- U m ara.

50.1bid - P - 257,-58 137

Soon there were difference between the Caliph and Tuzun, and the Caliph once again sought refuge with the . The Hamdanids marched with a large army to engage Tuzun . The two armies met at Ukbara at some distance from Bagahdad . The

Hamdanids were defeated, and they along with Muttaqi retreated in order to disorder to M osul.

As Muttaqi left Raqqah , Tuzun proceeded to meet him half way . Muttaqi received by Tuzun between Anbar and H it. The Caliph was received with all respect and then escorted to the camp . In the camp , Tuzun went back on his promises.Muttaqi was placed under arrest and deposed . His eyes seared with hot iron and he was blinded .

Muttaqi was led to an island in the Tigris where he was imprisoned . He remained in the prison for 25 years until he died.

when A1 - Qahir heared that like him Muttaqi had also been blinded, he said “

We are now tw o, needing a third

Assessment Muttaqi’s rule lasted for four years only, and the entire period was crowed with coups, out breaks and insurrections. He was allowed no rest, and had to move from Piller to post. Personally he was very pious and righteous. He used to fast and Pray much . He never touched wine . He used to say that he needed no boon companion but the Quran . These qualities , however , could not stand him in good stand, and as a ruler, he proved a failure . He was the second Caliph to be blinded . 138

22. Mustakfi ( 944 - 945 A . D .)

Accession of Mustakfi Muttaqi was succeeded by Abul Kasim Abdullah , a son of Muktafi . On assuming the caliphate he adopted the tittle of Mustakfi . His mother was Slave concubine named “ Amlah -un- Nas” (the most beautiful of mankind . He was 41 yerrs old at the time of his accession .

Amir - ul -Umara :-At the time of his accession, Tuzun was the Amir - ul - Umara.

Tuzun died soon after . On the death of Tuzun . Nasir - Ud -Dualah , the Amir of

Mosul aspierd for the office of the Amir - ul - Umara . The army opposed his appointment. They supported the candidature of Shirzad who had been the deputy of

Tuzun . Mustakfi had no option but to appoint Shirzad as the Amir - ul - Umara . In lieu of the support of the army , Shirzad as Amir - ul - Umara raised the pay of the army Personnel. There was no money in the treasury, and the additional expenditure had to be met by levying additional taxes on people , That caused great discontentment among the people and they revolted against the administration. 51

Deposition of Mustakfi Muizz - ud - Daulah as Amir - ul - Umara concentrated all powers in his own hand and the caliph was reduced to a cypher. The privileges of the caliph were cut down and he was allowed a meagre subsistence allowance . That created bitterness between the caliph and the Amir - ul - Umara.

51. Sayed Amir All ,AShort History of the Saracens, P - 303

I 139

The caliph Planned to seek some out side help against Muizz - ud - Daulah.

One day Muizz - ud - Daulah visited the caliph . Two of the Daylamites stepped forward towards the caliph who stretehed forth his hand thinking that they wished to kiss it. They , however , pulled him from his throne , and put him under arrest. The contigent of the Daylamites plundered the palaces of the Caliph until nothing was left therein. He was third Abbasid caliph to be blinded . The rule of Mustakfi lasted for less than two years. With Mustakfi the position of the Abbasid caliph was reduced to that of a stipendiary of the Buwayhids.

Mustakfi tried to get ride of his masters, but he foiled . He remained in the prison for three years and died in 948 A . D. According to Suyuti, he had adopted the Shia - faith to please his masters, but that did not help him in any w ay.

End of the Early Abbasid Period Now we should draw our attention towards the end o f the Early Abbasid period . The Period of the early - Abbasids lasted from 750 to 945 A . D .

The Second Period which may be called the Period of the later Abbasids lasted from 945 to 1258 A . D .

The Year 945 is the dividing line as it was during this year that power was captured by the Buwayhids .

During the period of the Early Abbasids there were 22 rulers in 195 years.

Now we are ready to start the chapter of the second period which may be called the Period of the later Abbasid that lasted for 313 years . During the period the

Abbasid empire was ruled by 15 rulers. 140

2. The period of the Later Abbasids(945 to 1258 A . D.) (313 Years.)

(A) THE BUWAYHID PERIOD ( 945 to 1055 A . D)

From AI Muttih to AI Qaim, only four rulers

23. (i) M uttih ( 945 - 974 A . D .)

Accession of AI Muttih On the deposition of Mustakfi, the Buwayhids who were

Shia proposed to anknowledge the Fatimid Shia caliphs as the caliphs. They were advised that Sunni caliphs were likely to dominate over them . For the consideration of personal power, the Buwayhids decided to continue with the Abbasids caliphs but would treat them as puppets . Abul Kasim AI Fazal, a son of Muqtadir was installed as the Caliph. He chose for himself the title of AI Muttih. He was the son of a slave concubine named Masghaiah . During the first year of his office he was allowed a meagre stipend, and was not allowed to reside in the royal palace . 52

The Shia doctrines The Buwayhids took specific measures to promote doctrine .

Muawiyah , Yazid and other non-Shia Caliphs were publicly cursed .The 10 th of

Mohrram ,the day of the martyrdom of Hadrath Hussain was clebrated as a day of mourning . On the 12 th of Dhul Hajj , the festival of Ghadir Khum was officially clebrated, the significance, where of, according to the Shia’s claim was that the Holy prophet had declared Ali to be his successor on that day .

52. Ibid-P-303-4 141

Death of Muttih Muizz - ud - Daulah, the Amir - ul - Umara died in 967 A.D. He was suceeded by his son Bakhtiyar who was awarded by Muttih the title of Izz - ud -

Daulah . Izz - ud - Daulah was incapable and under him the state of affairs rapidly deteriorated.

To meet the needs of administration, Bakhtiyar had to levy additional taxes on the people . That cereated discontentment in the state , Bakhtiyar pressed Muttih to provide money for undertaking Jihad . Bakhtiyar maintained his pressure . Ultimately

Muttih was forced to sell all property and hand over the proceeds to Bakhtiyar for financing the campaign against Byzantines . Bakhtiyar pocketed the money and did not undertake the jihad against them.

The unwise policies of Bakhtiyar caused considerable discontentment among the people . At the top there was armed conflict between the Turks and the Daylamites

. As a result of these conflicts, Baghdad was coptured by the Turks Amir - ul - Umara

. In 973 A.D. Muttih suffered from an attack of paralysis and he lost the power of action, He abdicated in 974 in favour of his son and retired at Wasit where he died in

975 A.D.

Muttih enjoyed long spell of reign of 29 years but this was a colourless rule . 142

24.(ii) At-Taii (914 - 991 A . D.)

Accession of Al-Taii On the abdication of Al-Muttih, his son Abu Bakr Abdul

Karim bcame the caliph. On assuming office he took the tittle of At-Taii. His mother was a Slave concubine named Hazar. 53

Izz - ud-Daulah At the time of accession of At - Taii , the Turkish General subuktugin was the Amir - ul - Umara . He died in 975 A . D . and that provided opportunity to Izz - ud - Daulah who was at Mosul to stage a come back . Izz -ud -

Daulah appealed for help his cousin Azad - ud - Daulah , the ruler of fars for help .

The combined forces of Izz - ud - Daulah and Azad - ul - Daulah marched to Baghdad

. The Turks were defeated and Izz - ud - Daulah was reinstalled as the Amir - ul -

Umara.

The army clamoured for the payment of arrears , and there was no money in the treasury . Azad-ul-Daulah advised Izz-ud-Daulah that he should sit at home and declare that he was not interested in exercising authority.

Izz-ul-Daulah was under the impression that Azad-ud-Daulah would exercise power as an interim measure only and when things settled down , power would be restored to him. Azad-ud-Daulah had , however , no intention of restoring the power to Izz-ud-Daulah brought the matter to the notice of Rukn-ud-Daulah , the father of

Azad-ud-Daulah ,and the head of the Buwayhid family.

53. Ibid, P -305 V3

Rukn-ud-Daulah who loved his nephew Izz-ud-Daulah as much as his son-Azad-ud-

Daulah took strong notice of the matter and directed Azad-ud-Daulah to retire from

Baghdad and hand over the power to Izz-ud-Daulah . Ruknud-Daulh died in 976 and

Azad-ud-Daulah became the Amir-ul-Umara after defeating Izz-ud-Daulah at

Baghdad. The caliph conferred on him the title of Shams-ul-Millat.

Sams -ud-Daulah :- Azad-ud-Daulah died in 982 A . D. and succeeded by his son

Samsam-ud-Daulah . He levied additional taxes . That created general unrest and discontentment. Due to public opposition, he had to withdraw the tax levy.

Sharaf-ud-Daulah Profiting by the disturbances in Baghdad, Sharaf-ud-Daulah, a step - mother of Samsam-ud-Daulah with his forces against Baghdad. In the battle that took outside Baghdad Samsam was defeated and taken captive.He was blinded.

Sharaf -ud-Daulah now- assumed the authority as Amir-ul-Umara.

Baha-ud-Daulah :- Sharaf -ud-Daulah died in 989 A . D. and was succeeded by his brother Abu Nasr who assumed the title of Baha-ud-Daulah . There were soon differences between At-Taii and Baha-ud-Daulah . In 991 A.D.Baha-ud-Daulah deposed At-Taii and forced him to abdicate . He was however , allowed to live in the royal palace where he was treated with due respect and courtesy.He died in 1002 A D.

A s s e s s m e n tAt Taii ruled for 17 years . He was very weak and incapable . He was virtually a prisoner in the hands of the Buwayhids . 144

25. (iii) Al-Oadir ( 991-1031 A . D)

Accession of Al-Oadir On the deposition of At-Taii, a cousin of At - Taii, Abul

Abbas Ahmed bin Ishaq bin Muqtadir was installed as the Caliph . On assuming the caliphate he took over the throne in the name of A1 - Taii resided in the palace of A1

Qadirand was treated with due respect and courtesy. 54

The Buwavhids Like his predecessors , A1 Qadir remained a prisoner in the hands of Buwayhids ruler Baha -ud-Daulah died in 1012 A. D. and was succeeded by his son Sultan -ud-Daulah . Sultan -ud -Daulah was overthrown by his brother Mushrraf ud Daulah in 1025 A. D. which authority came to be vested in his brother Jalal -ud -

Daulah.

Religious activities of A1 - Qadir As by this time the Abbasids had lost all hold on power , A1 - Qadir , as the Abbasid caliph, could merely watch the political events from a distance , but had no power to shape the course of events .

Deprieved of political power, A1 - Qadir, devoted his time and energy to the promotion of religion . He led the life of a pious Muslim . He spent a greater part of his nights in prayers. He gave a greater part of his income in charity and almsgiving .

He studied under Abu Bisher al-Harawi, a Shafiite scholar . A1 - Qadir himself was a jurist of considerable eminence .

54. Philips K . Hitti, History of the Arabs,P - 62 145

He presided at synods of religious divines and made an effort to consolidate the spiritual authority and prestige of the Abbasid caliphate . The M’utazilites became active and tried to propagate their doctrines . A1 -Qadir wrote a number of pamphlets condemning rationalism and insisting upon conformity as essential to fundamentalism

Death and Assessment A1 - Qadir died in 1031 A. D ., at the age of 87 . His rule lasted for 40 years . It was the longest rule among the Abbasids . Most of the

Abbasids rulers died young . Among the Abbasids . A1 - Qadir attained the longest age . A1 - Qadir aspired to be another Umar bin Abdul Aziz, but as he had no political power to exercise he could achieve little . In religion he supported the fundamentalist view . The Sunni writers and historians praise his conduct. 146

26.(iv) A1 Oaim (1031 -1077 A . D.)

Accession of AI Oaim A1 Qadir was succeeded by his son Abu Jafar Abdullah.

His mother was an Armenian lady . Bad-rud-Duja . On assuming office he took the title of Al-Qaim.

Deposition of Al Oaim Al Ratbah, Al Basasiri mustered a force . He also secured help from the Fatimids . Al Basasiri allied himself with the brother of Beg,

Inal, and incited him to revolt against his brother . At the outbreak of revolt. Tughril

Beg left Baghdad to take action against his rebellious brother.

As soon as Tughril Beg left Baghdad . Al Basasiri marched to Baghdad and recaptured it. He deposed Al-Qaim and Proclaimed the Fatimid caliph Al Muntasir as the caliph of Islam. Al Qaim was transported to the prison at Aanah about Hit on the Euphrates. For about a year , Al Qaim languished in the prison, while in the mosques in Baghdad, the Khutbah was read in the name of the Fatimid caliph. 55

Restoration of Al-Qaim Tughril Beg suppressed the revolt his brother , and then marched to Baghdad . In the confrontation that followed Al-Basasiri was defeated and killed ,and Baghdad was recaptured by Tughril Beg . Al Qaim was released from the prison at Aanah brought to Baghdad with due respect and restored to the office of the caliphate .In turn, Al Qaim placed two crowns on the head of Tughril.

55.1bid - P - 275 147

Beg indicative of his supremacy over the Arabs and the Persians. He was invested with seven robes , emblematic of the seven countries of Islam under the authority of

Tughril B eg. Tughril Beg was proclaimed as the sultan of the east and the w est.

Main events in the reign of Al-Oaim In spite of his restoration, the position of A1

Qaim as caliph did not improve in any w ay. For him the coming of the Seljuks in the place of the Buwayhids or A1 Basasiri merely meant a change in masters . He continued to be a figurehead and all executive authority vested in the Seljuk Sultan .

Al- Qaim had to further suffer the humiliation of marrying his daughter to Tughril

B eg.

It was the first occasion when an Abbasid prince was married to a non-

Abbasid . Tughril Beg died soon after the Marriage and was succeeded by his nephew Alp Arsalan.

At the battle of Malaz Jard that took place in 1071 A . D. between the Muslims and the Byzantines , the Byzantines were defeated , and their emperor Romanas was captured alive by the Muslims. As a result, the Muslims became the Masters of Asia minor . These conquests were , however , not made in the name of the caliph , these were made in the name of the Seljuks .

Death and A ssessm entAl Qaim died in 1077 A .D. He ruled for 46 years which was the longest period of rule among the Abbasids.

Al Qaim was a man of comely appearance and attractive countenance . He was austere , pious , charitable , benevolent and prompt to do justice . He was assiduous in the cultivation o f literature , and skilled in writing . He was God-fearing and spent most of his time in prayers and religious devotions . After his release from

Prison and restoration to the caliphate, he never slept except on the prayer m at. 148

(B) THESELJUKPERIOD (1055 to 1152 A.D.)

From Al Muqtadi to Al Muktafi, five rulers

27.(i) Al Muotadi (1077 to 1094 A.D.)

Accession of Al Muqtadi Al Qaim had only one son Zakhirat-ud-Din Muhammad who died during the life time of his father .Al Qaim was succeeded by his grandson

Abul Qasim Abdullah bin Muhammad .He was posthumous child and was bom six months after the death of his father . His mother was a slave concubine Arjawan . On assuming the caliphate he took the title of Muqtadi. He was only 19 years at the time of coming to power.

Policies and main events Al Muqtadi was intelligent, pious, virtuous and noble .

He expelled all the bad characters from the court. He adopted the policy of measure for the suppression of immorality . He made an attempt to assert himself, but he was no watch for the paramount Seljuk . He had , therefore , no option but to lie low and remain a figurehead.

Within the capital , peace was disturbed by frequents riots between the

Hambalites and the Hanafies . These riots were suppressed with some difficulty after a good deal of blood had been shed . The period saw the rise of the Assassins, the

Nihilists of Islam. They let loose a reign of terror in the country, and those who were opposed to them were - murdered under mysterious circumstances. 56

Sultan of Seliuq The Seljuq Sultan Malik Shah married his daughter to Muqtadi.

She died after a few years leaving a son who was brought up by Malik Shah .

Muqtadir nominated his elder son Mustazhar as his successor .

56. Abdur Rahman Jala! Uddin Suyuti, - , P - 42. 149

Malik Shah wanted Muqtadi to nominate his younger son Jafar bom of the daughter of Malik Shah as his successor , Muqtadi avoided the issue . So Malik Shah threatened him and also wanted to depose him. After threating Malik Shah went hunting in the interior of the country, and died within ten days and Muqtadi was thus saved from the obligation of revoking the nomination of his elder son as his successor

Death of Muqtadi On the death of Malik Shah , at the instanec of Turkham

Khan, the wife of Malik Shah, Muktadi nominated the younger son of Malik Shah as the Sultan. Mahmud died within two years and power was captured by Barkiaruq, the elder son o f Malik Shah in 1094 A .D. Malik Shah signed the investiture in favour of

Barkiaruq , and died thereafter under mysterious circumstance . It was suspected the he was poisoned by his female slave Shams-un-Nahar.

Muqtadi ruled for 17 years and died at the Young age of 36 . He had many good qualities, but he could not make any impact on the administration. 150

28. (ii) AI - Mustahzar (1094 - 1118 A . D.)

Accession of A1 Mustahzar On death of Al Muqtadi, his son Abul Abbas Ahmed became the caliph. On coming to power he assumed the title of Mustahzar.

The Crusades The reign of Al-Mustahzar saw the out burst of the crusades . The burnt of the crusades was laced by the Seljuk chiefs and the Fatimids and the Abbasid cliph did not come into the picture directly . Nevertheless he felt concerned at the loss of Muslim territory . The crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099 A.D. Most of the

Muslim inhabitants where massacred . Some rfugees from Jerusalem poured in to

Baghdad and there they told their tale of woe of the Muslim in Jeruslem , but they could do nothing against the crusaders . The Caliph applead to Burkiaruq and

Muhammad who were fighting among them selves to sink their mutual differences and fight unitedly against the Crusaders . The appeal had no effect, and Muhammad and Burkiaqaruq continued to fight . When Muhammad became the Sulatn a combined Muslim force marched to Palestine in 1113 A.D. The Muslim won an initial victory against the Crusaders , but then the Muslims Chiefs quarreled among themselves and withdrew from Palestine . 57

57.1bid, P-44 151

A ss e ss m e n tAl-Mustahzar died in 1118 A.D. His rale lasted for 24 years . Keeping in view the turbulence of the period a long reign of 24 years points to some good qualities o f the caliph . He was pious , generous , and learned . He left for the loss of the power of the Caliphate and although the guardian Seljuks fought amongst themselves the caliph nevertheless found himself in doing anything tangible in restoring the glory of the Abbasids. 152

29. (iii) A1 - Mnstarshid ( 1118 - 1134 A . D .)

Accession of A1 -Mustarshid Mustahzar was succeeded by his son Abu Mansur

Al-Fazal. On accession he assumed the surname of Mustarshid . He was 27 years old at the time of his accession. A step brother of Mustarshid , Abul Hasan, did not take the oath of allegience and fled to Dabis Sadaqa , the Amir of Hilla . The Amir welcomed him . Mustarshid sent a message to Abul Hasan to return to Baghdad . He instead went to Wasit and captured i t . Mustarshid sent a force to W asit. Abul Hasan was taken captive and brought to Baghdad . He was pardoned by Mustarshid and granted favours.

During his reign , Dabis bin Sadaqa , the Amir of Hilla gave considerable trouble to the administration. Sultan Muhammad had, in an expedition against Hilla, killed the ruler, Sadaqa . Dabis the ruler of Hilla on coming to power vowed vengeance for the murder of his father . He raided various cities of Baghdad across the borders of Hill, and restored to loot and plunder. A force was sent against Dabis, and he was forced to withdraw to Hilla. Dabis asked for conciliation but his request was not granted by the Sultan and the Caliph.58

The Caliph and the Seliuk Sultan Under Mustarshid , Sultan Mahmud was the

Seljuk Sultan with the capital at Hamadan . Since the assumption of the office of the

Sultanate by the Seljuqs , all executive authority was exercised by the Seljuq through their Resident at Baghdad . Mustarshid assumed most of the authority himself, and the Seljuq Resident brought this state of affairs of the notice of Sultan Mahmud .

Sultan Mahmud there upon decided to march at the head of a force to Baghdad to reassert the Seljuq authority.

58.1bid , P - 50. 153

When the Caliph came to know of the intention of the Sultan , he asked him to postpone his visit to Baghdad as due to the war with Dabis the country of Iraq was suffering from economic distress and was not in a position to make any provision for his army . Sultan Mahmud disregarded this advice and pushed on to Baghdad . He occupied the main part of Baghdad . Some of the allies of the caliph crossed over to the side of the Sultan . At this stage the Sultan instead of attacking the forces of the caliph offered peace. Mustarshid was not strong enough to fight . He , therefore , accepted the offer. Sultan Mahmud waited on the Caliph and offered apologies . The caliph returned to his palace . Sultan Mahmud appointed Imaduddin Zangi as his

Resident at Baghdad, and himself returned to Hamadan in 1127 A.D.

Sultan Mahmud died in 1130 A.D. On his death , his son Daud was installed as the

Sultan at Hamadan . Daud , thereafter revolted in Azarbaizan .Msud led a force to

Azarbaijan and he took the caliph with him . Under the pressure of Sanjar , Masud released the caliph. It was underetaken that the caliph would pay a ransom to the

Sultan as well as an annual subsidy . Masud encamped at Maragah , and there the caliph made preparations for return to Baghdad . At night some of the Batinites entered the camp of the caliph and assassinated him in 1134 A.D.

A ssessm en tThe rale of Mustarshid lasted for 16 years . He was a man of awe inspiring presence, and he tried his best to restore the Abbasid caliphate to its the early glory. 154

30. (iv) Al- Rashid (1134 - 1135 A . D.)

Accession of A1 Rashid On the assassination of Mustarshid , his son Abu Ja’far

Mansur became the caliph . He assumed the surname of Al-Rashid . He was 20 years

_at the time of his acession.

Deposition of Al-Rashid At the outset of his reign , Al-Rashid developed

difference with Sultan Masud . Al Rashid held Sultan Masud responsible for

humiliation and murder of his father Mustarshid , and burned with the urge to take

revenge . Many Seljuq Amirs opposed to Sultan Masud take Shelter with Caliph at

Baghdad , Even Daud , to whom Sultan Masud had married his daughter by way of

conciliation revolted against the authority of Sultan Masud , and joined the rebel

Seljuq Amirs at Baghdad . The caliph repudiated the sultanate of Masud was

accordingly omitted from the Khutba in Baghdad, and was substituted by the name of

Sultan D aud. 59.

Sultan Masud sent an emissary to Baghdad for the Purpose of negotiation with

the Caliph. The negotiations failed, and Sultan Masud marched at the head of a force

to Baghdad. The Sultan besieged Baghdad , but failed to capture it . He raised the

siege after two months and with drew . A few months later after mustering more

forces Sultan Masud attacked Baghdad again .He allies except Imad -ud- din Zangi of

Mosul deserted him . Unable to withstand the forces of Sultan M asud, Al-Rashid left

Baghdad for Mosul along with Imad-ud-din Zangi.

59. C . Brockelman ,History of the Islamic Peoples, P -152. 155

After capturing Baghdad, Sultan Masud declared A1 Rashid to have been deposed. In his place, his uncle Muktafi was installed as the Caliph.

Assessment The rule of Al-Rashid lasted for less than a year. After his deposition he died within a year . According to Jalal-Uddin Suyuti, Al-Rashid was eloquent, versed in letters , and poet. These qualities , however , were of no avail and he lost his throne as well as his life soon after his accession to power. 156

31. (v) A1 Muktafi (1135 - 1160 A . D .)

Accession of A1 -Muktafi On the deposition of Al-Rashid , Abu Abdullah

Muhammad , a son of A1 Mustahzar was installed as the Caliph . He assumed the surname Al-Muktafi . He was 40 years old at the time of his accession. He enjoyed a long spell of reign expanding over twenty-five years . His rule is divisible into two

Periods . The first period of Seventeen years from 1135 to 1152 A.D. was the period of the Seljuq tutelage . The last period of eight years from 1152 to 1160 A .D. was the period of the Caliphate. 60

The Period of Seliuq tutelage During this period , the Caliph Al-Muktafi had to lie low . At the out set of his rule there was the danger of Al-Rashid-staging a come back. After deposition Al-Rashid left for M osul. From there went to Azarbaizan .

Here some Amirs joined him and he mustered a large force.Sultan Masud marched against this force . At the confrontation that took place at Maragah , Sultan Masud was defeated . Al- Rashid thereupon marched to Iraq in a bid to recapture power .

Masud persued him . The allies of Al Rashid left him , and he had to abandon the Iraq campaign. He returned to Isfahan where he was murdered by his slaves . The death of

Al-Rashid made Al Muktafi secure in the Caliphate .

60.1bid, P -154. 157

A1 Mustarshid had promised to pay an annual subsidy to Sultan Masud . The Sultan demanded this subsidy from Al-Muktafi . A1 - Muktafi pointed out that the state treasury was empty and the palaces of the Caliph had been ransacked by the Seljuq and as such there were no means with him to pay money . Thereupon Sulatan Masud further ransacked the Caliphate palace, and Al-Muktafi was deprived of furniture and facilities for transport. A story goes that al last, the Caliph pronounced curses on

Sultan Masud for 40 days, and on the fortieth days Sultan Masud was dead .

The Period of Independence With the death of Sultan Masud in 1152 A .D.A1-

Muktafi threw of the tutetage of the Seljuq and became independent . The Seljuq forces occupied Hilla , Takrit , Kufa and Wasit . The Abbasid forces expelled the

Seljuqs from these places .

Some of the military expeditions were led by the Caliph personally .

Muhammad II the Seljuq Sultan made efforts to regain the sultanate , but all such efforts were frustrated by the Caliph.

Death of Al - Muktafi He died in 1160 A . D. at the age of 25 years . He was learned, well -read, brave, just and noble . He succeeded in throwing off the tutelage of the Seljuq. 158

(C) THE LATER PERIOD (1152 - 1258 A. D .) (FromAl Mustanjid to Al Mutasim , Six rulers) 32. (i) Al Mustanjid (1160 -1170 A . D.)

Accession of Al -Mustanjid Muktafi was succeeded by his son Abul Muzaffar

Yusuf. He was the son of an Armenian lady Taoos . At the time of the death of

Muktafi , a concubine of Muktafi conspired that her son Abu Ali should succeed

Muktafi. Abul Muzaffar Yusuf was called to visit his dying father , and there some maids hired by the mother of Abu Ali fell on him with daggers . Abul Muzaffar Yusuf escaped the attack . The maids who had lodged in prison . On ascending the throne

Abul Muzaffar Yusuf assumed the surname of Al Mustanjid. He was 45 years old at the time of coming to the throne.61

Main events of the reign of Al-Mnstaniid Al though by this time , the Abbasid

Caliphs had over thrown the yoke of the Seljuq sultanate , the rule of the caliph had come to be confined to a part of Iraq . Thus the main events which took place on the fringes of the Muslim dominions concerned the local Amirs , and the Abbasid caliph merely watched such events from a distance .

The revolts of Arab tribes , Banu Khafaja and Banu Asad were suppressed by the Abbasid troops . They were expelled from Iraq .

61. Prof. Masudul Hassan History of Islam, P - 293 159

When Mustanzid came to the throne , Sulaiman was the Seljuq Sultan . He proved to be a nonentity and failed to have a grip on the state affairs . He was deposed in 1161

A.D. He was succeeded by Arsalan Shah . Mustanzid refused to allow the Seljuqs to interfere in the affairs of the caliphate .

In the west the political scene was dominated by Nuruddin Zangi. He inflicted a defeat on the crusaders in the battle of Harim . He won a victory against the

Byzantines . Thereafter he interfered in the affairs of Egypt .Nuruddin sent force led by Shirkhuh to Egypt. The force succeeded in its mission and Shirkhuh was installed as the prime minister of Egypt.

Death of Mustanzid and assessment He died in 1170 A.D. He really fell a victim to party faction at his court. His courtiers were Abu Jafar , while other party was led by Qutubuddin and Azuddin . The Caliph favoured Abu Jafar . In the meantime Mustanzid fell ill . His physician prescribed ‘ Hammam1 as a cure. The

Caliph was not inclined to this treatment but he was forced by way of solicitude to undertake a bath in the Hammam . When the Caliph entered the Hammam, the door was closed . He was suffocated to death, and only his dead body was found from the

Hammam. It was given out that he had died while taking a bath.

Mustanjid was distinguished for his justice clemency . He was a man of intellect, and was a poet of considerable eminence .

During his reign, Hazrath Shaikh Abdul Qadir Zilani died in 561 A. H . 160

33. (ifl A1 - Mustazii (1170 -1179 A . D.)

Accession of Ai -Mustazii A1 Mustanjid was succeeded by Ms son Al- Hasan

Abu Muhammad . He was the son of an Armenian mother Ghadhada . At the time of

Ms accession, he was 29 years old. On assuming office, he took the surname of Al -

Mustazii.

Main events of the reign of Mustazii The rule of the Abbasids remained confined to a part of Iraq and they were not involved in the main events that took place in other part of the country.

In the east, the disintegration of the Seljuq rule Proceeded apace .The Seljuq ruler Arsalan made frantic efforts to be recognised as the Sultan by the Caliph .

Mustazii did not agree to the proposal, and the Seljuqs were no longer strong enough to enforce the proposal through force . Arsalan died in 1176 A . D. and was succeeded by Tughril Beg who happened to be the last ruler in the line .In the w est, Nuruddin

Zangi died, and the Political stage came to be dominated by Salahuddin Ayubi. The

Fatimid rule in Egypt was extinguished in 1171 A .D. when Khutba came to be read in in the name of the Abbasid Caliph Mustazii. That added considerably to the prestige of the Abbasid Caliphate. Salauddin wrested Jerusalem from the Crusaders, and that was a matter of much rejoicing by the Muslims. 62

Death of Al Mustazii and assessment He died in 1179 A.D. His rule lasted for nine years . He was 39 years old at the time of Ms death . He was noble , just and generous . In the reign of Mustazii the rival of Cairo was extinguished and Egypt, Syria and North Africa were restored to the authority of the

Abbasid Caliphate.

62.1bid, P -296. 161

34. (iii) AI Nasir (1179-1125 A . D .)

Accession of A1 Nasir Al - Mustazii was succeeded by his son Ahmed Abul

Abbas who assumed the surname of Nasir on accession . He was 22 years old at the time of his accession.

Main events of the reign of Ai Nasir When Al - Nasir came to the throne, the

Abbasid Caliphate was independent as it had thrown off the yoke of the Seljuq

Sultans. In spite of independence the rule of Caliph was confined to a part of Iraq, and elsewhere autonomous states had sprung up which owed nominal allegiance to the

Caliphate, but were otherwise folly independent in the management of the affairs .63

In the w est, the political stage in the closing years of the 12th century was dominated by Salahuddin Ayubi. Salahuddin extended his conquests . He conquered

Syria , Mosul , Halb , Hejaz and . He conducted campaigns against the crusaders , and recaptured Jerusalem . He was a great hero of Islam , Salauddin died in 1193 and that marked the end of an epoch.

In the east , when Al- Nasir came to the throne , Tughril Beg III was the

Seljuq Sultan. Tughril Beg tried to win back the status enjoyed by the early Seljuq -

Vis - a - Vis the Caliphate . Al- Nasir did not acceed to the proposal. That strained the relations between the Caliphate and the Seljuqs . Al-Nasir supported Khawarzam

Shah as a counterpoise to the Seljuq . In an action at Ray in 1194 A.D. the

Khawarzam Shah Alauddin Turkush defeated Tughril Beg . Tughril Beg was taken an captive . His head was cut off and sent to the Caliph . That was the end of the Seljuq rule, and their territory was occupied by Khawarazam Shah.

63. P. M . Lambton Holt,Cambridge History of Islam , P - 290. 162

Death and Assessment A1 Nasir died in 1225 A.D. His rule lasted for 46 years from 1179 to 1225 A.D. That was the longest reign among the Abbasid Caliphs .

During this period the country enjoyed peace and prosperity. Al- Nasir allied himself with Khawarazam Shah to overthrow the Seljuqs.

The following scholars died during his reign -

1) Shahabuddin Qutaifcallah, a scholar.

2) Wahdud -Din Anwari, a poet.

3) Khan A’zam Khaqani, a femous emperor of Poets .

4) Hazrat Nizam uddin Ganjawee .

5) Zahir uddin Faryabee ,a Muhaddith.

6) Imam Fakhruddin R azi.

7) Hazrat Nazmuddin Kubra. 163

35. (iv) Ai Zahir (1225 -1226 A . P.}

Accession of AI Zahir Al Nasir was succeeded by his son Abu Nasir

Muhammad who assumed the title of Al - Zahir an accession .64

Policies of Al -Zahir Al Zahir came to power at the age of 52 . He was a man of religious bent of mind , and power had little attraction for him . He adopted caliph

Umar bin Abdul Aziz as his model and tried to follow in in his footsteps. When he ascended to the throne he did not give expression to any joy . He was asked, “ Do n’t you rejoice ? ” He replied , “ Verily the harvest is blighted His courtiers said , “

May God prosper you ! ” He said “ what can a man earn who opens his shop late in the afternoon.

He led a simple life , and enjoined upon others around him not to indulge in pomp and show . His father was a man of the world . He had levied numerous taxes , and had taken pains to fill up the treasury . He had confiscated the properties of many persons, and all those against whom there was any suspician of disloyalty were lodged in jails.

Al Zahir reversed the policies of his father. He opened the gates of the prisons

, and most of the prisoners were released . He remitted all the oppressive taxes . He was solicitous of the welfare of the poor and the distressed .

64.1bid, P - 295 164

Death and assessment A1 Zahir breathed his last in 1226 A .D. His rule lasted for barely a year,. He was a ju st, mild and benevolent ruler . He introduced some laudable reforms , but due to the very short period of his rule these reforms did not have much impact on the administrative set up. 165

36. (v) AI Mustansir (1226 -1242 A . D ,)

Accession of Ai Mustansir Al - Zahir was succeeded by his son Abu Jafar

Mansur, who assumed the surname of Al- Mustansir . His mother was a Turkish lady

. He came to the throne at the young age of twenty - five . 65

Main events of the time of Al- Mustansir :- In the reign of Al- Mustansir during the 3rd and 4th decades of , the Franks were a source of trouble in the west', and the Mongols were responsible for disaster in the east. After the death of

Salahuddin Ayubi , the Ayubis had lost their original luster , but they were still capable of contending against the Franks . Although the crusaders continued to hold territories in Syria and Palestine , but they had come to be contained and their further progress was held up . In the east , the Mongols were on the march . They had occupied Transoxiana and overthrown the Khawarzam shah . They were now advancing in Persia and their next target was the Assassins.

Literary activities of Al-Mustansir Being unable to control the course of political events . Al- Mustansir concentrated on the promotion of literary activities .

He sought the society of men of wisdom and piety . Zealous in good works, and earnest in advancement of virtue he founded many mosques, ribats and hospitals . His crowing achievement was the establishment of a University at Baghdad on the eastern bank of the Tigirs , which was known after him as the Mustansirah University . The building of the University took six years to complete . In order to equip the library of the University , 160 camel loads of books were brought from various parts of the country. To emulate the good work of the Caliph, a college was set up at Damascus which specialised in the study of Traditions (Hadis).

65. Dr. A . Rahim, Islamic History, 245 166

Death and assessment He died in 1242 A .D. after a rule of 16 years . He was a man of literary bent of mind . He was a just ruler and came to acquire a name for delivering judgements . He framed new laws and introduced reforms. If he had come to power during normal time his reforms and good works would have made an impact and led to tangible results . The University built by him was destroyed by the

Mongols sixteen years after his death . All the good work done by Al- Mustansir ultimately proved to be an exercise in futility. 167

37. (vi) Al - Must’asim ( 1242 -1258 A . D.)

Accession of A1 - Must’asim Al - Mustansir was succeeded by his son Abu

Ahmed Abdullah who assumed the surname of Al-Must’asim on accession.

Main events of the time of Ai- Must’asim Al - Must’asim came to power at the time when the crisis had depended and he had neither the will nor the strength to face the crisis . His period of rule was marked by disturbances and disorder at home , and disaster abroad.

At the outset of his reign, the country came to be rocked by Hanafi - Hambali, and Shia - Sunni riots and disturbances . In these the Shia who were in minority suffered most, many shias were killed , and their - headquarter , karkh, a Suburb of

Baghdad was destroyed . The Minister of Al- Must’asim , Muwayyid ud- Din

Muhammad bin Kami was a Shia . He turned a traitor , and entered into secret correspondence with the Mongols inviting them to invade Baghdad . The Minister advised the Caliph that as the finances of the state were tight the strength of military force should be cut down. In pursuance of this advice,Must’asim disbanded the army that his father had built .The retrenched personnel took to trade and business. 66

In the east, the Mongols continued their march . They freely resorted to loot and plunder . Many cities were destroyed , and Countless Muslims perished. The

Caliph could do nothing to hold up the advance of the Mongol hordes .

66. K . Ali, A study of Islamic History, P - 260. 168

After overthrowing the Khawarazam Shah , and capturing Khurasan , the Mongol forces under Halaku advanced along the Shores of the Caspian sea . The Strongholds of the Assassins fell before the Mongol on laught . In 1257 A .D. , Halaku reached

Hamdan, and from there he sent an ultimatum to the Caliph.

A1 - Must’asim wavered . There was treachery in the camp of the Muslims, and before the Caliph could take and decision or make arrangements for the defence of Baghdad, Halaku with his hord was at the gates of the city, The Mongols besieged the city .The Baghdad forces were no match for the Mongol army ; they made a feeble resistance, and ultimately, with the increase in the Mongols pressure, surrendered .

The population of Baghdad was mustered on a plain outside the city. The Shias were spared and the rest of the poulation running into several lakhs was mercilessly massacrud. Halaku had the caliph A1 - Musta’sim put in a seek , and then trampled upon under the hoofes of the Mongols horses . The city of Baghdad was subjected to plunder and thereafter put to flames . The fire raged for several days and nights , and thus the city o f Baghdad once the glory o f the civilised world was no more . With the fall of Baghdad and the tragic end of Must’asin, the Abbasid rule was extinguished , and they disappeared from the Political history after having ruled for over 508 years from 750 to 1258 A .D , one of the longest rales of any dynasty in history.

Assessment According to Amir Ali ( History of the Saracens ), A1 - Must’asim was weak , vacillating , and fond of pleasure . With the Mongols on the ravage , the

Abbasid needed a strong man of crisis who could settle things with the Mongols to the advantage of the Muslims . Al- Must’asim failed to be the man of crisis and this failure did not merely extinguish the Abbasid dynasty , it was a serious blow to the cause of Islam. (0) CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL OF THE ABBASID

KHILAFAT

The Abbasid empire was one of the longest rules in history . The Abbasid Khali ho for more than a century , weilded for greater authority than even the Persian an* I the

Roman emperors .After that their power steadily declined and then empire diminished. Though they dragged on their existence , they become so much power lev that their authority was hardly felt even in the capital city . The Turks . the Buwa (inl­ and the Seljuqs shorn them of all their temporal powers and left them w ith relic ion- power , as the de jure head of the Muslim state .The Abbasid Khilafat continued < exist in this powerless state for some centuries . It was finally terminated by I lalaku i

; a grandason of Chengis Khan , who invaded Baghdad in 1258 and killed tin lav

Abbasid Khalifa, A1 Must’asim

Causes of downfall We can , nevertheless . recount the causes that 'sea responsible for the downfall of the Abbasid dynasty .They are menbtioned below

(1) A1 Musta’sim , the last Abbasid Khalifa A1 - Must'asim was the last Ab'xtsid

Khalifa . He was weak , vacillating and was unble to control the Mongols ravage 6"’

(2) Weakness and incompetence The principal cause of the fall of the Abhasie dynasty was the weakness of the later Khalifas . The Abbasid dynasty produced •

Khalifas, but out of these hardly four Calphs namely Mansur . Mahdi . Harm- .mo

Mamun could lay claim to greatness , the rest were mediocres not very capable

Some of them were exceptionally brilliant ones .With Mutawakkil however there

67. Islamic History , Dr. A . Rahim, P - 274, - 75. 170 began a succession of incompetent rulers who possessed neither the qualities of a soldiers nor of an administrator to deal with the daily increasing complex problems of a vast empire.

More over , in the pursuit of comforts and pleasures , the later Abbasid

Khalifas neglected administration and left the reins of government in the hands of the minister and officials . As a result o f this , the power of the Khalifa steadily declined in the empire.

(3) Neglect of army :- In that age , the empire depended chiefly on army . The

Abbasid Khalifas neglected the army organisation . In consequence of this , the army lost its descipline and morale . They became ease-loving and army leaders indulged themselves in the policies at court, instead of taking the field to defend the empire and suppress.

(41 Vastness of empire :-The vastness of the Abbasid empire was also its defect.

There was no sufficient means of communication in that age . The movement of troops from the Capital to suppress rebellions in outlying provincess would take long time and by the time when the Khalifa’s army reached the province.

The situation there would go out of control . Hence the integrity of a big empire having the inadequate means of communication, could not be maintained by a strong and energetic ruler. But under weak - rulers it was sure to crumble into pieces . In the

Abbasid empire also the same thing happened. 68

68. Ibid-P-275. (5) Supremacy of the Turks The Supremacy of the Turks in the later period >

Abbasids was one of the causes of this fell. Their ascendency in the empire anno' n both the Arabs and persians , who found that their influence and position nac disappeared at the court of the Khalifas . The arrogance of the Turks and their high handedness further irritated their feelings . Hence they last interests in the Xh'xon

Khilafat and established independent dynasties in the empire .

(6) Defect in provincial administration There were defects in tin provincial administration of the Abbasids .Extensive power were given to tin provincial governors . Sometimes the provinces were give to governors in hereditar right . This facilitated the establishment of independent dynasties in provinces : he

Aghlabids of Africa and Tahiries o f Khurasan illustrate this fact . The governors were also the commanders of the Provincial forces . Besides . military governorship and feudal system became common in the later days of the Abbasids . T his natumlh weakened the contral authority and helped in the disintegration of the empire

(7) Racial enmity Racial enmity between the Arabs and non -\r.ihs

Persians, Turks , Berbers was also a cause of the disintegration of the Abbasid empire

. The Arabs thought that the Khilafat was theirs and they were jealous of the nw *

Persians in the Abbasid administratikon . The Arabs and Persians were equal!', jealous of the Turks , as they were of one another . Even the Arabs fell into two w i section the Hejaz - Arabs and Yeman - Arabs . Their rivalry and conflict greatlv contributed to the weakness and disintegration of the Abbasid empire .

Even among the Muslims there arose many religo-political sects . such a ■ tin.

Shiaites, Kharijites , Carmathians , Ismailites , Assassins and others . which created confusion in the empire and aded to the process of its disintegration . 172

(8) Economic Decay:- Economic decay of the empire in the later period of the

Abbasid rule was also responsible for its decline and fell. The imposition of taxes for the interest of the ruling class discouraged farming and industry . The constant rebellions, troubles and strifes left many cultivated lands desolated and forlorn. There were also flood, famines and epedemics which greatly impoverished many provinces of the empire. This economic decay contributed to a large extent to the Political decay of the Abbasid empire.

(91 Invasion of Halaku When the Abbasid empire was thus decaying and tottering to its fe ll, the great Mongol general Halaku dealt upon it to severe a blow and the dynasty collapsed . In 1236 Halaku invited Khalifa Al- Must’asim to join in exterminating the Assassins ; but the Khalifa did not respond . After destroying the

Assassins , Halaku turned towards Baghdad and sent the Khalifa an ultimatum , demanding his surrender and the demolition of the outer city wall The reply of the

Khalifa was evasive . Halaku thereupon laid siege to the capital. In panic, the Khalifa and his courtiers made an unconditional surrender . The Mongol rushed into the city and caused rivers of blood. The last Abbasid Khalifa Mus’tasim was put to the sword with his courtiers and members of the family. Thus the Abbasid dynasty of Baghdad came to a close . The Mongols massacred , revaged and plundered the great city of

Baghdad . According to Ibn Khaldun, one million and six hundred thousand people perished in the slaughter of six weeks.” For three days the street ran with blood and the water of the Tigris was dyed red for miles along its course.” They also destroyed the centres of learning and culture ( 1258 A . D .) 69

69. Adib - P - 278 . 173

( e ) > CONTRIBUTION OF ABBASIDS IN THE FIELD OF ART ,

CULTURE & LITERATURE

A. Scientific and literary progress during the Abbasid period.

The new epoch for scientific progress and literary upliftm ent during the

A bbasid period has been stated that this period is called golden period in the history.

It occupies an im portant rule not only in the Islam ic history but also in the w orld

history for the cultivation o f ed u catio n , science , culture and civilization. T he seed o f

scientific and literary progress w as saw n in the U m ayyad period but w as blossom ed

folly in the A bbasid P eriod .70

M ost o f the A bbasid K halifas particularly A1 M ansur , H arun A r - R ashid and

A1 M am un w ere liberal patroniser o f learning and know ledge . U nder their patronise ,

M any books w ritten in G reek , Syriac , Persian , Sanskrit and other languages w ere

translated into A rabic for the developm ent o f science and literature . A t this tim e , a

large num ber o f M uslim scholars rendered the w orld fam ous books o f G alen , Plato ,

A ristotle . It is noted that if they w ere unable to do the sam e , the nam e o f them

should not be m em orized in the page o f encyclopaedia. If w e consider m inutely , w e

m ust m ention that the M uslim s scholars are counted as the heir and pioneer for

m odern civilization . T hey not only continuted the translation and research w orks but

also boardeasted and sent to E urope through Syria, Spain and Silicy .

70. K A li, Islam er Itihas ( B en gali) ,P - 349 . 174

Dr. Cambell, a reputed Britist Scientist, in his book ‘ Arabian medicine5 writes,

“ When Europe was lying torpoid in the depth of intellectual obscurity and gloom in the dark ages, culture and civilization were spread in the Islamic states under the high patronage of the Caliphs of Baghdad and Cordova ; at a time, when Barons of Ladies of Medieval Europe could not even sign their names, almost evry adolescent boy and girl in Islam could read and write freely with ease.71

In his famous book ‘ History o f Human society, Professor Frank Blackmore of the University of Kansas writes , “ In every country that was conquered , the first duty of Islam was to build a mosque in which Allah would be worshipped and his prophet honoured. Attached to this mosque was a school where people were taught to read and study the Quran . From this initial point they enlarged the study of art , literature and all branches of - sstronomy , mathematics , physics, chemistry

, philosophy etc. and through the application of these sublim things , they collected the treasures of art and learning wherever these could be found . From imitation, they passed on to the great field of creation and great advances were made to the sum of human knowledge . Schools were founded , great Universities established and

libraries were built which laid the permanent foundations o f knowledge .

71. M . H . Sayed,(ed) Science and Mam, P - 21 175

The Muslims , Partucularly the Abbasid Khalifas and patronised scholars made phenomenal progress and growth in science and literature.

It is also mentioned that in the , the Muslim scholars patronised by the Abbasids were real flag bearer for civilization . They introduced the gate of new civilized epoch With the help of foriegn books Khalifa Mamun opened an independed department in his kingdom for only translators . He founded 1 Baitul

Hikma’ at Baghdad in 840 A . D. and the translation department attached to it. Costa

Greek, son of Luke Sirio and Yahyah bin Harun were appointed to render the Persian books into. Arabic . For the act of . Many scholars from every cast and creed without any crimination , were appointed to do the same . As a result of their untiring research works , each and every branches of science and literature like grammar, logic, mathematics, linguistic, geography, history, chemistry, zoology, zotany, medicine , astronomy , philosophy , physics etc . were flourished during the

Abbasid period .72

72. Islamer Itihas ( Beng.) P - 349,50. 176

(^Contributions of tin Abbasids in the different fields:

1. EDUCATION

Education was highly developed in the Abbasid society . The Caliphs were educated and cultured and also extended liberal patronage to Education and learning .

The educational institutions were graded and comprised elementary schools, schools for senior students and institutions for advanced students . The formal education of children usually began at the age of six when they were admitted to elementary schools . The elementary schools were generally attached to mosques. At the elementary stage boys and girls read together .73

The curricula for elementary schools included reading , writing , grammar, traditions and arithmetic . After completing education in the mosque school, a student could seek admission to an educational institution meant for senior students .The syllabus of studies at such institution included theology, jurisprudence , lexicography

, rhetoric and literature . In the institution for advanced studies, the curricula included

- astronomy, geometry, philosophy, music, medicine and other studies .

The Abbasid Caliph , Mamun set up an academy known as Baitul Hikma which served as an institution of higher learning . Under the Seljuqs , Minister

Nizamul Mulk set up a University at Baghdad known as Nizamiyah university . It was a residential institution. Islamic scholar like Imam Ghazzali taught at this University.

73. The Cambridge History of Islam, P.M. Lambton Holt, P - 285 177

Later the Abbasid caliph Mustansir set up another University at Baghdad known as the Mustansiriyah University . Numerous colleges were set up in various parts of the country . some of the colleges in Khurasan , Persia were Sadiyya, Bahaqiyya ,

Astrabadiyyah and Isfararaya . Some of the colleges in Syria were , Rihyya ,

Amaniyya, Tarkhaniyya and Sharifiyya . Some colleges in Egypt were - Rambiyya ,

Nasariyya and salahiyya.

2. MEDICINE

The first progress in the field of science under the patronize of the Abbasids was the science of medicine and the art of . The Umayyad caliphs encouraged the physicians to develop the science o f medicine but it was really improved during the Abbasid period . Many translators and physicians patronised by the Abbasids made remarkable advance on the subject o f Medicine .

During the reign of A1 Mansur , the translation works of Greek science was begun in full swing in the Jandeshpur college in Iran . Bakhtishu was the chief physician of this college . A1 Mansur invited Jurgis, son of Bakhtishu to come to his court. The family of Bakhtishu started to reside permanently at Baghdad since that tim e. They have been serving as physicians of the Caliphs since centuries .74

According to Syed Ameer A li, author of ‘The Spirit Islam’ , the science of medicine and the art of surgery, the best index of a people’s genius and the sever test to the intellectual spirit of a faith, were developed

74. Hakim Nayyar Wasitf .Muslim’s Contribution to Medicine, P-29 178 to the highest degree by the Arabs. Professor K . Hitti acknowledges that in the creative use of drugs , the Muslims made remarkable advance . They established the first shop, they produced the first pharmacopea.75

During the 7th and 8th centuries , some important medical works of Greek,

Persia and India were translated into Arabic.

The translators included:

1. Hunayn bin Ishaq ( He translated seven books of Arabian Christian

Hipocrite and also the works of Galen, Poll and he also rendered the materia midica of Discura Ideson.

2. Isa bin Yahya.

3. Thabit bin Qurra.

4. Qusta bin Luqa and

5. Yuhanna bin Musawiah.

The physicians who became famous during the Abbasid period for the cultivation of science of medicine were At - Tabari, Ar Razi, Ali bin Abbas and

Avicenna.

75. Muzaffar Hussain, Islam’s Contributions to Science, pp - 180 - 82 . 179

At - Tabari was house physician of Caliph A1 - Mutwakkil, under the patronize of the caliph , he wrote Firdaus - ul - Hikma which dealt not only with medicine but also with philosophy , astronomy and zoolgy . It was written based on the Greek , Persia and Indian medical works .

Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Zakaria al-Razi ( d . 925 A.D.) is rated as the greatest physician of the Islamic world. He m s the greatest clinical and observational physician of the medieval time . He wrote over 200 books, half of them are related to medicine. Some of Ms works included.

1) Kitab al Mansuri ( Ten volumes treatise dealing with great medicine.

2) Al Judari wal Hasbah.

3) Al Hawi (on small pox, and measles )76

Jurjis bin Jibrail was an eminent physician of the Abbasid Caliph Al Mansur.

He was also incharge of the medical centre at Jandeshaper in Iran . Jibril bin

Bakhtishu was a prominent physician of the time of the Caliph Harar-ar-Rashid and

Al Mamun . During the time of Al Mamun , there were as many as 860 registered physicians in Baghdad alone.

Geber ( Jabir bin Hayyam ) ,the well- known chemist wrote an important work on pharmacology.

Ali bin Al- Abbas al Majusi ( d . 994 A .D. ) is known to west as Haly .

Abbas was the physician to Adud Daula in Siraj . He wrote the celebrated work kitab al Maliki, an encyclopaedia dealing with the theory and practice of medicine . He was the first physician to write about the capillary system and the way in wMch a child is bom .

76. Ibid, P - 85 180

He also wrote Kamil al Sina’ah .Abu Ali al Hussain bin al Sina ( d,1037A . D. ) known to the west as Avicenna was the most distinguished Muslim physicians of the medieval times and was known as the prince of the physicians . His great work on medicine entitled “canon of medicine” dealt with general medicine .77

Besides the above , Some other eminent physicians are patronised by the

Abbasid caliphs.

H ospitalThe Muslims endowed hospitals as a matter of religious obligation

. Under the caliph . Al Mamun , there were 60 hospitals in Baghdad which was the wonder of the age . Nurudding Zangi built a hospital at Damascus .

3. ASTRONOMY

The study of astronomy in a scientific way began among the Muslims under the Abbasid caliphs . The first official astronomer under the Abbasids was

Muhammad Al Fazari ( d. 777 A. D.) He wrote a treatise on astronomy based on the

Sanskrit work Siddhanta. He was the first to make an astrolable .

77. Dr. ( Mufti) M . Mukarram Ahmed, Science in Islam - 218. 181

Under the Caliph Al-Mamnn, the study astronomy was stipulated . He set up an institution 1 Darul Hikma’ ( House of Wisdom ) to which an astronomical observatories astronomers made systematic observation of celestial movements and verified the fundamental elements of the Greek ‘ ’ , including the obliquity of the , the Precession of equinoxes and length of the solar year, with the aid of these obsevations , astronomical tables known as ‘ Tables of Mamun’ were complied .78 Mamun got a degree of meridian measured by following a method which was superior to that of the Greeks . During this period the size of the earth was calculated from the measurment of a degree on the Shores of the Red Sea .Some eminent astronomer who are patronised by the Abbasid mentioned below

1) Mashaallah - He , an early Arab astronomer, flourshed during the reign of the Abbasid Caliph A1 Mansur. He wrote a treatise on the astrolable, the ancillary

sphere and the movements of the heavenly bodies . He came to be known as “ The phoenix of the Arab ”.

2) Musa khawar/ami - The name o f A1 Khawarazmi is memorable in the

astronomy. He left many fundamental contribution on astronomy . He translated the

Indian astronomical tables Siddhanta, into Arabic , and wrote a commentary on them

. He wrote a book ‘ Nirganto’ an astronomy which created revolution in the east and

the west . With the help of this book, Ali Ibn Sina continued his research work on

astronomy and also wrote many books on this subject .79

78. Dr. Shahid , (ed),Scientific Culture in Islam , P- 280.

79.Ibid, P-282 182

3) Abul Abbas Ai Farghani - He was also eminent astronomer patronised by the caliph Al Mutawakkil. He wrote a treatise entitled ‘ Elements of Astronomy’ .

The introduction o f Astronomy on the Christians Europe is attributed to the translation works of al- Farghani. He supervised the erection of a milometer at during the reign of Al Mutawakkil.

4) Thabit bin QuVrah - He was an prominent astronomer of the ninth century. He propounded the theory of the ascillatory motion on the equinoxes . The ninth century sphere to the eight sphere of Ptolemic astronomy is also added by him .

5) Abdur-Rahman Sufi - He is known as the author of Al Kawakib ul

Thabitha

( Fixed stars ) , a master piece of observational astronomy. The book contained a map of fixed stars. Al Sufi is rated as an outstanding astronomer

6) Abu Sahl al Kuhi - He studied the movements of planets and made researches regarding the summer solstice and the autumnal equinox.

7) Abul Wafa al Busjani - He also introduced the use of the secant as well as the tanget in astronomical observations . He wrote a simplified verson of the

Almagest of Ptolemey. 80

SO.History of Islam by Masudul Hasan - ( Vol-1) P - 668 - 69. 183

4. MATHEMATICS

It is the wonderful contribution of the Mulsim scholars who made remarkable advance and progress in the Mathematics , during the Abbasid Period . According to

T.W. Arnold , in a fact , the Muslims were the inventor of plain and speherical

Trigonometry . At the time of the Abbasids the Greek learnt knowledge of mathematics from the Mulims . The Indian system of reckoning using the nine Arabic numerical with a point for Zero (o) and application of decimal fractions were introduced by the Muslims . The Arabs taught the western country the knowledge of numerical numbers.

Arithematic , statistic and other sciences were discovered by the Muslim scholars . They, at first, rendered the ‘Euclids Geometry’ and used the arithematic in to geometry. They also developed quadratic equations .81

Some mathematicians who contributed their life for the cultivation mathematics during the Abbasid period are mentioned below

1. AI Khawarazmi - The first celebrated mathematician among the Muslims was

Muhammad bin Musa Al Khawarazami who flourished during the 9th century

. He was the principal figure in the early history of Arab Mathematics . He is

known as ‘the father of ’ . He has the distinction of being the author of

the oldest Arab work on Mathematics Kitab -ul- Jama wat Tafriq .

81. Dr. Shahid Ashraf (ed), Scientific Culture in Islam P - 280. 184

His book Hisab al Jabr wal Muqabla is an outstanding work on Algebra which

contains analytic solutions of linear and quadratic equations . It was later on

developed by . Omar Khayyam and Al Beruni were two other

great mathematicians and scientific minds of Islam .

2. Al Kindi , the famous Muslim philosopher , was a competent mathematicians as well. In his arithmetic he dealt with the division o f fraction and extraction of square and cube roots.

3. Al Beruni the celebrated historian produced some important works on mathematics . He made a special study of the problems of numerical series and the determination of the redius of the earth.

4. Abul Wafa Busjani who flourished during the is regarded as one of the greatest mathematician. He was the first to point out the generality of the sine theorem in relation to spheres and triangles . He wrote a book on geometry ,

Kitab ul Hindsa .82

82.1bid, P - 281 - 82. 185

5. CHEMISTRY

After materia medica , astronomy and mathematics , the Muslims contributed their life for the development of chemistry. The Arabs call chemistry as ‘ A1 Kimiya’ and from the word chemistry is derived . The study of Al-Chemy,Chemistry has been started since the reign of Khaled bin Yazid Mawayia but it was also well-developed during the Abbasid period.

Mr. Hamvolt says , “ The Muslims are called the inventor of modem chemistry and their achievements are none to second .

Some outstanding chemists who are patronised by the Abbasids are mentioned below

1. Jabir bin Hayyan He is known to the West as Geber who flourished during the 8th century is known as ‘ Father of Chemistry’. He is credited with the discovery of several chemical compounds . He wrote hundred books on chemistry in which he described the processess of calculation, evaporation, crystallisation and sublimation.

It is also mentioned that he wrote 500 books on chemistry. Among these , Kitab -al-

Rahman, Kitab -e-Al-Tazmi and A1 Zibak al Sarki are more memorable .83

2. Ar. Razi The ninth century produced Zakaria ar-Razi known to the West as

Rhazes a great name in Chemistry . He wrote Kitabul Asrar , a classic of chemistry dealing with the chemical substances and their application.

83. M .H . Syed (ed), Islam and Science, P - 23,24. 186

He also contributed his valuable service to the modem chemistry regarding distillation

, salution, calcination, filtration, amalgamation creation etc.

3.A1 Kindi He was a great chemist. His treatise Kitab - Kimya-al Itr (book of

Perfume, chemistry was very useful for Islamic chemical industry.

6. PHYSICS

The Abbasid caliphs also played an important role for the growth of physics

.The Ninth Century produced Abu Yusuf bin Ishaq known as A1 Kindi . One of the most eminent physiciests . He wrote 265 books on various aspects of physics . He determined specific gravity through hydrostatic balance . He wrote on matter, space , time and motion. He is rated as “ one of the Twelve Subtlest minds.”

The three sons of Musa bin Shakir, who flourished in the court of the Abbasid caliph Al-Mamun wrote - ‘ The Book of Artifices’ which dealt with over a hundred mechanical processes .84

A1 Zahiz used hydrostatic balance to determine specific gravity.

Abul Faizal Zazari wrote ‘ The Book o f knowledge and Mechanical contrivances, a standard work on machanics .

84. M.M.R Khan Afridi and Md Ilyas Navid (ed),Education under Quran ,PP- 314 - 15. 187

7. BOTANY

During the Abbasid period , there were botanical garden in Cordova ,

Baghdad, Cairo , Fez and some other cities . These were the finest gardens in the world . According to Sarton ( author of An Introduction to the History of Science) the

Muslims advance in botany- much beyond the state in which it had been left by the

Greeks and augmented the herbology of the Greeks by the addition o f200 planets.

During the ninth- thirteenth century many Muslim botanists rose to prominence . Ibn - Nahshiya produced his book ‘ Nabateau Agriculture’ , an important work on Agriculture.

Ibn Hajaj produced a work on botany entitled ‘ Sufficient’. It was a regarded as a masterpiece.

During the 12th Century produced a treatise on botany .85

85. Prof. Masudul Hasan history of Islam,PP- 664,65. 188

8- ZOOLOGY

The Abbasid caliphs played a significant role in the field of zoology . Some eminent Zoologists patronised by the Abbasids are mentioned below

1) A1 Asami A1 Asami who flourished during the 8th Century is regarded as the first Muslim authority on Zoology. He wrote several treatise on the camel, the sheep, the horse and other animals.

2) Abu Ubaidah He wrote a number of books on the zoology of the horse in the ninth century.

3) AI Zahiz A1 Zahiz who flourished during the ninth century is regarded as the greatest Zoologist of the Muslim world . His book ‘ Kitabul Haywan’ ( Book of the Animals) is the most famous work on Zoology . He was the first scientist to note changes in birds lives through migrations . He was also the first scientist to describe the method of obtaining from the animal offal by distillation-86

86. E , Schwartz,Science and Civilization in Islam , P - 57. 189

9. PHILOSOPHY

The Muslim advanced more in the philosophy than the other scholars of other nations. Philosophy as defined as real knowledge that is gained by m an. The Muslims are called pioneer of philosophy for the Europeans .

Philosophy is meant for reasoning process in order to gain truth . It leads men to real path and also helps to acquire truth. Islamic philosophy is based on Quran and

Hadis. Man is the best creation of all creations in the world and to acquire knowledge is principal duty for men.

Although the main source of Islamic philosophy is based on Quran and Hadis but it is more developed after the development of Greek philosophy and also influenced by it. It is also mentioned that after the conquest of Persia and Rome, the conquerers of Persia and Rome accepted Islam and later on they became famous philosophers in the world .87

In the Islamic history , the philosophers are classified into two groups - 1)

Liberal group- i.e Aristoletian 2) Orthodox group - i.e Islamic philosophers.

87. K Ali, Islamer Itihas ( Beng.) ,P - 354. The philosophers who are influenced by Aristotelian known as Ansioli n ! philosophers . A1 Kindi , A1 farabi , Ibn -e-Sina , Ibn-e-Rushd. Ibn -e-1 ufai ane others are included in the Liberal group . The philosophers who are influenced b\ > tu

Quran and Hadis known as Orthodox or Islamic philosophers . Hazrat Ali. \bdullah ibn -e-Abbas , Imam Za’far Sadiq , Imam Ar - Razi and Imam Ghazzali arc included in the Orthodox group . Islamic philosophy became very strong by the iniellecUia' thinking of Imam Ghazzali.88

The Abbasid caliphs patronised many philosophers in order to devdopt. philosophy in the Kingdom. Some prominent philosophers are mentioned below

1) A1 Kindi - Abu Yusuf al Kindi ( d. 873 A ,D.) known as the " Philosophy of the Arabs was the first Muslim thinker who systematised the study of philosopio among the Muslims . He wrote 265 books on philosophy .

2) Ar Razi - Zakaria al Razi ( d. 925 A.D.) professed the existence o' ij\v eternal principles in meta physics , namely the creater. the soul . the matter . time and space . His principal work is Al Ilmul Ilahi - ( Divine Science ). lie stood tot

Equality of man

88. M. M . Sharif,A History of Muslim Philosophy , P - 25 191

3) A1 Farabi - He is rated as philosopher , Mathematician , Astronomer , Physicist,

Chemist and Singer also . He wrote many books.

4) : . r Ibn Sina ( d. 1037 A .D. ) an Iranian philosopher adopted a combination of the deductive and inductive methods and considered logic to be an introduction to all other subjects . He is counted as philosopher , mathematician , linguist, physician and also poet. He wrote 125 books on different subjects . Some of his works are - Kitab Shifa al ( The book of the healing of the Soul), Kitab al Najat al Nafs al Isharat wal Tanbhihat ( The book of hints and warnings ).

5) Imam Ghazzali - Imam Abu Hamid al Ghazzali ( d. IIII A .D. ) was the most richly endowed thinker of Islam . He wrote 400 books . His Ihya -ul-ulumud -din is remarkable book on science and religion.

10. H1STOGRAPHY

The Abbasid period produced historians who have new orientation to historical thinking and writing . The histories produced by the Muslim writers were of great depth and dimensions than the previous hitories . The histories written by the

Muslim authors were characterised by accuracy , scientific assembling of facts and their objective approach . The Muslim histrography helped indirectly to shape the present day historical thinking .

The 7th century produced Ali bin Muhammad bin Abdullah Madani . He wrote copiously on the history of Islam . He is cited by later historians as an authority 192 on Islamic history . His collection correspondence between Hazrat Ali and Amir

Muawiyah is regarded as an important and reliable source.

The 8th century produced two great historians namely -

1) I lisham bin Muhammad bin al Sayyib al Kalabi.

2) Muhammad bin Umar al Waqidi.

Al Kalabi wrote over 150 books on history out of which only three have survived. His well known book is Kitab -ul-Hisham.

The ninth century produced also the following historians -

1) Al Baladhari, 2) AlDinawari.

3) IbnQutaibah 4) Yaqubi

5) and 6) Ibn S’ad .

Al Baladhari ( Ahmed bin Yahya Baladhari) wrote Futuh -ul-Buldan which deals with the history of Muslim Conquests . His book Ansab ul Ashraf was originally spread over forty volume and presented the biographies of eminent Muslims .

The 10th century bestowed three great historians namely -1) Al Tabari

2) Allsfahani 3) Masudi.

Muhammad bin Jarir Abu J’afar at Tabari is regarded as “Father of Islamic

History,” and one of the worlds greatest historians . He wrote a book on universal history entitled ‘ Annals of Tabari’ which is an important historical work remarkable for its accuracy and Comprehensiveness . 193

Greate historians of the 11 th contury include Ibn Miskawayah , A1 Beruni,

Utbi, A1 Bakri, A1 Quratbi, Ibn Hayyan and .

A1 Breuni , the elebrated luminary of the court of the Ghaznawid Sultan

Muhmud wrote Kitab-al-Hind which provides the most authentic account about ancient India. He also wrote A1 Aathar-ul-Baqiah (vestigs of the past) 89

11. GEOGRAPHY

The wish to know the unknown is natural habit for man which did encourage the Muslim to study Geography . Regarding this , Philips K.Hitti says, ‘Due to need of sacred meetng , mosque’s Qibla for K’abah Sharif and for prayer (Namaj) , the Muslims are bound to study geography . The Muslims made remarkable developement in Geography and their contribution is considered as valuable asset in the world history. When the European Scientists expressed forcefully that the world is plain, the Muslim, then, remarked against them that it is glob .90

89. Prof. Masudul Hasan, History of Islam, P -6 4 6 .

90.Ibid-P-638-39. 194

Under the influence of Greek , discussion o f scientific geography was started in Islam . The Muslim rendered the Greek books in to Arabic . As a result of translation ,they are able to recognise the geography of Ptolemy . Through the

Ptolemy’s books , the Muslim’s Geographical Knowledge raised to Prominence .

They not only translated Greek book into Arabic but also preserved , consulted and developed them .

The Abbasid Caliphs exercised a vital role for the promotion of Geography in their

Kingdom. Some Geographers patronised by the Abbasids are mentioned below: -

1) Hishab al Kalabi - He is the first noted figure among the Muslims in the field of geography . He flurished during the early years of the ninth century . He made scientific study of the geography of Arabia.

2) Sulaiman al Tazi - The first description of China and India was written in

Arabic by a Persian merchant at Tazi.

3) Ibn Khudad Beh - He was the Sahib-i-’ under the Abbasid wrote

Kitab-al-Masalik wal Mumalik was the official route book.

4) Al Khawarazami , the wellknown mathematician was a celebrated geographer as well.

5) Al Kindi - He was also famous philosopher as well as geographer.

6) Others geographers namely - 1) , 2) Al Beruni , 3) Al

Zamakhshari 4) Al Masudi etc . 195

12. CALIGRAPHY

During the 9th century Ali bin Ubaida bin Rihani patronised by the caliph A1

Mamun was the principal calligraphist. He invented a new style of calligraphy which came to be known as the Rihani script.

During the 10th Century Ibn Muqlah was the most famous calligraphist. His right hand was cut off under the orders of the Caliph A1 - Razi, but yet he could write elegantly with the left hand.

Ibn al Bawwab called Ibn al Sitri was the most well-known calligraphist of the eleventh century. He invented the ‘ Muhaqqiq ’ script which was an improvement on the Rihanib script. He established a school of calligraphy at Baghdad .

Yaqut at Mustasimi was the court calligrapher under Al Must’asim , the last

Abbasid Caliph. He invented a new style which came to be known as the Yaquti.

During the Abbasid period mosques came to be embellished with verses from the holy Quran. Rules were framed for the length, breadth and curves of letters .91

91. Muzaffar Hussain, Islam’s Contribution to Science by P - 200. 196

13. PAINTING

The Abbasids contributed their life to develop painting . The Abbasid Caliph

Mansur set up upon the of his palace the figure of a horseman.

The Caliph A1 Amin had his pleasure boats fashioned like lions , eagles and dolphins. A1 Must’asim had his palace at Samarra decorated with exquisit frescoes of female figures.

The Caliph Mutawakkil empolyed Byzantine painters for the matual decoration of his palace . These frescoes represented court scenes.

I

The Caliph A1 Muqtadir had a gold and with eighteen branches planted in a huge tank in his palace . On either side of the tank there were statues of fifteen horsemen dressed in brocade and armed with lances as if ready to move in combat .92

In the early years of Islam , books were not illustrated . The first book to be illustrated was A1 Sufi’s Astronomy Produced in the early years of the eleventh century.

In the 12th and 13th centuries Kalila-wa-Damnah and A1 - Hariri’s

‘Maqamat’ were illustrated

92.History of Islam - Prof. Masudul Hasan, P - 684. 197

14. ARCHITECTURE

In order to develop the architecture , the Abbasids Contributed their life . The

Abbasid Caliph A1 Mansur founded the city of Baghdad . It was a circular city enclosed by parallel walls . In the centre of the city stood the Palace and Capital of the Caliph . The great mosque of Baghdad was attached to the palace . To build the city of Baghdad over one lakh craftsmen and labourers were employed for a period of four years.

In the 9th century the Abbasids built up the town of Samarra further upstream the Tigris . Many palaces and mosques were built there . The ‘ Jaswaq ul - Khaqani’ palace built by Al Must’asim. was the most famous palace . The great mosque of

Samarra built by the Caliph . Al Mutawakkil was a spacious mosque where one lakh devotees could pray at a time .93

At on the Euphrates , some pleasure houses and palaces were constructed by the Abbasids .Raqqa was the favourite residence on the caliph Harun - ar- Rashid.

Caliph Al Mutawakkil built another tow n, Jafaria, further north of Samarra.

Here two mosques were constructed , the royal mosques and the mosque of Abu

Dulaf.

93.Ibid - P -691 198

In the 10th century Adul - ud - Daula, the Buwayhid Sultan built a hospital complex on the banks of the Tigris.

During 13th century , Caliph Mustansir constructed the Mustansariya

University on the bank of the Tigris.

Ibn Tulun , who was the Governor of Egypt during the Abbasid period constructed a new city in Egypt north of Fustat . Here he built a known as Ibn - i- Tulun mosque .

A1 Mahdi constructed numerous works of public importance . He built up a road from Baghdad to Makka . He enlarged the building of Harun -e-Kaaba . He established a postal service of mules and camels . He also constructed sarais ( inns) for the convenience of the travellers .94

15. HANDICRAFTS

During the Abbasid period , Chinese porcelain was produced . In ceramics the artists of the Period invented lustre painting , a method of applying a metallic sheen to glazed faience to splendid effect . Besides lustre Painting , the potters of the period produced ceramics with the cobtat blue painting on a creamy white ground.

94.1bid- P-692 199

Stone ware was a specially of the period and stoneware for every day domestic use was produced in several cities . Great progress was made in the production of silverware and metalware . The goldsmith of Baghdad enjoyed fame for their jewellery work.

Fine cloth was manufactured in several cities . Kufa became famous for its silk and silk handicrafts known as Kuffiyeh . Tustar produced beautiful brocade . Sus acquired feme for its satins .

Most of the cities in Persia acquired fame for the production of carpets of beautiful designs . Basara developed as a centre for the manufacture of soap .

, Aleppo and Damascuss were great centres for the production of glassware , lamp shades and vessels of beautiful designs .95

16. MUSIC

Under the Abbasids , musical activites were promoted and patronised . The

Abbasid Caliph A1 Mahdi patronised Abdullah bin Wahab commonly known as Siyat

. It is said that his song warmed the chilled more than a hot bath . A Prominent female Singer of the Period of A1 Mahdi was ‘Basbas’ . She was patronised by the

Abbasid court . Dananir , a prominent singer , enjoyed the patronage of Yahya

Barmaki . During the rule of Harun -ar-Rashid the most prominent musician was

Ibrahim al Mosuli . He was regarded as the greatest of the musicians in versatility .

95.1bid, P - 694-95 200

Ibn-Jami, a step son of Siyat was also Patronised by Harun ar Rashid. He was known for his sweet voice . Bazl was a prominent female singer who enjoyed the patronage of Harun-ar-Rashid. , a Slave girl of Jafar Barmaki enjoyed fame as a sweet singer . Zalzal, was a master musician who devised the musical instrument £

Ud al Sbabbul Yunus A1 -Khatib wrote on the theory of music . A1 Khalil wrote

Book of Notes and Book of Rhythms .96

During 9th century , some of the Abbasid Caliphs were themselves good musician . Ibrahim bin al-Mahdi, a step brother of Harun -ar-Rashid , enjoyed fame as a master singer . The Caliph Wasiq could play on the lute . He composed over a hundred new melodies . The Abbasids Caliph Muntasir and Al Mu’tazz were good musicians . Al Mutamid was a good musician.

Mukhariq , pupil of Ibrahim al Mosuli was a master singer of the age of the

Caliph Al Mamun . Ishaq bin Ibrahim al Mosuli flourished during the reigns of Al

Mamun and Al Mutawakkil.

Some female singers of the 9th century of Abbasid Period were - Alluya ,

Unayda, Shariyya and Naem.

96. Prof. Masudul Hasan,History of Islam , PP - 686,87,88. 201

17. LITERATURE

The Abbasid Period is marked by a remarkable Progress in Arabi - literature specially in poetry . Abu Nawas , who flourished under Amin , is regarded as the equal of the famous pre-historic Poet Imrul -Qais . Otbi and Buhtari were the brilliant poets of Period . But the fame of Mutannabi has overshadow ed his predecessors . Most distinguished of the Persian poets were Daqiqi, Firdausi, Unsury

, Anwari, Fariduddin Attar and Jalaluddin Rumi and Abul Faraz under the patronage of the Abbasids . The dying Persian literature and poetry got a new lease of life .

Abbas , the father of modem persian language , was a contemporary of Khalifa A1

Mamun .97

A1 Mahdi promoted arts and literature , agriculture , trade and commerce to flourished a good deal during his reign . The Caliph Harun al Rashid was fond of learning . He attracted to his capital men of talent and learning . Doctors of law, philosophers , poets as well as musicians , singers and wits flocked to his court .

Under his liberal patronage, Baghdad became the home of learning and culture .

During 9th century , some of the Abbasid Caliphs were themselves good musician . Ibrahim bin al-Mahdi, a step brother of Harun -ar-Rashid , enjoyed fame as a master singer . The Caliph Wasiq could play on the lute . He composed over a hundred new melodies . The Abbasids Caliph Muntasir and Al Mu’tazz were good musicians. Al Mutamid was a good musician.

97., R/A Nicholson,Literary History of the Arabs, P- 280. 202

Some of Scholars during his reign mentioned below

1) Asami, the grammarian

2) Ibrahim Masoli, the musician

3) Gabriel - , the physician,

4) Shafei Abdullah bin Idris

5) Isa bin Yunus

6) Sufian bin Suri and others learned men flourished in his reign .

7) The great ‘doctor of law ’ Abu Yusuf, was his chief Qazi.

He gave systematic shape to the Hanafi school of law . Khalifa Harun himself was a

Poet and musician.

The Caliph Mamun has made his Khilafat memorable in history .

Himself a great Scholar , Mamun gave liberal patronage to scholars and men of learning . Hite court became the resort of philosophers , astronomers , physicians . scientists, poets and other men of letters of every cast and creed .

He also enlarged the translation bureau and raised it to a great academy for study and research. This was known as Baitul Hikmah or the House of wisdom. It had various departments and they were placed under great scholars of the time.

Cost , son of Luke , was in charge of Greek and Syriac works . Under his supervision, books of plato, Aristotle, Galen, Euclid, Archimedes and Ptolemy was translated into Arabic .98

98.1bid, P - 282 203

Yahya bin Harun was in charge of the translation of the ancient Persian works into

Arabic.

Duban , a Brahmin scholar , was given the work of rendering the Sanskrit books, mathematics, astronomy and others into the Arabic languages .

Manmun encouraged study and research in this academy with liberal grants .

A1 Kindi , the famous philosophers ,was employed as a professor in Baitul

Hikmah.

The well-known poet , Abbas , the founder of Modem Persian poetry , the great traditionalist Bokhari and the celebrated historian A1 Waqidi flourished in the reign of Mamun.

A1 Radi as well as A1 Qaim gave liberal patronage of art and learning . Azud -

Dawlah also extended liberal Patronage to Scholars and the learned under a staff of 24 physicians for study and research.

A typical figure of the times was Abu Muhammad ibn al- Muqaffa, a person who entered the service of Isa ibn Ali uncle of the first two Abbasids Khalifas and became a convert to Islam , though many - regarded his conversion as insincere . He translated from Pahlavi or old Persian the book Kalila wa Dimna into Arabic .99

99. M . H . Sayed (ed), Islam and Science P - 218 . 204

There is a legend that the Sindhind , the Hindu revised form of ’s

Siddhanta, was translated into Arabic as early as the reign of A1 Mansur.

During the reign of Abbasid Khilafat, the Muslims cultivated the science of jurisprudence and evolved there from an independent system . Their system fiqh , was based on the Quran and the Hadith . To meet the complex needs of the growing society , the application of sound judgement became essential. Thus arose the four orthodox schools o f thought led by Imam Abu Hanifa , Imam Malik , Imam Shafei and Imam Ahmed Hambal .100

100. Ibid,P-220. CHAPTER-5 T ’ T CONTRIBUTION OF PERSIAN SCHOLARS OF ISLAM WHO LIVED DURING THE ABBASID DYNASTY 205

CHAPTER - 5

CONTRIBUTION OF PERSIAN SCHOLARS OF ISLAM WHO

LIVED DURING THE ABRASID DYNASTY

A. Relation between Iran and Islam

This chapter is the soul o f my thesis where I have done a critical study of the life and works of those Islamic scholars who were from Persian speaking countries and devoted their life for the causes of Islam.

During the Abbasid period or particularly the Muslims were the leaders of the intellectual world. They were the pioneer in the various fields of knowledge and learning. Later when Europe embarked on its quests for learning, all its knowledge was derived from Islamic sources.

The Muslims had to travel to distant lands across plains and cities, deserts and mountains, rivers and seas in connection with trade, Jihad and the administration of their vast empire and other purpose.

The Muslim used to travel to fer off lands in quest of knowledge and to seek scholars. They also developed a taste for travel in order to acquire knowledge. 1

Islam produced a large number o f Islamic scholar in the world. They contributed their life to develop scientific and literary progress in every branches of knowledge. The Muslim made a two field contribution to the knowledge of Hadihs,

Quran, Fiqh, Astronomy, Philosophy, Geography, History, Chemistry, Physics,

Mathematics, Botany, Zoology, mysticism and also literature.

1. Dr. (Mufti) M. Mukarram Ahmed ( Editor in chief), Science in Islam, PP, 201-202 206

Islam also produced a large number of Islamic scholars, Muhadditin, commentator of the Holy Quran,Sufis,Geograhers,Historians, Astronomers,

Philosophers, Chemists, Physicists, Physicians, Bootanists, Zoologists, Poets, etc. But the most of them are Iranian origin.

Here we would like to express the life of works of those Islamic scholars who were of Persian speaking region.

Before discussing the biographical notes of Islamic scholars who are of

Islamic origin, we should like to draw our kind attention towards the relation between

Iran and Islam.

It is worthy to note that an Iranian had his part to play in the very origin of

Islam. In the early years of 7th century, a well known Zarathustrian named Salman

Farsi left his mother land for Arabia where he accepted Islam. He was the first to establish contact and relation between Iran and Islam. He had a good knowledge of various faiths and Hazrath Muhammad(peace be up on him) was so pleased with his intelligence as to consider him one of the Ahl-e-Baith(msmbeT of his family).

Since he always remained in intimate contact with the prophet, it is considered quite possible that Salman Farsi has contributed to share to the development of

Islam.2

2. F. C. Davar, Iran and Its Culture, P-117. 207

B.The greatest Muhadditin of Persian Origin are

1. Hazrath Imam Bukhari:

His surname Abu Abdullah, real name Muhammad, his full name ,

Muhammad bin Ismail, so his real name in foil is Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin

Ismail bin Ibrahim bin Mugirah bin Bardejbeh Za’fi.

Bardejbeh, a persian word means cultivator, or sower and planter. Imam

Bukhari is also called Za’fi due to relation with his forefathers.3 His ancestor was of

Iranian origin and follower, of fire-worshiper. Mugirah was the person who embraced

Islam in the hand of Imam bin Akhnas Za’fi.

Imam Bukhari was bom on Friday after the prayer of Zumah on July 19, 810

A.D. in Bukhara situated in Central Asia. Bukhara is a city of Uzbekistan.4

A famous Islamic historian Ganjar in his history. Tarikh-e-Bukhara as well as another historian named Lalkapi in his famous book (Sharh-e-Suma) mentioned that

Imam Bukhari was blind in his childhood. So, his beloved father wept piteously and prayed to God to have sight of vision in his eye. One night his father dreamt in sleep

Hazrath Muhammad(S:A) was saying to him that your weeping and praying was accepted by Allah. Due to this, Allah bestowed power of sight in his son’s eye.

His father was a good narrator of Hadith, when he was a small child he lost his father and became orphan. He was nourished under his mother. Right from the beginning, he was a very brilliant, having an astonishing memory.

3. Hz.Moulana Muhmmad Hanif Ganguwee, Zafrul Musallin Ba Ahlul Musannifin(l)rdu), P-100.

4. Fakhrul Islam Hazrath Moulana Sayeed Fkhruddin Ahmed Saheb, Izahul Bukhari, (Ufdu), P~ 19-20. 208

Various wonderful activities were come to light from his boyhood, these indicated him as a particular, separate and exceptional boy. He also sometimes participated in games and others. That is why the following couplet of Sa’di quoted about Bukhari.5

(i.e, Bright star is shining above his head due to his intelligence)

Bukhari received his early education under the guardianship of his mother and also from other scholars like Muhammad bin Salam Baikondi and Muhammad bin

Yusuf Baikondi in Bukhara itself. Imam Bukhari was having a great power of remembrance since his boyhood. When he was 10 or 11 years of age, he corrected

Allama Dakhli, a great Islamic scholar for a mistake in the reference of a ‘Sanact.

Incident of mistake of Allama Dakhli is that one day Imam Dakhli was teaching the student through seeing on his manuscript and also uttering “Sufian un

Abi Zubair un Ibrahim. In the time of teaching, Bukhari told him that you had committed mistake in the Sanad, as because Abu Zubair did not narrate any hadith from Ibrahim. But Imam Dakhli did not accept his remark. Thereafter he came back to his house and observed on his real manuscript and also found that Bukhari’s remark was correct. So Dakhli requested him to correct it and Imam Bukhari uttered by correction it through this line. Sufian un Zubair un Adi un Ibrahim. On hearing it

Imam Dakhli became astonished. Then he took a pen and corrected it on his real manuscript.

5. Ibid, p-102. 209

This incident took place when he was 11 years of age. So, the famous Urdu poet named Zouq quoted a couplet in Urdu: 6

17 ^ f ^ c S ' y 3. ■>

(i.e, Look, Allah bestows greatness to the child, the sky shows in its eye)

At the age of 16 years, he learnt by heart some great books on Islamic jurisprudence . Mention may be made that he learnt by heart ‘Book of Abdullah bin

Mubarak’, a learned person and also manuscript of Oki’h.

Visit to Pilgrimage:- He went to Mecca for pilgrimage accompanied with his mother and his brother, Ahmed. After finished pilgrimage, his mother returned his native land and he himself stayed at the city of Hezaz in search of Ahadith. For the search of

Ahadith he travelled many countries and regions like, Syria Egypt, Basara, Mecca,

Medina and Kufa etc. He collected from more than one thousand scholars. He

also himself had remembered around six lakhAhadit.

It is also mentioned that Bukhari suffered from difficulties and hardship in

search of Hadith. Due to his unfailing strength and untiring attempt for the interest of knowledge, he did not give any preference to his physical comport and pleasure to his

enthusiasam of knowledge. For this reason the lamp of his knowledge lighted the

world and also will be lighted the word until the world gets annihilated.

Kazi Ibn-e- Khalkan in his book, Ufyia tul A’hyan describes that Bukhari travelled

twice to Egypt and Syria for the purpose of knowledge of Hadith. He stayed six years

continuously at Hezaz.

6. Britannica Ready Reference, Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol.-l, p-100 210

In Kufa and Baghdad, the centres of knowledge, he went again and again. Sometime he took shelter in these cities about 5 years. In the time of pilgrimage, he set for

Mecca, then to Basra.

It is also narrated that when Bukhari arrived Mecca, Imam Abdur Rajjaque was alive in Yamen. So, he intended to go to Yamen for gathering knowledge of

Hadith from him. But a reporter gave him a wrong report that Imam Abdur Rajjaque had expired. On hearing this, he suspended his journey and obtained Hadith from him from a source. 7

Strict accuracy in Hadith collection:- _The different compilation of hadith which were existing during the time of Imam Bukhari and these were difficult for general students to take help from them because they were admixtured having with strong and weak Hadith without providing any clear distinction. So, Imam Bukhari planned to compile a book of Abadith which should contain only high authentic

Ahadith.

The author of ‘Nuzhatul Mazalis’ describes that once up on a time Bukhari went to a famous Muhaddith to collect Hadith,where he saw his horse that had fled away from his hand. In that situation Muhaddith was showing grain, kept it in a chador to horse so that horse it can see it and would return to him and he can catch it easily. To observe this jokes, Bukhari asked Muhaddith, “Is there any grain in your chador”? Muhaddith replied, ‘No’.

7. Ibid, p-104. 211

But in this process and plan, I used to catch the horse generally. So, Imam Bukhari said . \ i.e, I do not accept Hadith from such a person who deceives forefooted animals.8

His Shaikhs and Teachers:- He collected Ahadith from more than one thousand teachers and scholars. But Imam Bukhari himself said that he had obtained knowledge of Hadith from 1080 Muhaddithin. He collected also Ahadith from five stage of

Shaikhs, narrated by Hafiz Ibn-e-Hazar.

1. First stage.-- Tobeh Tabiin e.g. Muhammad bin Abdullah Ansary, Abu

Asimul Nabil, Makki bin Ibrahim etc.

2. Second Stage:- TabehTabiin: it was such stage which did not narrate

Hadith from upright scholar, like Abu Mashar Abdul A’hla bin Mashar,

Sayeed bin Abi Moriom.

3. Teachers of Imam Saheb:- In this stage such persons are included who

obtained Hadith from the peat scholars of Tabeh-Tabiin like Qutaibiah

bin Sayeed, Ahmed bin Hambal.

4. Contemporary friends: In this stage Imam Bukhari narrated Hadith till that

time when his Mashaiekh died. He narrated Hadith from that stage not

from others, like Muhammad bin Yahyah Zuaili Abu Hatim Razi.

5. Students age of Imam Bukhari:- He narrated Hadith from that stage.

HisTeaching Bukhari taught the students for 18th years. The reputation and fame of his teaching became famous and also spread far and wide in the world.

8. Ibid, p-105 212

Due to his attractive and magnatic reputation and power, a large number of students from different remote places and regions came and listened to his Hadith. At first he selected the vestibule or varanda of Muhammad bin Yusuf for spreading knowledge for the better convienence and also welfare of common person. According to his student, as stated that where he arrived, there the bell of knowledge was rung by him.

Thereafter he took the shelter in Nisbapur and involved himself here in teaching, particularly Imam Muslim used to go almost daily in this centre to get grace of Imam

Bukhari. 9

His companions and students

The number of companions and students of Imam Bukhari was large widened.

Farbari expresses that 90 thousand students learnt and heard Ahadith of Bukhari

Sharif from him. His majority students became scholar and famous . For example Hafiz Abu Esa Tirmizi, Abdur Rahman Nesai, Imam Muslim bin Hezaz etc. are mentioned here.

Various important places like Basara, Baghdad, Nishapur, Samarqand and

Bukhara became famous centre of and education during the time of Imam

Bukhari. In the cited centres, uncounted students were taught by him. Even from

Bukhara to Hezaz, the chain of his student had been enlarged. According to Mullah

Ali Qa’ri Harwee and Qustulani expressed about the number of his students that one lakh people narrated Hadith from him. But in fact, they were unable to tell the real number of his students.

9. Ibn Hajar al Asqalani, Futhul (Arabic), p-3. 213

His unordinance memory power Right from the beginning, he was very brilliant having strong and astonishing memory power. He could memorize soon after listening to the teacher’s sayings. On seeing his merit power, people became wonderful and bewildered. People compared Imam Bukhari with Hazrat Abu

Hurairah. The author of Encyclopedia writes that the memory power of Imam Bukhari is like a Keramath or miracle. It is also noted that Bukhari learnt by heart 70 thousand

Abadith. When he cast his sight on any book or article, he can memorize it. He had committed to memory one lakh Ahadith with correct sanad and two lakh Ahadith with incorrect sanad (deed).

SOME INCIDENCE FOR HIS MATCHLESS MERIT:-

1. Sulaiman bin Mujahid expresses that once I came to meet Muhammad bin

Salam Boikondi. He said to him if you would come here few minutes ago, you

could see an exceptional boy who memorized seven thousand Ahadith. All on

a sudden, in that place, he became able to meet that boy named Bukhari and

also he questioned about the remark of truthfulness. “Is it true”? Bukhari

replied positively that he had learnt by heart 70,000 Ahadith with sanad and

also memorized the biographical sketch of narrators of Ahadith.

2. Hashid bin Isma’il, a reputed Muhaddith during his time says that Bukhari

used to start coming and going to my teaching centre for gathering knowledge

of Hadith. He had no inkpot and pen for writing something. So, honourable

Muhaddith advised him that it will be of no benifit for him to come here

without inkpot and pen because you could not write any Hadith after listening

it. After 16111 days, Bukhari said “ You had constricted me in front of people.

But now I venture to speak you, “who are ready to compete with me about tire 214

subject matter whatever Muahaddith taught?’ I am able to write and also read

15000 Ahadith with correct Sanad (deed)”. Even his teacher was bound to

correct Hadith after listening Hadith of Imam Bukhari. Nobody was able to

compete with him.10

Remarks on Bukhari:- Imam Bukhari is rated one of the most excellent scholars and brilliant boys in the world. Some learned persons remarked against him given as follows:

1. Qutaibah bin Sayeed remarks that he was seated amongst Sufis, A rifs and

noble persons. When he became alert, he came to understand that none was

seen like Imam Bukharai in his life as well as Hazrath Omar Faruq(R:A) was

amongst the companions of Hazrath Muhammad(S:A).

2. Imam Muslim says, “I witness that none was found like you (Bukhari) in the

world”

3. Imam Ahmad bin Hambal says, “On the surface of Khurasan Imam Bukhari

was only bom unlike others”.

4. Shaikh Bandhar bin Bashar says, “During our age, Bukhari is the best jurist”.

5. Imam Tirmidi says, “I do not see such person except like Bukhari who was the

most recognizer of weak Hadith and Sanad”.

10. Ibid, p-5 215

6. Abdullah bin Abdur Rahman Darami says, ‘1 visited innumberable Ulamas in

Harmain, Hezaz, Syria and Iraq. But they were not all round scholar like Imam

Bukhari.”

7. Yahyah bin Ja’far Boikondi says, “Although my age is extended to the age of

Bukhari, it is necessary to me that my demise is counted as only one person’s

demise, but the demise of Bukhari is to destroy knowledge. 11

His Simplicity and Contrition

Imam Bukhari is considered as a very simple and also contrite in nature. He suffered from various oppressions in physical condition. He used to do his own work himself. Due to sufficient wealth and property and honour, he did not hoard the chattel of slaves and servants. Muhammad bin Hatim Warraq, a special student of

Bukhari, expresses that one day Bukhari was making a house by arranging bricks with own hand. I came forward and said, please stop your work, I can arrange bricks.

Bukhari replied that this activity can be benifited to him in the .

Warraq also expressed that when we accompanied with Bukhari in a journey, he accumulated all of them in a shelter and he himself separated from them. I saw

Imam Bukhari who got up at night at 151® times and each and every time he sets on fire to the lamp and studied Hadith with deep mind, then he put his head on the pillow. I argued to know from him, “why are you bearing hardship why did you not awake me to serve you?” Bukhari replied him that you are young and you have deep slumber. I do not want to disturb in your slumber, 12 ll.Zafral Muhassilin Ba Ahlul Musannifin (Urdu),p-108

12. Ibid; p-109-110. 216

His Independence:- Imam Bukhari is generally esteemed mueh by the kings due to his excellent and sound knowledge. He never tried to get more facilities and benefits from the emperors. Many comfortable advantages i.e, pelf and wealth were presented to him but he never accepted them. As because he possessed self-reliance and independence.

His father, Ismail bin Ibrahim was a Muhaddit and also renowned wealthy person. On the basis of inheritance, Bukhari obtained lion’s share of his father’s property. He used to deposit to the investor and he did not do any task himself.

Bukhari gave at Rs. 2500/ to a man by telling him to repay 10 Dirham per month. 13

Bukhari is considered as a very simple and kind hearted person and also oppressed in nature. He left no any usefiil personal works for his servant and slave.

Muhammad bin Hatim Orraq, a favourite pupil of Bukhari, expresses once Bukhari was making an inn(house) near Bukhara. He puts the bricks one by one on the wall. I told him eagerly, “you should stop your difficult activities, I shall keep all the bricks”.

In reply, Bukhari said that this work will benifit him in the day of Re-surrection.

He strictly kept himself away from the things which may earn blemish and rumor. For an example, an incident happened during his life time. One day he had started a voyage having one thousand Ashrafia (an old Iranian golden ). In the ship a person made friendship and relationship with Bukhari and also he was showing his sincerity and sympathy with Bukhari. He fell in his love and disclosed one thousand Ashrafia (rupees). In a day, his friend started crying and weeping and also toming his cloth after getting up from his ship. On hearing this, people began to rush to approach him. They were asking each-other about what happened.

13. Ibid; p-112. 217

But the person did not reply and he was crying loudly. Later on he began to express after being emphasized firmly by the people that he had a bag bearing Rs.

1000/ rupees, but it was lost. All the people became kind and sympathetic up on the crying person and ran after the passengers of the ship and also started searching all the passengers one by one.

Being realized this, Bukhari threw up the purse in the sea slowly. After searching all of them, they found nothing and rebuked and also asked him, “why did he exhaust all of us?” After getting down the ship, all the passengers met Bukhari and searched his Purse. Bukhari replied modestly that he had thrown this purse in the sea as because he had no path to prove the truth. Then all the person went around him,

Bukhari clearly questioned all the questioners that you had not knowledge and information about me that, I myself spent whole life with the companions of prophet

Hazrath Muhammad(S:A) for the search of knowledge of Hadiths. My truthfulness and honesty had been wide circulated all over the world. It is not ought to suspect for all person of theft things. To achieve trusty and purity my whole life had passed. I do not involve my self for a little Ashrafia. 14

His praver and ascetism:- Imam Bukhari is highly regarded as unlimited prayee and also night-awaker. He used to worship Nowafil prayer and also maintain Nowafil fasting. He recited the holy Quran every day and also finished the reading of ten chapter of the Quran after getting up at every mid-night. He finished the holy Quran in the prayer of Terawih and in each and every Rekhat, he recited twenty Ayat.

14. Abul Hasan Ali ibn al Athir Al-Kamil, Tarikh-e-Kamil, (Urdu), p-27. 218

It is also narrated by Orraq, a scholar of Imam Bukhari that once he was invited by a gardener. So he maintained Namj-e-Zuhar after arrival there. He after taking rest of Nowafil Namaj, began to tell the people, by raising skirt of his shirt, look at it and what is residing in it? After observing on it, people said there were 16 or

17 spots in his shirt with snake bite and his whole body became puffy. People said to him, “why did you not break the intention of prayer?” For it N awajil Namaj, later absorbed and interested in this prayer on it would be maintained as “Qaza”. Bukhari replied that hewas N was much in which he felt no any obstacles and proved his ecstacy by showing with the following Ay at.

i.e, “Worship Allah in such way so that you can see him”.

In Archery He was skilled in archery. The archer that he shot in his life, only two shots were failed. Once with companions o f Abdullah Sahariny for the purpose of archery, Bukhari reached the Farbar city by riding horse. Due to much expertness, unfortunately one shoot of archer stuck to one pillar of the bridge and it was broken.

After getting off the horse, he left shooting and came back to the town and in the middle of the road, Bukhari told Abdullah Sahariny that you should go to the owner of bridge and reported him that his bridge was devasted. He urged to the owner that if he permits him for reparing, he will build the bridge completely. There after the owner ( Zamid bin Akhjar) replied that his whole pale and property have been sacrificed in the name of Allah. I forgave Bukhari Abdullah. As soon as had he told

15.1bid, P-29. 219 this incident than Bukhari satisfied. In that day, he sacrificed two hundred Dirham in

the name of Allah and enterpreted 500 Ahadith from this incident, people got counsel and light. 16.

Bukhari was rich in pale and property as well as in heart. Sometime he used to donate 300 Dirham. Orraq expresses that he earned 500 Dirham monthly. Whatever he earned, he spent them in the service of students.

Imam had strong successful hand in the form of versification. It was very regretting that he could not expand his mind to versification except only three poems as because the act of verification is considered to him as illegal and meaningless.

For example. 17

16. Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail Bukhari, As Sahih Bukhari - (Arabic), P-5.

17. Ibid, P-106. 220

cA-L-9 \ d ^ ^jii C^Jby

(i.e, Make worship (Ibidat) the most in leisure, realize that death can appear suddenly before you. I saw many healthy and strong person and they were in good health but died suddenly)

Reason for leaving home There are various controversies regarding leaving home that a reputed Historian Ganjar writes that Khalid bin Ahmed Zua’ili, governor of Bukhara during the Abbasid period, told him that you should come to ‘Darul

Emaraf with your own books, Jamih Sahih and Tarikh-e-Kabir and should take beneficiary scheme through the grace and light of knowledge. By saying this, he sent his messenger, that he did not want to disgrace knowledge and he could not come or attend with all works. Although the governor of Bukhara was enchanted and fascinated with knowledge. He had to come to my mosque and if he did not agree with me to this proposal and he would to turn out me of the kingdom, I would be obliged and bound to go out if God wishes.

Governor of Nishapur depicted that it was the reason for leaving home that the king of Bukhara had wished to bring Bukhari in the kingdom of Kisar to teach the princess. Bukhari replied that he cannot give any preference to the princes of kings or

■i • 1 any other particular person. to" bestow knowledge. He wants to distribute and expand 221 knowledge of Hadith and Quran in the open field. One who wishes to learn or earn knowledge, he has to attend and participate in the open learning centre. The door of knowledge is opened for all persons not for particular person. Due to this, the king became angry and ordered him to leave Bukhara and he went to Kharthang.

After his return to his motherland, he became too much sad for it and soon after a month passed Khalid bin Ahmed Zua’ili had been dethrowned by the Khalifa and was put him in the prison. Khalid was disgraced and unhonoured. Due to unlimited sadness and agony, the king died. In such away the persons who helped the king of

Bukhara All they were ruined and annihilated soon by natural calamity.

Sadness for his death Soon after observed the obstacles and contravention being by king and governor of Bukhara for Imam Bukhari, the inhabitants of Samarqand obliged him to retain in Samarqand and announced that whatever he wishes, he may be allowed in doing so. Then he accepted their request, and in the month of Ramadan, with the intention of journey on horse, he started to step forward. The people saw that

Bukhari had become so weak and thin. He appealed them to leave him. After observed Namaj Isha at the age of 62 years in 256 A.H. (1st Shawwal) -(3 1st August,

870 A.D.), the prophet of Hadith, i.e Imam Bukhari breathed his last for good. In the following day, as when of demise of Bukhari was spread and funeral procession of the emperor and candle of knowledge for Hadith and Quran, after Namaj-e-Zuhar, was solemnized. 18.

It was very regretting that he left no child. Someone expressed his birth, life and death were considered in the following term

18. Fakhruddin Ahmed Saheb,Ida’uI Bukhari (Urdu), p-47. 222 & J'-JS C - > U j J) &

In this sentence, amount value o f letter fo r^ r^ f.is 194 and ...! in 62

* a n d ...... in 256 respectively. One of the poets composed a verse regarding him.

v / J ^ ^ J W? •- O P * "0 aj>^L^e i.e, Imam Bukhari was a reciter and Muhaddith, he accumulated truth perfectly. His birth is truth, life is praise worthy, and death is light. 19.

A story was narrated by Abdul Wahid bin Alam that he had seen prophet

Muhammad in a dream with his companions that stood in a place. He offered ‘Salam

After Salam, Hazrat Muhammad (S:A) asked me “why did you stand up here” I had been waiting for Muhammad bin Ismai’l, whose demise news, after some days was informed to me. The narrator narrates that Bukhari died in that moment when I dreamt

Hazrath Muhammad (S:A).

After death:- The opponents and adversaries who made him contravention and hostility. They all assembled near to his graveyard and became extremely shameful and repented upon their activities. It is also narrated that after his demise, the soil of his grave turned in to fragrant like musk and the people started to take the soil from his grave for blessing and gracing. To protect and preserve his grave, the people saved the grave.

19. Zafrul Musallin Ba Ah’Iul Musannifin, pp-118,119. 223

The inhabitants of Bukhara and Samarqand became astonished to see it. Shaikh Sadi says that it is not a matter of astonishment but it is a symbol of God approved and noble person. For example,

The beauty of his company influnced me.Otherwise I am the same soil which I was.

HIS WORKS

Imam Bukhari travelled widely in search of Hadith, visited the main centres from Khurasah to Egypt. He heard Hadiths from over 1000 Shctyukh. He had learnt by heart about one hundred thousand correct Ahadith. He selected these Ahadith from a mass 600,000. He did not note down a single Hadith in his book named TH E

SAHIH AL-BUKHARI’ without doing ablution and praying two rak 'at at first.

Sahih-al-Bukhari is arranged in 97 books with 3450 chapters. There are 7397

Ahadith with full Sanad (authority). The Ahadith are arranged according to various matters of fiqh but the ‘Sahih’ also contains tradition (Hadith) regarding the beginning of creation, paradise, hell, different prophet etc. 20..

The Sahih-al-Bukhari is rightly and unanimously considered as the most excellent and sacred book after the Quran in the world. Several contemporary Islamic scholars have appreciated and certified this work or his compilation as authentic. Together with the book of Allah, the Sahih-al-Bukhari has served over the countries after centuries as the bed rock of all Islamic jurisprudence and Fiqh.

20. Zakir Hussain institute of , Islam and Modern age (Megazine), p-70. 224

By including Hadith on human equality, human rights, women rights, social and economical life and political conduct, he has provided guidance and set of values to the entire world.

There is no doubt that the Sahih-al-Bukhari has played a vital role in shaping these process by providing a concreate basis for consideration of Islamic, which have worked as guiding principles for the growth and development of all Islamic philosophy and Science. It may not be an exaggeration to say that all major intellectual and cultural achievements manifested throughout Islamic history can be traced to the Sahih-al-Bukhari after, of course the holy Quran. 21

The Sahih-al-Bukhari is now the only exhaustive and comprehensive reference book, which tells us with all authenticity what the prophet Muhammad (S:A) said and did. The way in which Imam Bukhari extremely taxing travels by hear the Ahadith, the manner in which he checked and rechecked the authenticity of both the words of the Hadith and these of the transmitters; the utmost caution, care and sense of responsibility which he exhibited in noting down the Ahadith and the method he applied in classifying the Ahadith laid the foundation of a methodology of research which can be rated as his most wonderful contribution to academic pursuits.

Imam Bukhari was an Ajami, a non Arab who made the most exalted contribution to preserving the purity and sancity of the Ahadith for the glorious services, this great son of Bukhara rendered to Islam and the Muslims, the entire

Ajami the Central Asians in particular, can feel proud.

21. Ibid, p-72. 2 2 5

Apart from the great compilation of ‘Sahih-al-Bukhari\ he wrote many books like as:-

1. Tarikh-al-Kabir: It was written in to 8 sections in the light of moon. Its

arrangement is compared at the beginning with the Tehji letters.

2. Al-Tarikh Al-Saghir:- This book deals with Hadith and written in brief.

3. Al-Adabul Mufrad:- It deals with the character of prophets. In some madrassa,

this book was introduced as text book.

4. Al-Tarikhul Aswat:- It was not printed till today, probably, it was preserved in

German as pen-writing.

5. Kitabul Fawaid:- It was mentioned by Imam Tirmidi in his book-Kitabul

Manaqib.

6. AT Jameh-al-Kabir:- It’s narrator was Ibn-e-Zafar.

7. Khuluq-e-Afa’le :- It deals with Aqaid (Trust of oneness of Allah). Khalq-

e-Quran and other problem are discussed in this book to give reply to the

question of Imam Zua’ili.

8. Masnad-e-Kabir.

9. Usama-e-Sahabah.

10. Kitabul Hal:- The narrator of this book was Abul Qasim bin Mandah.

11. Kitabul Wa’hdan:- It deals with the companions of prophets.

12. Kitabuj-Ja’hfa Kabir.

13. Kitabul Mabsut. 226

14. Al-Jame’hul Saghir.

15. Kaja yeal-Sahabah-e-wat. Tabiin:- It was published in 212 A.H. after

compilation of Tarikh-e-Kabir.

16. Kitabur-Raqaq:- It was described in Kashfiiz-Zunun.

17. Birrul Owalidain.

18. Kitabul Ashribah.

19. Kitabul Hebah.

20. Kitabul Kena.

21. Al. Tafsirul Kabir.

22. Zuj’ul qerate-Khalfiil Imam.

23. Zuju’s Refhul yadain.

24. Bad’ul Maqluqat 22.

In every epoch, the Al-Sahih-al-Bukhari has been interpreted on the basis o f its inner-meaning, grammer and importance by Ulamas and Scholars. A large number of interpreters explained the Bukhari Sharif from Arabic version to Urdu, Arabic at the edge of or in the separate from.

In the book Lame’h, more than one hundred interpretations, footnotes and derivation of words are mentioned. Some of them are given bellow :23.

22. Moulana , AI Hadis, pp-28,29.

23. Umdai ai Qari,Shark Sahih al Bukhari, p-27. 227

1. riamus-Sunan.-by Sulaiman Ahmed bin Muhammad bin khesab

Khattabi, (d. 304 A.H.) . It was the first interpretation of Sahih al-

Bukhari which describes the wonderful elegant and Subtle matter of

Hadith.

2. Sarhe - Bukhari-by Imam Abu Hasan Ali bin Khalf Maliki (d. 449 A.H.)

It discusses the jurisprudence of Imam Malik

3.Sarhe - Bukhari-by Imam Fukhrul Islam Ali Muhammad Hanafi

(

4.Sarh-e-Bukhari- byQazi Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Abdullah Maliki

(d. 534 A.H.)

5. Kitabun-Najah-by ImamNazmuddin Umar Hanafi (d. 537 A.H.). It

describes the problems of Hanafi by the light of Hadith. fi.Shaowahidul -Tauz’h by Shaikh Jamal Uddin Muhammad bin Abdullah.

(d. 672 A.H.). It explains basically the grammatical problems

7. Sarh-e-Jamih by Imam Kutubuddin Abdul Karim in Abdun-Nur (d. 754

A.H.). It is divided in to 10 volumes.

8. Al-Kaukabud-Durari by Allama Shamsuddin Muhammad bin Yusuf

bin Ali Qirmani (d. 786 A.H.).

9.A1 - Talwih-by Imam Hafiz Ala-Uddin Mughlataee bin Qalih Hanafi 228

(d. 792 A.H.)

10. A1 - Tauzeeh by Siraj' Uddin Umar bin Ali bin Malqan Shafeyee.

(d. 804 A.H.). It consists o f 20 volumes.

11. Masabeehul Zame’h -by Allama Badruddin Muhammad bin Abu

Bakar Dimayeeni (d. 828 A.H.) by the request of Ahmed Shah bin

Muzaffar, Indian Sultan.

12. Fathul Bari by Hafiz Sbahabuddin Ibn. Hazar Asqalani (d. 852 A.H.).

It is one of the best interpretations of Bukhari which he starts in

813 A.H. and ends in 842 A.H. consisting of 17 volumes.

13. Umdatul - Qari-by Shaikhul Imam Hafiz Badruddin Aini (d. 855

A.H.). The author started it in 821 A.H. and completed in 847

A.H. It consists of 25 chapter in 20 volumes.

14. Irshadus Sari -by Shahabuddin Ahmed bin Muhammad Qustalani

(d. 923 A.H.). It consists of 10 volumes and also it describes

the biographical sketch of Imam Bukhari.

15. Faizul Bari - by Moulana Abdul Awal Zaidpuri (d. 968 A.H.).

16. Taisirul Qari - by Allama Nurul Hoque bin Moulana Abdul Hoque 229

Dehlawi (d. 1073 A.H.). When the author wrote the

interpretation of Mishkat, then, his son started to write

interpretation of Bukhari in to Persian.

17. Mazma’ul Bahrain - by Shaikh Taqiuddin Yehyah bin Shamsuddin

Muhammad bin Yusuf Ali Kirmani in to 8 chapters.

18. Aownul Bari-by Nawab Siddiq Hasan Khan (d. 1307 A.H.).

19. Faizul Bari- It is the expression of Allama Kashmiri which his

student, Rashid Moulana Badr-e-Alom Miroti wrote it at the

time of teaching in the class.

20. Lame’ul Durari- by Moulana Rashid Ahmed Saheb Ganguwee

(d. 1323 A.H.)

21. Imdadul Bari- by Moulana Abdul Jabbar Khalifa of Hazrat

Moulana Zakaria Saheb in to 4 volumes.

22. Fazhul Bari- It is the lectures of Allama Shabbir Ahmed Usmani

which Moulana Abdul Aziz-ul-Hoque had written it and Qazi

Abdur Rahman arranged till today it was printed into two

volumes.

23. Anwarul Bari- by Moulana Sayeed Ahmed Reza Bazbuzi.

24. Izahul Bukhari- It is the lectures of Sayeed Fakhruddin Ahmed 230

Muradabi which his companion and friend Moulana Riyasat AH

Saheb Bazbuzi has written it. 24.

24. M. Z. Siddiqi, Hadith Literature, P-35 231

2. HAZRAT IMAM MUSLIM

His nick name, Abul Hasan, pen name Asakaruddin and his real name was

Muslim. So, his M l name was Abul Hasan Muslim Al-Hajjaj. His lineage was

Muslim bin Hajjaj bin Muslim bin Warad bin Kushaz Qushairi. Imam Muslim was bom in (817 A.D.) 204 AH. in Nishapur, an old city near Iran. He was having connection from the clan of Qasher, a famous clan of Arab. Ahmed bin Taher says regarding his motherland, Nishapur. 25.

......

i.e, There is no place in the world like Nishapur, it is a sacred city and the

Almighty is pardoner.

Another poet named Futuhi says in Persian about Nishapur-

About Nishapur, a great Islamic scholar, Allama Yakut Hamuwee says that a large number of Ulamas and Scholars appeared whose number cannot be counted from that city. Nishapur is considered as a famous centre of art and education after

Baghdad. But the invasion of Changis Khan destroyed and devasted this city.

It is narrated that innumerable people approximately 17 lakh and 46 thousand people were murdered by Changis Khan. Shah Thasmaf cultivated this city. But it is right that Satur bin Ardashar cultivated and developed this city. In Persian it is called

, i Neh-Sahar. After adding Neh with Shafiir, it became Nishapur. 26.

25. E.G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia, P-138

26. C.A. Strong, Persian Literature; A Bibliographical Survey, P-29 232

Madrassa -e- Bahqiah was the first Madrassa in Islam in which Imamul

Harmain, Imam Ghazzali studied. It is narrated in the history that Madrassa-e-

Nizamia is considered as the first Madrassa in Islam which is located at Baghdad as because after Nishapur, Baghdad is esteemed as the first Islamic centre of art and education. In the next century various Islamic educational centres were built in

Nishapur like-

(i) Madrassa of Bahqiah.

(ii) Madrassa of Sa’diah.

(iii) Madrassa of Nasriah. It was constructed by Nasr bin Sabktagin, a

brother of Sultan Mahmud.

Imam Muslim started his studies at the very early age of fourteen years. (Since

218 A.H.). At first he received his early education in Nishapur. In the year 218 A.H., the atmosphere in Nishapur, his birth place was of a religious and scholastic .

Nishapur had great personalities in this period such as Imam Rahiwee and Imam

Zohri. He travelled Iraq, Hejjaj, Egypt, Syria, Khurasan etc. in the search of Hadith.

After travelling widely in search of Hadith he settled in Nishapur as mentioned above.

Imam Muslim was much impressed by the vast knowledge of Imam Bukhari (R:A), in the field o f Hadith and the d ^ insigi%J^pft$&essed on the subject. He therefore attached himself to Imam Bukha^v4R;^^t3kth^ end of his life , Imam Muslim was

\ also an admirer of another great teacher of Hadith, Muhammad bin Yehyah al Dhuli.

He attended his lectures regularly. He visited Baghdad to hear his lectures attentively. 233

He also visited Baghdad several times and had the opportunity of delivering lessons there. His last visit to Baghdad took place two years before his death.

Imam Muslim (R:A), apart from attending the lessons of Imam Bukhari regularly, also atteneded the speeches of Imam Ahmed bin Hambal, Abdullah-al-Qari,

Qutaiba bin Said, Abdullah bin Maslama, Imam Yaka Nishapuri, Harmala, Yahya bin

Yahya. For acquiring boarder knowledge o f Hadith, he also attached with Imam

Bukhari, Imam Shafii and Imam Ahmad bin Hambal etc.

It is narrated in the Sihah of Muslim that he had obtained knowledge of

Ahadith from about 211 teachers and scholars. He was having some distinction with

Imam Bukhari on some issue, which he had described in the preface of his book. 27,

His Students and Companions A large number of students acquired broader knowledge of Ahadith from Imam Muslim. The most noted and distinguished students are Hafiz Abu Esa Tirmidhi, author of Sunan; Abu Hatim Razi, Abu Baker bin

Khuzaima, Ibrahim bin Muhammad bin Sufiyan Musa bin Haren, and other great scholars.

His Character and Knowledge :

Imam Muslim adhered strictly to the path of righteousness. He was in fact a great saint of a very high caliber. His excellent character can be well judged from the simple fact that he never indulged in backbiting, a very common human failing. He never revealed any fault and blemish or any negative criticism upon the spotless character of humanbeing.

27. J.M. Tariq Usmani, The Authority of Sunnah, 1998, P-80. 234

He had regard for his honourable teachers and shaikhs and also used to give preference to purity, sancity and justness.

It is narrated that one day in Nishapur when Bukhari was condemned for a spot in his character, the opponent and envious person made an envy about Bukhari’s character. Imam Zu’aili had contradicted to him and there after denounced him in the general meeting like. 28

cB 'J~ 2l1

One who explains the Quran with Lafzi as Gair makhluq is warned by him not to come in his lesson. On. hearing this, Imam Muslim and also Ahmed bin Salmah immediately went out from the meeting. Imam Muslim kept avoidance of accepting knowledge of Hadith from Imam Zuaili since that day.

28.1bid, P-85. 235

Imam Muslim is rightly considered as an exceptional child and meritorious boy due to his remarkable memory and sound knowledge. Ishaq bin Rahwi said to the audience, the peace, happiness and satisfaction of the world will remain in the world till Imam Muslim lasts.

Ishaq bin Rahwi said to Imam Muslim, “I wonder what this person is going to be?” This was said in his youth. Ishaq Kausar once addressed Imam Muslim (R:A) and said “your presence in Muslim community will always keep it in the good”. Abu

Saimah who was a colleague of Imam Muslim was so attached to him that while

Imam Saheb was compiling the Sahih Muslim, he remained in Imam Saheb’s company for 15 years. He never told a lie nor did he ever use vulgar words.

MISIK There are a lot of controversies in certaining his Mislik. Allama

Kashmiri says that Imam Muslim and Ibne Mazah had no Misik. Shaikh Abdul Latif says Imam Tirmidhi and Imam Muslim were followers of the Shafee school and, although they were both Mujtahids. Moulana Abdur Rashid says that Imam Muslim was a Maliki. Nowab Siddiq Hasan Khan regarded him as supporter of Shafee school of thought. Author o f ‘Kashfuz Zunun informs the same remark.

The fact is what was said by Sheikh Jahir Jazari that Imam Muslim is neither a

Maliki nor a Hanafi and Shafee, but his compilation of the Sahih Muslim shows that he was more inclined towards the Shafee school of thought. The author of A1 Yaniul

Zinni writes that as per XJsuli, Imam Muslim was Shafii as because he least argued against the point of Shafii.

How he died When we remember his name, we must remember how his death happened. It is narrated that one day in the discussing meeting when Imam Muslim was asked about a Hadith, but in that moment it was not cleared or was unknown to 236 him. So, he came back to his house and also a sack of date was placed before him. He was deeply involved in search of answer for Hadith and the Sack which was attached along with him from which he was eating date one after another. At last he found real tradition and ate all the dates. As because he was deeply enamoured and fascinated with knowledge and Sunan of Prophet Muhammad (S:A). Therefore he could not guess how much dates did he consume. Owing to over eating of dates, Imam Muslim died like as a martyr {Shahid) for Sunan of prophet Muhammad (S:A). The date of his death is on Sunday in IS* Razab, 261 A.H. and his funeral ceremony was done on

Monday and was buried at Narisa-Abad out of Nishapur. Imam Zahabi said that his sacred grave became a place of pilgrimage. 29.

After his departure from this world, Abu Hatim Razi saw in a dream Allah produced the paradise as permissible, where Imam Muslim is doing what he wishes.

Another a person saw ‘Abu Ali Zaghuni’ in a dream that he was asked by me, for which activity, you are given heaven? He replied. “ I am entered in it due to grace of

Sahih. Muslim”.

His works He compiled about 41 works during his life time. Some of them given below:

1. Masnad-e-Kabir. 2. Jamih Kabir.

3. Kitabul Elal. 4,_Kitabul Wahdan.

5.Kitabul Quran. 6.Kitabul Makhzarman.

7.Kitabul Tabaqat.

29. Ibid, P-141 237

8. Kitabul Aowhamul Muhaddisin.

9. Kitabul - Tamiz.

10. Kitab - fanne laisa lahu ilia Rawin wahidin.

11 .Kitabul Asma wal Kena.

12. Kitab-e-Hadith Amar bin Suha’ib un Abihi un Zaddihi.

13. Kitab-e-Mashaikhe Malik.

14. Kitab-e-Musbaikhe Sowri.

Apart from above books, Imam Muslim also compiled an important book named

Sahih-Muslim which is one of the most authentic world famous books. He compiled this great book, Sahih-Muslim after scanning about three lakh Ahadith. His Sahih

Muslim contains 7422 Ahadith and also completed in about 15 years.

Allama Nabawi says that the Ummath have accepted the Bukhari and the

Muslim Sharif as the Kitabs or books which follow the holy Quran, in authenticity although the Bukhari is regarded as holding a higher position than the Sahih Muslim for specific reason, the sequence applied in the Muslim is much better. It is known as

“Al-Jameh” as because it contains eight different subjects on Hadith. For example:

.f.,^?.l.^rr^rf..T. . ^ r ? . .i.e -

1.Character. 2.Civility 3.Interpretation 4.Believeness. 5.Calamity. 6. Law.

7. Conditional law and agreement. 8.Excellent quality. 238

3. HAZRAT IMAM NESAI

His nick name Abu Abdur Rahman, real name was Ahmed. So, his foil name was Abu Abdur Rahman Nesai. His father’s name Sahib. Hence, the lineage o f Nesai was Ahmed bin Sahib bin Ali bin Sinan Bazar bin Dinar. He was bom at Nisa, a city near Khurasan. Some says, date of his birth was 214 A.H. but according to Imam

Nesai, it was 215 A.H. 30.

Touring for K n o w le d g e At &st, he started to learn the Ahadith methodically in his own town. After completion of methodical learning from that town, he travelled for another city in search of knowledge where he obtained Ahadith that was not earned previously. It is clear that he acquired primary education from his native land in accordance with his habit. After this, at the age of 15 years in 240 A.H., he went in the service of Qutaibiah bin Sayeed and stayed there till one year and two months.

Thereafter he travelled Egypt, Syria, Hejaj, Iraq, Al-Zazair, Khurasan etc. and also different Islamic cities for acquiring knowledge and he got profit and benefit in every where perfectly. Shah Abdul Aziz Saheb writes that Imam Nesai set for journey in search of Hadith in Khurasan, Iraq, Zajirah, Syria etc. and also many other cities of scholars and Shaykhs.

30. Hz. Moulana Muhammad Hanif Ganguwee, Zafrul-Musallin Ba Ahlul Musannifin, P-180. 2 3 9

THe number of his teachers and Shaykhs were expanded in wide circle. Some of them w ere-

1. Ishaq bin Rahuya. 2. Muhammad bin Nasr.

3. Ali ibn Hazr. 4. Imam Abu Daud.

5 . Imam Bukhari. 6. Abu Zarrah-Razi.

7. Muhammad bin Bashr. 8. Yunus bin Abdul A’hla. etc.

But the exact number of his Shaykhs is hard to mention them. Hafiz Ibn-e-

Hazar says that Imam Nesai occupied knowledge of Ahadith from innumberable

Shaykhs.

A great number o f students earned knowledge o f Ahadith from him. But only a few of them are mentioned bellow-

1. Abdul Karim 2. Ali bin Abu Z’afar.

3. Hafiz Abu Ali Nishapuri. 4. Muhammad bin Qasim Andalasi etc.

Allama Zahabi remarks that Imam Nisai is considered as Shaikhul Huffaz and

Muhaddith of Khurasan. Abu Sayeed Abdur Rehman remarks about him in the

History of Egypt in page 59, chapter-1 that Imam Nesai is regarded as an Imam of

Hadith and Hafiz of Hadith Allama Zahabi and Tajus Sabaki say that he is more preserver of Hadith than Imam Muslim, (written in Muqarratuhu Tuhfah in page -59, chapter-1) 240

Allama Taj Uddin Sabaki writes on Mm in the book Tabaqat-e-Shafiyatul Kubra in page-82, C-2 that I asked Abu Abdullah Zahabi who is the more preserver of

Hadith between Imam Muslim and Imam Nisai. He replied, ‘Imam Nisai’. Hafiz Ibn

Hazar, Allama Zahabi and Ibn Kazir and other Ulamas narrated hadith from him who ranked him in high position in the Sky of Ahadith. He occupied Wgh and superior position amongst his contemporary Scholars and Muhadditin in Ms age. Ibnul Haddad

Safiyee highly ranks him that Imam Nisai is middle source between Allah and him.

Hafiz Ibn Hazar Asqalam writes in the book ‘Maqaddma-e-FathhuT Bari that a group of technical expert preferred Imam Nisai to Imam Muslim in the department of

Hadith.

His and devotion He devoted Ms life in the love of God and he was absorbed in asceticism and mysticism and also sunk in praying of Allah day and

Mght. Almost he availed advantage and got permission to visit for a pilgrimage to

Medinah. As for example-

He used to keep fasting day after day. He had a very strong and successful hand in establishing Sunnath, Shariath and was strictly avoidant of unlawful activities

(Beda ’at) and maintained personality.

Imam Nisai is MgMy and greatly considered as a brave and truthful persouHe was not frightened by anybody except Allah. So, Allama Md.Iqbal ranks him in Ms poetry as a brave and truthful. 241

He used to participate in the battle as a brave and courageous.

His Misiik There are different controversial opinions about his Mislik According to Shah Abdul Aziz Sahab, he was considered as a follower of Mislik of Imam

Shafeyee. ( in the book Bustan, p-123). Allama Kashmiri says and both Imam Abu

Daud and Imam Nisai are imitators of Hambali Mislik.

His works Imam Nisai composed many works in order to develop the Islamic thought in different subjects. He tried his level best to make progress and development Islam, belief and humanism through his writings. Some of them are mentioned bellow: 31.

1. Sunan-e-Kubra Nisai Sharif - It is found from the narration of Abu Bakar

Muhammad bin Muaweeyahknown as Ibn Ahmar.

2. Khasais-e-Ali. 3. Amalul Yaum ul Lailat.

4.Masnad AIL 5. Kitabul Za’hfa wa Matrukin.

6-Kitabul Zum’ah.

7.Egrabo Sha’bah Ali Sufian Ali Sha’bah.

8.Kitabul Madlisin 9.Kitabul Asma wal Kena.

lO.Masnad Mansur bin zadan. 11 .Sunan-e-Sughra.

31. Al Baihaqi, A1 Sunanul Kubra, p-10. 242

Hafiz Abu Abdullah bin Rashid (d. 721 A.H.) says that whatever book on

Sunan was written in the world, amongst them, Nisai Sharif is considered as one of the best Sunans and written in astonished manner and style. This Sunan imitated the style and method of Bukhari and Muslim Sharif.

After compilation of Sunan-e-Kubra, he produced it before the king of

Ramala. Amir Masuf questioned Imam Mamduh that whatever narration is written in this book, were correct or not? He replied ‘no’. In this point, Amir Masuf wrote a petition to him for writing a book in correct manner. So Imam Nisai compiled Sunan

Sughra that was famous for the name of Majtaba and it entertained the correct Hadith which was so called as Nisai by Muhadditin.

He de id in 13th Safar in 303 A.H. in Mecca and was buried in between Safa and Marva. Some says he breathed his last in Ramala and was buried there. 32.

32. Ibid, P-185. 2 4 3

4.HAZRAT IMAM IBM MAJAH

His real name, Muhammad, nick name, Abu Abdullah, his father’s name

Yazid. So Imam Ibn Majah’s foil name was Abu Abdullah bin Yazid bin Abdullah

Ibn-Majah. But he was famous by the name o f his grandfather i.e, Ibn-Majah ( It is noted that the name of his grandfather was not mentioned but it is written in the

BUSTANUL MUHADDISIN by Shah Abdul Aziz Dehlawi, name of grandfather was

Abdullah). 33.

He was bom in Quzdeen, a famous city of Azarbaijan in 209 A.H.(824A.D)

He was related to the clan of Rubayee.

Explanation of MAJAH:- What is Majah? In this regard different view point is found:

1. MAJAH is a quality of Muhammad, not the name of his grand father Abdullah

is written in the book BUSTANUL MUHDDASIN in the page -112.

2. Allama Ibn Kasir narrated from Hafiz Khalil Quzweeni that Majah is a pen

name of Yazid written in the A1BADAYEAH, chapter-2, p-52.

Majah is originated from the Persian clan as per Jasreh-e-Ratayee which almost was related to Mah or Majah. From this, it came to be known that it was not

Arabicised word but it was persian word. So Ibn Majah was originated from the family of Persian descendent.

33. Hz Moulana Muhammad Hanif Ganguwee, Zafrul Musallin Ba Ahlul Musannifin, P-192. 244

Ibn Faqiah expressed that Quzdeen, a famous city whose foundation was built by Shahphur Zul Iktaf firstly. Hazrath Barah bin Azib who was governor of Rey conquered Abhar then Quzdeen in 24 A.H. during the khilafat of Hazrath Uthman.

After wining victory over Quzdeen, the people of that region accepted Islam.

The author of HABIBUS SAYER narrates a wonderful event that a person of

Quzdeen city picked or tore off a melon and found bright lighting colour in it which enlighten the whole room and it remained till 3 days as the same. To witnees this miracle, the people started to come here group by group.

Later city of Quzden became a centre of art and learning of Hadith in 3rd. centuries A.H. Name and fame of that only expanded thoroughly since 3 rd. centuries

A.H. several famous Muhadditin were produced in the city. Some of them are -

1. Muhammad bin Sayeed bin Sabiq Abu Abdullah Razi (d. 210 A.H.)

2. Hafiz Ali bin Muhammad Abul Muhsin Tanafisi (d. 233 A.H.).

3. Hafiz Umar bin Refeh Abu Hazar Bazoli. (d. 237 A.H.).

4. Ismail bin Towbah Abu Sulaiman Quzdeen Hanafi (d. 247 A.H.).

5. Imam Ibn Majah.

After all, it would be noted that great scholars and prominent Muhaddisin bloosmed from that region which mentioned evidently in the HISTORY OF

QUZWEEN-E-MALAMAL.

SEARCHING FOR KNOWLEDGE In search of knowledge for Hadith, he tried hard and made untiring attempts. He compiled his formal education in his motherland till 21 years. He devoted himself for collection and compilation of Ahadith. In the 245 process, he visited different countries like Iraq, Khurasan, Syria, Egypt, Heijaj etc. and also variety of cities like Rey, Basarah, Kufo, Baghdad, Mecca and Damascus etc. in search of Ahadith.

He was having a number of good teachers and Shaikhs like-

1. Abu Masa’ b Ahmed bin Abu Bakr Razi.

2. Muhammad bin Bashar.

3. Abbas Ambari.

4. Zuhair bin Harb Nesai.

A great number of students have received education from him. But the list of his number of students is longer that mentioned in the book Tahjibul Kamal. Some eminent students are mentioned bellow:

1. Ali bin Sayeed Abdullah Askari.

2. Z’afar bin Idris.

3. Sulaiamn bin Yazid Quzweeni.

4. Ahmed bin Ibrahim Quzweeni and others. 34.

34. Ibid, P-193 246

5. HAZRAT IMAM TIRMIDH

His real name Muhammad, nick name Abu Esa, his father’s name Esa. So

Imam Tirmidhi’s full name in lineage is Abu Esa Muhammad bin Esa bin Saurah bin

Musa bin Dhahak Salmi Bughi Tirmidhi. Allama Sumani added the word ‘dhahaq’ in his lineage in place of Shaddad, Salmi is inclined to Bani Salim tribe. Bughi is attached with village of Bugh which is far away 18 miles distance from Tirmidh. 35,

Imam Tirmidhi was bom in Tirmidh, a old city of Russian Turkistan. Some says, he was bo m at Bugh, a name of village. So he was inclined to the city Tirmidh in 209 A.H. According to some source it is concluded that either he was bom blind or lost his eyesight in the old age. To collect Ahadith, he travelled different distance countries like Iraq, Syria, Khurasan, Kufa Basarah and Hejaj etc.

He was having a number of good teachers like Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim,

Imam Abu Daud, Ali bin Hajar, Fazal bin Sahal and Abbas bin Abdul Azim etc. and he was having a great of number of students like Abul Abbas Muhammad bin Ahmed bin Yusuf etc.

Imam Tirmidhi possessed an astonishing power of rememberence and fear of

God. He was counted an intellectual and unrivalled person in his contemporary age and also great Mujtahid. A good number of students received Islamic education from him. Although Imam Bukhari was his teacher but he had acquired only two Hadith from Imam Tirmidhi.

35. Hazrat Moulana Saved Hussain Ahmed Madani, Marifi-Madani (Urdu), -P 5,6. 247

He composed many excellent books. His great compilation of Hadith is called as Jama’i Tirmidhi which is very comprehensive and instructive book. Apart from

Ahadith this valuable book deals with several other things related to jurisprudence of

Islam and science of Hadith.

His another valuable treatise by name “Shama-ile-Tirmidhi” is an authentic and excellent book and unique of its kind. This book contains only these Ahadith which are related to the personality of Muhammad, the messenger of Allah. His personality, dress, habits, style of walking, method of eating and manner of talking etc. are discussed in the book.

Apart from these two books, he wrote many other books which are mentioned bellow:

1. Kitabul Elal al Saghir.

2. Kitabul ElalalKubra.

3. AlMuferrad.

4. Al- Zuhud.

5. Kitabul Asma wal Keyna.

6. Kitabut -Tarikh. (It is narrated by Ibn Nadim in his contents) etc. 36.

36. Zafrul Musallin Ba Ahlul Musannifin, P-171 248

Hafiz Ibn Rashid (d. 722 A.D.) categorized the Jamie-e Tirmidhi

Sharif in the, following chapters: (It consists of 14th subject of knowledge )

1. Tabweeb.

2. Bayan-e-Fiqh

3. Alal-e-Ahadith wa Bayan Sahih wa Zayeef

4. Zarhay wa Ta’hdil.

5. Bayan-e-Rawee-e-Hadith.6.Narrator of Hadith either they met prophet

Muhammad(S.A) or not .7-Descripton of Hadith that are explained either in brief or board.

Hafiz Abu Fathe Sayeedun Nas mentioned these chaptars that are not mentioned by Ibn Rashid 8.Bayan-e-Shuzuz.

9. Bayan-e-Mowqu£

10. Bayan-e-Madriz.

Hafiz Abu Bakar bin al-Arabi added other 4 chapters of knowledge in the

Tirmidhi Sharif. These include:

11 .Bayan-e- Isnad.

12. Matrukul Amal Rewayeate-Ki-Tawjehl 3.Description Ulamas regarding acceptance and refusal of Hadith 14 Description of Ulamas rgarding innermeaning explanation of Hadith..

Tirmidhi shaxif is considered Jamih as well as Sunan as because it consists of

8 subjects: 250

7. Sharhy-e-Tirmizi - by Jainud-Din Abdur Rahman bin Ahmed bin Rajab

Hambali (d.759 A.H.)

8. Sharhy-e-Tirmizi - by Shaikh. Siraj Uddin Umar bin Rislanul Balqini

Shafeyee (d. 805 A.H.)

9. Sharhy Zowed-e- Tirmizi - by Sheikh. Siraj Uddin Umar bin Rislan.

10. Nuhfatu - Ahuji - by Moulana. Abdur Rahman Mubarak.

11. Al-Urful Shujji - by Moulana. ( It is knowledgeable

assets for students)

12. Ma’rif -e- Sunan - by Moulana Muhammad Yusuf.

13. A1 Kau Kabud-Durrii. - by Hz. Moulana Rashid Ahmed Ganguhi (d. 1323

A.H.) 37.

37. Ibid, P-172. 251

C. The World Famous SUFIS of Persian

Origin are:

1. HZ. ABDUL QADIR JILANI (R:A\

The whole universe expresses its gratitude and sincere welcome towards the world famous Sufi named Mehbub-e- Subhani, Kutbe Rabbani, Piran-e- Gausul

Azom Abdul Qadir Jilani. When we remember the name of Hz. Abdul Qadir Jilani, immediately we should remember the name of his parents.

His parents and ancestor’s relation attached with the ancestor of Hazrath Ali

(R.A.). It is noted that his father’s ancestors were related to 12* stage and mother’s also were related to 14th stage. Explaining them, it is shown in chronological order 38

Father’s lineal d e sc e n d an tHis fathers name-

1. Hz. Sayeed Abu Saleh Musa (R:A).

2. Abu Abdullah.

3. TahyaJahed.

4. Sayeed Muhammad.

5. Hazrat Da’ud.

6. Sayeed Musa Sani.

7. Sayeed Abdullah Sani.

8. Sayeed Musa A1 Zuhan.

9. Abdullah Al- Mahaz.

10. Hazyrath Hasan Musannah.

11. Sayeed Hassan (R:A).

12. Hz. Ali Murtaza (R:A).

38. Moulana Abdul Jalil, Fathur Rabbani (Bengali), P-7,8. 252

Mother’s grandmother’s descendant:

His mother’s name is-

1. Sayeeda Ummul Khair Fathema (R:A).

2. Abdullah Saumeyee.

3. Hz. AbuZamal.

4. Hz. Muhammed.

5. Abu Ata Abdullah.

6. Abu Ala Uddin.

7. Ali Zowhad.

8. AliReza.

9. Musa Kazim.

10. Imam Za’far Sadek.

11. Imam Baker.

12. Imam Jainal Abedin.

13. Hz. Imam Hussain.

14. Hz. Ali Murtaza (R:A).

The world famous Sufi, Abdul Qadir Jilani’s father was from the scion or descendant of Sayeed Abu Musa and Hz. Imam Hasan (R:A). 253

All the good qualities existed in the character of Abdur Qadir Jilani. His mother Ummul Khair Hazrath Fathema was from the scion of Imam Hassan. She was virtuous, religious and also living behind curtain. Therefore he was brought up under the guidance of the holy Quran and the Sunnah since his boyhood. He was very careful and aware of pure and impure, lawful and unlawful things.

His deserving father, Abu Saleh Musa Zanghi when approached to the last part of his age, he spent his life throughout the emotion and asceticism of God. One day his father started a journey across the shore of the ‘FARATA’ to a remote place. After crossing the impossible and inaccessible path, his necessary ration card and travelling expenses have were exhausted. Various kind of dangers and adversities covered him.

39.

There a bright Sunshine fell on his head. He became very seriously weak, thirsty, hungry and harassment. Due to this trouble he started to take rest on the bank of river which covered with leafs beneath the tree. In that situation, different kinds of thoughts and aspiration arose in his mind and also he suffered from thirst, hungry and tiredness. We was thus seriously perturbed . During the moment, he turned his keen sight towards the flowing water-current of “FARATA RIVER’. He saw that a perfect ripe red-colour apple was floating in water-current of the river which is fallen from the boundary of river after crouching boarder. He picked up the fruit and ate it peacefully and offered thankfulness and gratitude to the Almighty. But after consuming this apple, he came to sense and realized his fault. In that moment he started thinking that it was not correct to eat it by him as because who is the owner of this apple and from where this apple came floating is unknown to him completely.

39. A.J. Arberry, The Doctorine of Sufis, P- 27. 254

He asked himself, “will it be sin and crime to eat the apple without permission of the owner to the Supreme Judge ie, Allah”? How I would appear before God as a sinner and a crimer. He was greatly shocked with griefs and sorrows. At last, he decided to find out the owner anyhow for seeking his pardon for this fault. He thought that the fruit garden might be existed up stream the river. That fallen fruit was floating by the water current. The real source of floated apple may be found if he seeks. Thinking this his father started walking sadly along the opposite side of the river’s current and remembered the name of Allah. He became unable to proceed forward due to bright sunshine and hot air and also for mental fatigue. Yet, he walked slowly and painfully.

But hundred of griefs and troubles could not stop him to proceed on. Finally, after passed many days, he really found a big apple tree on the bank of the river which was inclined over the water of river. The tree was full with multi coloured of apples. The tree bore full ripe, half ripe and green apples. Now and then from the tree, one or two apple falls on the ground or water and current-water floats the fruit. Then he realized that he had eaten that apple that fell from that particular tree. 40.

Therefore, he understood that he had eaten this floating fruit. After making enquiry from local people, he came to know that the owner of the garden was Sayeed

Abdullah Saumeyee(R.) who was a religious, pious and also God fearing person. He was always absorbed in the ocean o f spiritual love. Sayeed Abu Saleh thought in mind that if he seeks pardon to this great pious person, it would not be accepted. So, expecting this he arrived his house and bowed his head in front of the owner with due respect and humble submission, he recognized his introduce and prayed to him describing the event of eatable fruit.

40. Ibid, P-15. 255

Owner of the garden and house, Sayeed Abdullah Saumeyee cast his kind glance towards this stranged and foreign fellow for many times and also he became puzzled and astonished. The person who committed a little fault owing to eating a fruit from the tree. Such a person could come here from far remote area. It is unexpected for the owner. He thought that this new comer person had a special quality by which he would gain victory of the world. In that time a secret mysterious thing is residing in the heart of the owner. Although he did not disclose this, but published a little satisfaction and said, Oh new comer! you have no right to waste other’s thing if there are spoiled and rotten. You committed crime by taking an apple from my garden. On this point, I will not forgive you. ‘If you do not forgive me, I cannot see the way of liberation from this helinious crime.’-said,Abu M usa.

The owner of the garden replied, “O’ new comer! In the world, nobody can sweep the love of property and right to loveable things. In that situation, I am crying the same. Therefore, I cannot leave the claim in any way.”Listening to the owner, Abu

Musa Zanghi started weeping but due to this the heart of the owner did not become soft and low later on Abu Musa Zanghi urged with full of tears. O’ the great man, ‘tell me the way through which I will get pardon from your kind honour’. Otherwise how to show my guilty and spotfiil face before God in the Day o f Judgement. 41.

Observing weeping, mourning and politeness of the new-comer, the owner of the garden said to him, O’ new-comer, “do not be sorry, don’t think” if you are really fearful of God, the punishment of the Infinitive Day, you must work as a slave for 12 years in my house. After having finished 12 years of work at my house, I will observe your work and your honesty, whether you may be forgiven or not.

41. Carl W. Ernest, Teaching of Sufism, f*-29. Abu Musa Zanghi accepted the proposal of the owner of the garden lie appointed as a labour or a slave by the owner. Ruling and hardships are noi shown upon him. To the contrary, Sufi theosophy, emotion, ascetism, spiritual knowledge fascinated the life of Abu Musa Zanghi. He was only a person who had sound e knowledge, spiritual love and asceticism, fear of God and spotless character that icud as a guardian of him. Even he spent 12 years as a labour in his house. At last he sought pardon to the owner.

In order to respond his prayer, the owner of the garden said. "< > dour ! became satisfied with your works and your honesty and good character as tu II .n behaviour.Yes I want to introduce my final speech in front of you that I Iu m a marriageable daughter in my house who is very ugly, dumb, lame as well as blind : was unable to manage her marriage to the deserving place and person. Thinking again and again regarding her career, I feel anxious and agonies and cannot deep peacefully. In that circumstances, if you agree to marry my unmarried daughter w T forgive your crime which you had committed by eating fruit from my garden. Savecd

Abu Saleh, on hearing this proposal, became perplexed. He decided to accept the worldly pleasure taking avoidance o f happiness, comport and emancipation >>' in final Judgment. At last, this unbearable proposal of the owner has been giadh accepted by him. 42,

Thereafter formality of marriage ceremony between both of them solemnized on the stipulated time and date. When the same new ugh lady entered t he well decorated room of the bridegroom i.e, Abu Saleh (R:). Instantly he cast his glance towards the lady who was very beautiful and sat in the soli couch.

42. Ibid, P-31. 257

Each and every part of the lady (particularly her hand, leg, eye, nose, ear) are very beautiful and spotless. On observing softness and uncomparable beauty of her body and her smooth conduct and behavior made him astonished and thoughtfiil.

Thought and hesitation as well as confusion in this regard arose in his mind. As because such uncomparable qualities and agreement were not mentioned at the time of marriage. ‘Is it possible”? he said. The beauty of the presented girl having such qualities described by her hither can not be similar. “With whom I got married, she is that? “Is it making jokes with me or is he examining me.” He then started thinking regarding this that he is completely unable to know the fact that any new danger may come. So, he is not willing to touch her and reside in the same bed with her and decided to come out of the room and stopped forward. Immediately his grandfather,

Sayeed Abdullah Saumayee (R:) stood at the gate of the door and entered him by holding his hand in to the room again and again and started talking with a smiling face and said, “O” dear son, I think that you became astonished and perplexed. You must know, the girl, whom I presented before you, is my own daughter by name Sayeeda

Fathema, at present she is your wife”.

Abu Saleh besought to him that you had reported me about your daughter who is ugly, dumb, blind, and also deaf. His grandfather, Sayeed Abdullah expressed with a sincere smile, “dear son! I said such and such to test you and I had reason and mystery behind my talking.”

The reason for addressing her as blind is that she never saw any unknown and strange person and also anything out of her house in her life so, she was called blind.

As deaf is that she has never heard any sound and talking of any person except her parents till now. So, she was so called deaf. 258

As lame is that, she never went out without screen on foot in the other’s house and also in the religious meeting. So she was called lame.

She is dumb because she has heard no sound of any other person except her parents.

As ugly is that she has not seen or looked by any person till today and was known to all as ugly.. 43.

Oh’ dear! In what manner I described the quality of my daughter, these are not untrue. So the purpose of matter, whatever I indirectly expressed is that when you had come in front of me after having untiring and unlimited tiredness owing to accused of eaten apple, in that day a bright light came into view to me in your forehead. I also came to understand that the Almighty concealed a secret mystery in you that later on will be acquainted as a guide lamp for the people of the world. And I thought that such a devoted, truthful and a man of good character will suit my daughter. After having finished all the formalities o f marriage ceremony with you. I offered and performed my sincere thankfulness and gratitude to God for thousand times. You should know that my daughter was brought up by the concept of the Quranic thought i.e, Shariah and also in the mysticism If you cast your glance upon the today’s ladies of the world ; you would not fiund out any girl like my daughter who is completely absorbed in spiritual knowledge.

Sayeed Abu Saleh came to know all the secrets of the fact from his father in law and turned delighted thankful and also grateful to God.

43. Ibid, P-35. 259

At last, Abdullah, placing his daughter and son - in- law the both side of him, prayed to God by raising hands and said, “O’ the Omnipresent and the All knower

Grant their nuptials with brightness and happiness and give them an obedient son whose contribution, quality, glory will be increased in the glory of sacred religion of

Islam”.

This pure blessing and prayer was accepted by God and subsequently a child was bom from their womb who later on became known as the Sufi of Sufi’s, beloved of God, books of the world named Abdul Qadir Jilani. 44.

This great Sufi is counted as a beloved o f God, Kutub-e-Rabbani, and also Gausul

A ’zam in the history of Islamic world. His real name Abdul Qadir, pen name Muhi

Uddin, nick name Abu Muhammad and well known to the world as Ghausul A’zam.

His full name is Ghausul A’zam Shaikh Abu Muhammad Muhi-Uddin Abdul Qadir

Jilani.

He was bom at Gilan or Jilan. It is to be mentioned that Gilan or Jilan also known as

Vilam, is a south western province of Iran, South of the Caspian sea and north of the

Elburz chain. It is bounded in the east by Tabaristan or Mazandaran, and its northern limit is marked by the Juncture o f the Kur and the Araxes; its political boundary with

Russia is marked by Astara stream. It is one of the most beautiful areas in Iran. 05.

There are different opinions regarding his date of birth. Some says he was bom in 470

A.H. and some says in 471 A.H. in the last part of the 5“ century in the first day of

Ramadan. His father Sayeed Abu Saleh is fond of fighting.

44. Muhammad Alom,(tr.) Futeh -ul-Ghaib, (Urdu Translation, Rumuzul Ghaib), P-33.

45. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, EXS., P-170. 260

His mother Hazrath Fatima, daughter of Abdullah Saumayee was very noble and gentle lady. When he.was at the age of 60 years, Abdul Qadir Jilani was bom.

Abdul Qadir Jilani was foil of happiness and cheerfulness in his childhood.

The parents love him with heart and soul. Some miracles were disclosed from him in his boyhood. He is inclined in game,sports unlike other boy in that time. At his stage, minor, his father breathed his last. Then he was brought up under the guardianship of his grand father,Abdullah Sawmayee. In the next part of his life, he had no intention to accompany with the contemporary boys as because when he wished accompanying with the boys, an invisible sound came in his heart. “O’ fortunate child! you come to me”. On hearing this, he could not see the caller of the sound and then became fearful, thoughtful and mshed to his mother’s lap. Since then he decided not to accompany with the boys. He expressed to his mother what he had heard. His mother understood and observed herself, it is exceptional child whom the Almighty bestowed on me.

He began to learn his primary education from the womb of parents. He finished all the basic and primary education to his parents. At first, he learnt by heart the holy Quran. Due to sharpness o f his brains, he possessed uncommon knowledge .

He possessed sharp merit of order and also he had great tendency to acquire higher education. So, after completion his primary and secondary education in his house, he arranged to gain higher education. But unluckily, there was no any centre of learning in Jilan or its adjoining areas, due to lack of it in Jilan and he had been waiting for advantage of time.

It was the narration of that time when only the place of Baghdad of Iran is counted as a centre of learning and knowledge and civilization. There were many centres for higher education in Baghdad for the Muslim community. Nizamia 261

Madrassa was one of them which was considered as the top centre of knowledge.

From each and every comer of the Muslim world, the people used to come there to achieve higher education, science, technology and civilization. Baghdad stands far away from Jilan about 400 miles. 46.

Abdul Qadir Jilani used to hear name of famous Baghdad since his childhood.

He wished with ambition to occupy knowledge for the Quran and Hadith by travelling a distance of 400 miles.

When his mother was of 83 years old she wished to educate Jilani who was only son in the family whom all loves after very much. Abdul Qadir asked his mother who would bring up and look after when he went to remote Baghdad. Mother replied with consulation him not to be sorry and worry as the Omnipresent exists everywhere.

“O’ my dear! Go to Baghdad for gaining knowledge and fulfill your future dream”.

Thereafter she prayed to Allah that he may prosper in his life and make progressive and brightful life with grand success.

After a few days, she set for a journey accompanied with a trading Kafela who was going towards Baghdad. Having received blessing or Dua from mother, he started to proceed to Baghdad. At the time of departure his mother entrusted her child to the

Almighty and advised him to maintain truthfulness and chastity in the journey. On file way, the trading Kafela was attacted by a gang of dacoit and all were looted. But the gang of dacoit became fascinated and also ashamed observing his

46. Ibid, P-35. 262

extreme truthfulness and polite behaviour. Immediately they left then- profession of robbery for’ever.

Mention may be made that “Nizamia Madrassa’ of Baghdad was considered as an enlighting centre for education in that time, Abdul Qadir was admitted in that

Madrassa. The teachers and scholars of the Madrassa were counted as the world famous wise persons and skilled ones. Spiritual knowledge and other necessary important subjects were taught in the Madrassa. Due to these advantages, he occupied much knowledge on 13 subjects under the guidance of his eligible teachers. Specially due to inborn merit of him, he acquired reputation and skillness in various subjects within a short time. As a result, all the teachers love him very much.

The subjects in which Abdul Qadir earned perfect knowledge are specified in

(i) Hadith (ii) Tafseer (iii) (Literature) (iv) Philosophy and (v) Grammar.

He possessed concept of truthfulness, chastity, patience, love, charity, bravery, kindness, good character, knowledge of Shairath and Marifath which are esteemed as undescrible and miraculous in the world. 47.

He contributed his whole life in the service of the creator and devotion to God.

He had occupied much knowledge in mysticism, jurisprudence. Quran, Hadith. He was completely in the ascetic path .Introversive and Extroversive knowledge earned by him which later on lighted the whole world through spiritual love of God. All the

Sufis of the world is debt to Abdul Qadir Jilani.

47. Dr. Abdullah Razi, Tarik Iran-e-Kamll (Urdu), P-256. 263

He was an Arab by descent, being the 10th descendent of Hasan bin Ali, but belonged to Iran by migration of his ancestors. He came to Baghdad in 488 A.H. at the age of 18 years. It was perhaps not merely fortuitous that he arrived at Baghdad to acquire education almost at the same time when another reputed teacher, A1 Ghazzali, was leaving the city in search of truth.48 Although inclined to penance and cultivation of religious observances from an early age, he addressed himself whole-heartedly to acquire education under the most reputed teachers of the time such as Abul wafa Ibn Aqeel Muhammad bin Hasan at Baqillani and Abu Zakariya Tabrizi. Thereafter, he turned to mysticism and was guided in its tenets and practices by Shaikh Abul Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al Dabbas and Kazi Abu Sayeed Makhrami and was allowed by the latter to initiate others in the mystic order of his mentor.

Popular Enthusiasm

After completing his education of religious sciences as well as the training in mystic disciplines, Abdul Qadir began his carrer as a teacher in the seminary of his teacher Kazi Abu Sayeed Makhrami. In his seminar which were delivered in the premise of the same institution, there was soon such a rush of the people that extension had to be carried out in the building of the institution. It appeared as if the whole of Baghdad assembled in his congregation. At the same time, he claimed such an attention and difference from the people attending his lectures that even the kings would have envied it. Shaikh Muwaffaq uddin bin Qudamah, author of the Al Mughani, records that he had not seen a man more revered for his piety and religious learning than Abdul Qadir.

48. Imam Uddin Abul Fida Ismail bin Amar , Tafsire Ibn-Kathir (Arabic), P-149. 264

The king, his chief and ministers attended his sermons along with the rank and file and used to sit in a comer without any fanfare. Scholars and Jurists rubbed shoulders with the students. The enthusiastic devotion of the people coming to his lectures can be well imagined by the fact that as many as 400 inkpots were counted, which were brought in to take down the notes of his sermons.

Moral Excellence:- Not withstanding the implicit reverence cherished for Abdul

Qadir by the people, he was always modest, humble and unpretentious. He often left his work to attend to the needs of a child, a destitute or a slave girl. Never evading the company of the poor he even wash their clothes or performed similar other personal services for them, yet he never stood up in honour of any person of the work or the elite.49. If the caliph ever paid a visit to him, the chroniclers of his time report, he deliberately went inside his house so that he might not have to stand upto welcome the king.50. He used to come out of the house after the caliph had seated himself.

Abdul Qadir never paid back the courtesy call to any vazier or the king.

Those who have seen Abdul Qadir have paid a glowing tribute to his moral excellence and’ large-heartedness, modesty and hospitality, generosity and goodness of his heart. One of his contemporaries who has had the opportunity of enjoining the company of Abdul Qadir says that he had not seen a man more polite, large-hearted and charitable than Shaikh Abdul Qadir, Despite his erudition and eminence, he respected his elders, met the young-stars with deference but never stood up to welcome that grandees or nobles, nor did he ever pay a visit to any minister or governors.

49. Abdul Wahab A1 Shaharani, At Tabaqatul Kubra (Arabic), P-127.

50. Ibid, (Vol.-I), P-128, 26 5

Another contemporary of Abdul Qadir, Hafiz Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Yusuf al-Barzali reports.

“His prayers were readily answered. Being extremely tender-hearted, he would burst into tears (if anything sorrowful or touching was mentioned to him).

More often he was to be found immersed in meditation and recollection of God. He was soft-hearted courteous, cheerful, generous and compassionate. Being the offspring of a noble family, he was also highly reputed for his profound knowledge and piety”51.

Abdul Qadir took pleasure in feeding the poor and spending freely to meet the needs of the destitute. Ibn al-Nazzar reports that Abdul often used to say: “If I were given treasures of the whole world, I would spend all on of it feeding the poor”.

Sometimes he said : “It seems that, I have a whole in my hands, I cannot keep anything with me. If I had a thousand dinars, I would spend every single shell before the day break. He had given instruction to his servants that as many guests as possible should be invited for the dinner. During the dinner he always sat with the poor and lowly, chatted with his .students or enquired about the welfare of those who did not happen to be present there. His behaviour was so affectionate that everyone who met him gained the impression that Abdul Qadir had the highest regard for him. He overlooked the faults of others and if anyone stated something on oath, he readily accepted his statement. He never gave out the secrets of others nor stated anything before others that might put someone to shame.

51. Ibid, P-127. 266

Teaching and Missionary Activities:-

Gifted with divine grace and illumination, Abdul Qadir was ever conscious of the purification spirit and rectitude of morals, yet he did not lose site of the importance of teaching and disseminating the correct doctrines of the faiths. Being a follower of the Hambalite school o f Sunni theology; he endeavoued like his mentor, to root out innovations and deviations from the orthodox faith and practice. Because of his forceful defence of the strict orthodoxy, reports Ibn-al Sam’-ani, the traditionalist and their followers came to be hold in high esteem by the masses.

Abdul Qadir used to takes daily a class each of the Quranic exegesis, traditions and jurisprudence in which he also explained the differences between various juristic schools of Islam. The classes were held in the morning and evening, while ‘Abdul

Qadir listened to the recitation of the Quran after the mid-day prayers and thereafter dictated FATWAS’ on religious or legal questions referred to him. In formulating his answers Abdul Qadir generally followed the Shafeite and Hambalite schools of jurisprudence. His juristic opinions were highly praised by the jurist schools for Iraq for these provided a striking example of the acuteness of his intellect.

Once the question referred to him was that a man had taken an oath that he would perform a religious observance in a manner that nobody else in the whole world would be able to share the privilege with him but, if he failed to fulfil his undertaking, this would mean an irrevocable separation between him and his wife.

The scholars were astounded by the strange oath taken by the man and could not suggest an observance which could be performed by him alone in the whole world.

Abdul Qadir, however replied that the man should be allowed to circumambulate

Ka’ba alone seven times to perform the lesser Hajj. Everyone agreed that this was the 267 only authorized religious observance which he could perform alone at a time when nobody else be engaged in the same prayer.52.

Certitude of Knowledge:- Profound knowledge of the religious lore and meticulous observance of the tradition of the holy Quran, aided by the grace of God had unveiled the mysteries of celestial world of Abdul Qadir who had reached the stage where discrimination between truth and untruth, divine intuition and demonical imposition is bom in a man. He had acquired the certitude of knowledge that the

Shariah of the last Prophet was perfect and unchangeable and that any claim made contrary to the divine edict was simply a satanic suggestion. Abdul Qadir Jilani himself relates an incident that he once came across. He says.

“Once I saw a dazzling light which filled the entire sky. Then a human frame appeared there in and said; ‘O Abdul Qadir Jilani. I am lord, thy God, I have made everything prohibited’ lawful unto thee. I replied, ‘Get away from me, O’ Qevil. As soon as I uttered these words, the luster in the sky turned in to darkness and the human frame began to fizzle out into smoke. Then I heard someone saying, “Abdul I Qadir, I have missed seventy mystics with this device, but God saved thee qccount of the knowledge and piety’. After Abdul Qadir had related the incident someoe^askgck

“How did you know that it was Satan’. ‘Since he told me’, replied Abdul Qadir’ that he had made the things prohibited lawful for me”.53. He used to tell his disciples that if any action transgresses the commandments of God, then it is surely an imposition by the Satan. In such cases one should return to

52. Muhammad ibn Yahyah al-Tadfi al Hambali, Qual’id al Jawahir(Arabic), p-8.

53. Mohinddin Ahmed,(tr.) Savious of Islamic Spirit (vol-I) (of S. Abu Hasan Ali Nadwi), p-183. 268

the tenets of the Shariah, inculcate an unflinching faith, and firmly reject the temptations of self-indulgence; for, whatever is not permitted by the Shariat is decidedly misleading.

Love of humanity:- The love of humanity, in general, and the affection for the

Ummah, in particular was symptomatic o f Abdul Qadir’s sublimated soul and indicative of his close affinity to the successors of the prophet. In one of his sermons he delineated the object and the mental states of different types of persons visiting a market. Coming to the last category, he perhaps describes his own feelings in these words. “And there is the fifth man whose heart is filled, when he enters a market with the owe and reverence of the Almighty to seek his blessing for those present in the market. He becomes oblivious of everything else save his benediction for the people; he remains immersed, from the time of his entry into the market till he comes out of it, in the solemn invocation o f divine blessings and in repenting for the sins o f those who happen to be there, and thus he hardly gets anytime to see what they are selling or buying. His heart bleeds and eye shed tears over the ingratitude of man while his tongue remains busy in thanking God over what he has bestowed in to his bondsmen.54.

Sermons of Abdul Oadir:- The discourses of Abdul Qadir had a magnetic effect which is still discrenible in them. Abdul Qadir is at his best in Ftuh-ul- Ghaib and A1

Fathur Rabbani. In describing the love and unity of the divine being appears to be inspired by higher sources. The reader can still find the spirit of sincerity and enthusiasm running through these sermons.

54. Muhammad Alam,Futuh -ul- Ghaib (Arabic) (of Abdul Qadir Jilani Rumuz-ul-Ghaib), p-

175. 269

Following the footsteps of prophet, his successors and the illuminated saints of the old, Abdul Qadir touched on the current problems of his day’s analysed the reasons for the miseries and maladies of the people and answers to their doubts and deficiencies. Along with this the tremendous sincerity and emest zeal for the welfare of the people fired his haranguing with a frenzy of enthusiasm and magnetic effect capable of pulling the strings of the heart.

Critique of the Kings:- Abdul Qadir did not sermonize and admonish the populace alone; he fearlessly performed the duty made incumbent by the Shariah i.e, of enjoying the right and forbidding the wrong, and whenever he considered it necessarily, he publicly denounced the actions and policies of the kings, nobles and officials. He bitterly criticized the fault of the great ones without the slightest consideration of their power or position. Hafiz Imad-ud-din ibn Kathir, a historian of his time has made a mention of it in these words-

“He admonished all the Caliphs, Waziers, King, Jurists, Elite and the Laity- to

adopt the righteous course and to forsake the thinks forbidden. He openly

criticizes, unsparingly everyone to his face in this discourse”.

“He also used to denounce the authorities sternly if any tyrant was appointed

to a public office by them. He never cared for anyone if he saw the commands

of God being overstepped”.

Influence ofc Abdul Qadir:- The moral and excellence of Abdul Qadir, his unflinching devotion to God, are efficacy of his sermons, the inspiring and regenerating influence exercised by him over the people in his own time and the upright character and moral rectitude of those who have had an opportunity to be 270 instructed by him, mark him as one of the most eminent men of God bom in Islam.

He was not only a worker of incessant miracles, as the chroniclers of his time report, but his miracle of miracles lay in his inspiring and impressive teaching which made thousands to turn away from the lust of power as wealth and to inculcate the true spirit of faith through self correction and purification of the soul. In short, he was a striking example of the innate power of Islam to produce a true spirit of religion, love of God and moral righteousness in an age of crass materialism.55.

His works:- Peerless and matchless feme and reputation in the geography, Logic, ethical Shariath, grammar and specially in literature and character earned by him. He composed many books and poems in Arabic, -e-Burdah, Qasida-e-Gausiah. He also wrote the following books.: 56.

1. Futuh-ul-Ghaib.

2. Futuh--Rabbani.

3. Gunaiyatul T alibin.

4. Jalatul Khatir.

His prayers: - It is very hard to evaluate the limitation of his daily prayer. He recited the holy Quran one day standing on one foot till 18 years. It is narrated that he performed the Namaj-e-Fazar with having ablution(HWn) of Namj-e-Ehah till 4,0 years. At night, he used to spend whole night by praying and praising of the

Almighty.

55. Ibid, p-178.

56. Amanullah Khan Arman Sarhadi, Ghunaitul Taltbin (Arabic), pp-41,42. 271

After having finished Namaj-fazar, he used to read the holy Quran, Wazifa, Zikir and

Dua. All the Nawafil prayer narrated in the Hadith as a sunnah and Mustahab are observed by him in day and night.

Death:- This Matchless Sufi, Abdul Qadir Jilani was fallen in a hard diseases in 561

A.H. in the month of Rabiul Aowal, then he was 90 years of old. By degrees, he is going to weak and thin. On the Friday of Rabiul Aowal, he was fallen to bed. The tidings of his diseases spread far and wide in the world. On hearing this, many sufis, mystics, scholars, disciples, and followers from each and every comer of the world came here to visit him. At night on Monday, he left this world for good by uttering

All the scholars remarked on his death that the Muslim world lost a bright star of Islam. At last the funeral procession o f him maintained by his son named Abdul

Wahab.

Abdul Qadir Jilani left a large number of pious and saintly disciples who continued to disseminate his message and fight this worldliness and its vices like opulence, luxury, fame and power.58.

57. Ibid, p-44,45.

58. Futhiii Ghaib, p-189. 272

2. Bayazid Bustami

Long ago there was a young boy named Bayazid Bustami. He was bom in Persia, an ancient land of plains, mountains and poetry. 59.

Being the only son of a poor, widowed mother, he was the light of her eyes and she rested all her hopes for the future on him. She dedicated her life to giving him the best she could, but because she was poor, she couldn't afford much.

As the small boy grew older, she scraped together what money she could and sent him to the local school where he could learn to read and write. While he was there, he would study the Qur'an, Shar'iah, math, Arabic and poetry. He turned out to be an excellent student and he learned quickly.

One day, while he was reading the Qur’an he came across an ayah in which Allah said, "Be thankful to Me and be thankful to your parents."

Bayazid read this ayah a second time and then thought about what it meant. He closed the book and immediately ran back to his mother.

Now because he came home early from school, his mother became worried. She asked him, "What's wrong, my son? Did you run away from school? Is there something that happened?"

"No, mother," Bayazid answered. "I read an ayah from the Holy Qur'an today that said we have to be thankful to Allah and to our parents. This made me a little worried.

I'm not real strong so how can I serve two masters?

59. Dr. Zuhari-e-Khanlari Kiya. Farhang-e-Adabiayat-c-Farsi Dari, PP-83. 273

Mother, either keep me in your service or give me up in the service of Allah."

His mother paused for a second and smiled. Then she immediately grasped his hands in hers and said, "My son, I dedicate you to the service of Allah. To me, if you serve Allah you’re serving me, too."

Bayazid smiled and returned to school with a new heart for his studies and a new attitude. Everyone noticed the change in him, and his teachers marveled over how he seemed to pour himself into his studies from that day forward.

He began to come to school early to read and left long after all the other students had gone. When his teacher asked him what happened, why he had become so motivated to study and learn, Bayazid explained how his mother had released him to serve only Allah. The teacher smiled and hugged the boy firmly.

In time, after he had become a young man, Bayazid went out on the road in search of more advanced learning. He traveled all over the Muslim world and attended different colleges and studied with different teachers. He earned many degrees along the way.

After a few more years he settled in the city of Baghdad, which at that time, was the most important city in the Muslim world.

He taught in a small school and went to college at night and never left his desire to master everything he could to be a truly thankful servant of Allah.

One late night he was on his way home when he encountered a rowdy band of drunks on the street. One of them had a guitar and was playing it in a sloppy, annoying way. Bayazid wanted to avoid them but they were harassing everyone who 274 passed by. As Bayazid walked by them, the leader of the bunch started insulting him in a very nasty way, calling him names and taunting him.

Bayazid told the man to stop his foolish talk but this made the drunken man even more angry. The drunk picked up his guitar, lifted it high over his head and then brought it down, smashing it over Bayazid's head. The guitar shattered into a dozen pieces and blood streamed down Bayazid's forehead. The rest of the drunks paused for a minute and then started yelling and laughing again.

Bayazid didn't say a word and went home in silence, wiping the blood off his head with a handkerchief.

The next day, Bayazid gave a basket of candy and a few dollars to his servant and directed him to go to the leader of the drunks and tell him the following words:

"Last night my head was responsible for breaking your guitar. Please buy a new one with this money. And also I found that your tongue was very sour last night.

Please remove the sourness of your tongue by eating these sweet candies."

When the drunken man received the gifts, he was so filled with shame and repentance that he brought his entire rowdy group to Bayazid and begged for forgiveness. He gave up drinking and became a righteous Muslim from that moment onward.

After a few more years in Baghdad, Bayazid again took to the road and traveled in many lands where the people were not yet Muslims. He traveled all over India and brought thousands of people to Islam. News of his spiritual insight and wisdom reached far and wide. 275

Years passed and when he was a middle-aged man, Bayazid received a note from his first teacher, his teacher from the school when he was a boy. It said, "Come to me."

So Bayazid immediately sold everything he had in India and began the long journey back home to Persia. Along the way, huge crowds of people gathered in every town and village he passed through. Everyone wanted to get a glimpse of the famous scholar they had heard so much about.

Then, after a month of traveling, Bayazid finally reached the small village school where he had first learned to love knowledge.

His teacher, who was very old by now, told Bayazid to sit down in front of him. He paused a moment and then he said, "Bayazid, you have fulfilled your promise to

Allah. Now go and serve your mother."60.

When he heard his mother being mentioned, a rush of feelings overwhelmed his heart and he was filled with an unstoppable desire to see her again.

But he knew a huge crowd was gathering in the center of town in anticipation of seeing him, put on a dark robe with a hood and waited until night had fallen. Then he snuck out of the teacher's house through a back door and made his way to his mother's cottage.

Before he could knock on the door, he heard her praying inside. She was saying,

"Merciful Allah. I have dedicated my son to your path. It is for You to love him and for You to take care of him."

60. Muhammad Yahya Tamizi, Sufi Movements in Eastern India, P-39 276

Bayazid couldn't hold his sorrow in a moment longer. He burst out in uncontrollable tears and sobbing.

His mother heard someone crying outside the door and she called out, "Have you come back, my son?"

Bayazid replied in a choked voice, "Yes, mother, I have returned. Please, open the door and see your son again."

The door was opened after a moment and Bayazid threw himself at his mother's feet and cried. She carefully bent down and pulled him up while passing her hands over his head and face.

She then said, "I've wished for nothing more than to see your face again, my son, but, alas, you have come too late. For I can see no more."

His mother had become blind. She would never again be able to look upon the face of her long lost son, the one she gave to Allah so many years before. From that moment forward, Bayazid vowed to be thankful to his mother for the rest of his life and for as long as she lived, he never left her side.

This great Sufi died in 261 A.H. (874 A.D.) 61.

61.1bid, P-40. 277

Bayazid Bustami, a great Sufi, was the first in the Islamic mysticism to imply the term ‘ and Baqa’ later on it became the basis of Sufi theosophy. It implies that human attributes were annihilated through union with God, a stage in which the

Sufi finds ‘Baqa ’. It is very strange that human attributes are generally afraid of death and annihilation but, Sufi always desires for Fana Fillah and there after Baqa Billah.

As they believed all human kinds have come from God and again will go back to

Him. The materialists do not believe the hereafter life, according to them once a person died, everything is finished. He or she cannot be brought to life. But Sufis which rejecting this ideology say that Fana is not death but it is conversion of shape in to another shape whatever thing or human being comes in to being in this world are never destroyed only their shapes gets changed.

Abu Yazid Bustami founded the school of ecstasy. According to this school when one was intoxicated with the love of Allah, the humanity of man was extinguished and he could secure union with Allah. 62

62. Proof. Masudul Hasan, History of Islam - (VoI.-I). P-617. 278

3.Mansur«*' Hallaj

He was bom around 858 in Tur, Iran to a cotton-carder (Al-Hallaj means

“cotton-carder” in Arabic). AJ-Hallaj’s grandfather may have been a Zoroastrian. His father lived a simple lie, and this form of lifestyle greatly interested the young al-

Hallaj. As a youngster he memorized the Qur’an and would often retreat from worldly pursuits to join other mystics in study. Al-Hallaj would later marry and make a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stayed for one year, facing the mosque, in fasting and total silence.

Mansur-Al-Hallaj- Mystical unversalism. His method was one of “universalist mystical introspection”: “it was at the bottom of the heart that he looked for God and wanted to make others find Him”. “He believed one had to go beyond the forms of religious rites to reach divine reality”. Thus, “he used without hesitation the

terminology of his opponents, which he set right and refined”, ready to make himself

hostage o the denominational logic of others”@

His works:- The famous “Beh Haadh Ramza Dhasdha Mera Dholan

Mahi” is sung in his honour. His most well known written work is the Kitab al

Tawasin. His writings are very important not only to Sufis, but to all Muslims. Many

Thelemites also make use o his teachings, especially in terms of his identification as

God-a central Gnostic principle. His example is seen by some as one that should be

emulated, especially his calm demeanor in the face of torture and his forginving of his

tormentors. Many honor him as an adept that came to realize the inherent divine

nature of all men and women.

@Google com. While some theological Universalists theorize that Hallaj was a reflection

God’s truth in much

It is to be mentioned that a headlong clash between orthodoxy and Sufism n the early years of 10th century. When Mansur Hallaj a mystic enraptured by ecstasy said what was interpreted as heresy and blasphemy. In his book ‘Kitab ul Tawasm n

Hallaj wrote.

“If you do not recognise Allah, at least rcognise His signs. 1 am the ere mu truth, because through the truth I am a truth eternally. My friends and teachers an

Iblis and . Iblis was threatened with hell fire. yet. he did not recant Pharaoh was drowned in the sea, yet he did not recant, for he would not acknowledge anyt lime between him and Allah. And I, though I am killed and crucified, and though im hands and feets are cut off, I do not recant.”

For this heresy, A1 Hallaj was executed in 922 A.D.

The execution of Mansur Hallaj made the other sufis more cautious and circumspect. In contrast to the doctrine of ecstasy, the of Sufism headed by A1 Junaid advocated the doctrine of sobriety. This doctrine led to silence

The genuine Sufis chose to remain silent, or clothe their thoughts in obscure symho-s or metaphors. That made some of the sufis take to poetry as a vehicle foi he expression of their thought. 280

D. The Erudite Islamic Jurists of Persian descent are:

1. The greatest Imam Abu Hanifa. (80-150 A.H.) (699-767 A.D.)

Better known as Imam-e-Adham or Imam-e-Azam (The greatest Imam) or by his

Kunyah, Abu Hanifa, but his real name Nu’man bin Thabit was bom in the city of

Kufa (modem day Iraq) in the year 80 A.H. (689 A.D.). Bom in to family of tradesman, the Imam’s family were of Persian origin as well as descending from the noble prophet’s (peace be up on him) companion Salman al-Farsi(R:A). Imam Abu

Hanifs father, Thabit had met in Kufa Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (R:A) who offerd dua for him and his progeny, and some say that Abu Hanifa was a result of this dua. 63.

A Hadith given by al-Bukhari and Muslim states that (R:A) narrated Allah’s Messenger (S:A) as saying, “If the religion were at the Pleiades, even then a person from Persia would have taken hold of it, or one amongst the Persian descent would surely have found it”. Abu Hurairah(R:A) also narrates: “we are sitting in'the company of Allah’s Apostle (S:A) when Suratul Jumah was revealed to him and when he recited amongst them, (those who were sitting here) said Allah’s

Messenger but Allah’s Apostle made no, reply,- until he was questioned. Once, twice or thrice, and there was amongst us Salman the Persian. Allah’s Appostle placed his hand on Salman and then said, even if faith were near the Pleiades, a man amongst these would surely find it. Imam as- Suyuti, a Shafi’i Alim remarked: It has been communicated unanimously that this Hadith refers to Imam Abu Hanifa.

63. Abu Bakr Ahmed ibn Ali al Khatib,Tarikh-i-Baghdad(Arabic), P-13. 281

Kufa at the time of the Imam’s birth a great centre of knowledge and learning, with many of the noble prophet’s companions having taken residence there. Due to the presence of these venerable people who had engendered so much interest in hadith and riwayat that practically every house in Kufa had become a centre of these disciplines and their disciplines.

At first, Imam Abu Hanifa was not a student of knowledge. However, by coincidence, while one day passing by the house of Sha’bi (an acclaimed great scholar among the successor), Abu Hanifa was called in by the Shaykh who mistook him for a student. Where are you going young man? asked Sha’bi, Abu Hanifa named the merchant he was going to see”. “I meant to ask, asked Sha’bi, whose classes do you attend”? “Nobody,” replied the Imam regretfully.” “I see signs of intelligence in you” began Sha’bi, “you should sit in the company of learned men.

It was after this encounter that the young Imam began his quest for knowledge. Imam Abu Hanifa acquired knowledge from over four thousand people.

His teacher included many prestigious men of the time whose Sanad went back to number of companions. He himself was blessed with the meeting of the companions.

Anas bin Malik, Abdullah ibn Afwa and Sahl ibn Sa’ad, thus gaining him the rank of being of Tabi’ i(suceessor of companions).

Amongst Imam Abu Hanifa’s Shayukh was Hammad ibn Sulaiman, he joined his circle at the age of 22, having already became a well-known debater and studies with this Shaykh until the latters death, where upon he took over his (circle) at the age of 40. Shu’ba, a leading Muhaddith who knew by heart two thousand traditions were also a teacher of Imam Abu Hanifa. Shu’ba was greatly attached to 282

Imam Abu Hanifa saying. “Just as I know that the Sun is bright, I know that learning and Abu Hanifa are doubles of each other”.

The Imam’s quest for knowledge inevitably took him to the Holy Sanctuaries, at a time when Makkah was a busy centre for learning. A number of acknowledged masters of Hadith, who had access to the prophets companions had established their own schools there. Of these was Ata bin Rabah’s school. Ata was a famous Tabi’i who had associated with the most of the companions and acquired from this association a status of authority. He himself claimed to have met two hundred men who had associated with the noble prophet. The leading companions all acknowledged his learning. Abdullah bin Umar, son of the second caliph Umar (R:A) often used to say: “why do people come to me when Ata ibn Rabah is there for them to go to”? Of the Muhadditin of Makka whose classes the Imam attended was Ikrama.

He was the slave and pupil of Abdullah bin Abbas, who educated him with great care and attention, making him so proficient that he during his own lifetime gave Imam

Abu Hanifa the authority to exercise personal judgment and rulings. Imam Abu

Hanifa was the first to analyze Islamic jurisprudence, divide in to subjects distinguish its issues and determine the range and criteria for analytical reasoning (Qias).

A1 Hafiz al Kabir Abu Bakr Ahmed al-Harizmi wrote in his book ‘Musnad’.

“Saif al Aimma reports that when Imam Abu Hanifa derived a matter from the

Quran and Hadith, he would not give the answer to the inquirer unless all o f them (his student) confirmed it. One thousand of Abu Hanifa’s disciples attended all his classes when he taught in the Mosque of Kufa city. Forty of them were Mujtahids. When he would find an answer for a matter, he would suggest to his students who would study it together, and when they reached an agreement of it being cosistent with the Quran 283 and Hadith and with the words of the Sahabah, he would be delighted and say, “A1

Hamdu-lillah Wallahu-Akbar”, and all those who were present would repeat his words. Then he would tell them to write it down.”64.

Ibn' Abd al-Barr relates in Al-Intiq1:

'Abd Allah ibn Ahmad al-Dawraqi said:"Ibn Ma'inn was asked about

Abu Hanifah as I was listening, so he said"He is trustworthy

(thiqatun), I never heard that anyone had weakened him." No less than

Shu'ba wrote to him [for narrations], and ordered him to narrate

hadith.'

Ibn Hajar said in Kharija ibn al-Salt's notice in"Tahdhib al-Tahdhib":

Ibn Abi Khaythama said:"If al-Shu'bi narrates from someone and

names him, that man is trustworthy (thiqa) and his narration is used as

proof (yuhtajju bi hadithihi)".

Many well-known shuyukh narrated from Imam Abu Hanifah, to name but a few: al-, ibn al-Mubarak, Hammad ibn Zayd and ’Abd al-Razzaq (one of Imam al-Bukhari's shaykhs.) Al-Mizzi in"Tahdhib al-Kamal" names about one hundred names of those who narrated from Imam Abu Hanifah.

64. Ibid, P-324 284

Imam as-Shafi'i is recorded to have stated:"AIl men of fiqh are Abu Hanifah's children" and"! would not have acquired anything of knowledge had it not been for my teacher. All men of knowledge are children of the ulema of Iraq, who were the disciples of the ulema of Kufa, and they were the disciples of Abu Hanifah."

The Hanafi , entitled after the Imam, spread far-and-wide during the time of the . Today, more than half of the Muslims on the earth perform their 'ibabadah according to the Hanafi madhhab. The Hanafi school has decided court cases in the majority of Islamic lands for the greater part of Islamic history, including th e ' Abbasid and Ottoman periods.

Not only was Imam Abu Hanifah's extraordinary mind and knowledge something to be admired, but so too was his exemplary character and piety. Al-

Dhahabi writes:" Accounts of his piety and devotion have reached a degree of tawatur

(i.e., an unbroken chain o f uncontradicted narrations)."

He was given the title of ‘The Peg’ by some, for his continuous standing in prayer, often reciting the entire Qur'an in his nightly rakahs. He performed the Fajr prayer with the ablution made for the Isha prayers for forty years (due to him praying the whole night through). It is reported that he had recited the whole Qur'an seven thousand times in the place where he died.

He earned his living through trade (sending goods to other places), and with the earnings he made, he met the needs of his students. He gave much to charity and every Friday he would distribute twenty gold coins to the poor for his parents' souls.

In the year 146 A.H, Abu Hanifah was sent to prison by Mansur, the leader at the time, after the Imam's refusal to state that Mansur was the rightful khalifa, as well 285 as refusing the position of presidency of the Supreme Court in recompense.? While in prison, Imam Abu Hanifah was thrashed with a stick. Mansur repented and sent the

Imam money, only to be refused again. By now, Imam Abu Hanifah had become well-known and thousands flocked to meet and seek his opinion wherever he went.

His imprisonment far from reduced his popularity, and Mansur realized that he would have to treat the Imam carefully, thus he allowed him to teach while still in prison.

Mansur finally decided to do away with the great Imam and had him poisoned. Abu

Hanifah, feeling the effects of the poison, bent down in prayer and died in the month of Rajab. News of the Imam’s death reached far-and-wide, and thousands gathered at the prison.? The city Qadi washed his body, and kept repeating: "By God, you w^re the greatest faqih and the most pious man of our time"

By the time the bathing was finished, so many people had assembled that the funeral prayer was performed in presence o f fifty thousand people.

The Great Imam died in Baghdad in 150 A.H at the age of seventy and was buried in the grave yard of Khaizam, May Allah be pleased with him. 65.

He is the first of the four mujtahid Imams and the only Successor (tabi'i) among them, having seen the Companions Anas ,' Abd Allah ibn Abi Awfa,

Sahl ibn Sa'd al-Sa'idi, Abu al-Tufayl, and 'Amir ibn Wathila.

65. S. Afoul Hasan, Imam Abu Hanifa (Bengali), P-51,5233. 286

Abu 'Hanifa is the first in Islam to organize the writing of fiqh under sub­ headings embracing the whole of the Law, beginning with purity (tahard) followed by prayer (salaj, an order which was retained by all subsequent scholars such as Malik,

Shafi'i, Abu Dawud, Bukhari, Muslim, Tirmidhi, and others. All these and their followers are indebted to him and give him a share of their reward because he was the first to open that road for them, according to the hadith of the Prophet: "He who starts something good in Islam has its reward and the reward of those who practice it until the Day of Judgement, without lessening in the least the reward of those who practice it. The one who starts something bad in Islam will incur its punishment and the punishment of all those who practice it until the Day of Judgement without lessening their punishment in the least." Al-Shafi'i referred to this when he said: "People are all the children of Abu Hanifa in fiqh, of in history, of Malik in hadith, and of

Muqatil in ."

Al-Khatib narrated from Abu Hanifa’s student Abu Nu'aym that the latter said: "Muslims should make du'a to Allah on behalf of Abu Hanifa in their prayers, because the Sunan and the fiqh were preserved for them through him. Al-Dhahabi wrote one volume on the life of each of the other three great Imams and said: "The account of Abu Hanifa’s life requires two volumes." His son Hammad said as he washed his father’s body for burial: "May Allah have mercy on you! You have exhausted whoever tries to catch up with you."

Abu Hanifa was scrupulously pious and refused Ibn Hubayra’s offer of a judgeship even when the latter had him whipped. Like al-Bukhari and al-Shafi'i, he used to make 60 complete recitations (khatma) of Qur’an every Ramadan: one in the day, one in the night, besides his teaching and other duties. Ibrahim ibn Rustum al- 287

Marwazi said: "Four are the Imams that recited the entire Qur’an in a single rak'a:

'Uthman ibn 'Affan, Tamim al-Dari, Sa'id , and Abu Hanifa." Ibn al-

Mubarak said: "Abu Hanifa for a long time would pray all five prayers with a single ablution." 66.

Al-Suyuti relates in Tabyid al-Sahifa that a certain visitor came to observe

Abu Hanifa and saw him all day long in the mosque, teaching relentlessly, answering every question from both the scholars and the common people, not stopping except to pray, then standing at home in prayer when people were asleep, hardly ever eating or sleeping, and yet the most handsome and gracious of people, always alert and never tired, day after day for a long time, so that in the end the visitor said: "I became convinced that this was not an ordinary matter, but wilaya (Friendship with Allah)."

Al-Shafi'i said: "Knowledge revolves around three men: Malik, al-Layth, and

Ibn 'Uyayna." Al-Dhahabi commented: "Rather, it revolves also around al-Awza'i, al-

Thawri, Ma'mar, Abu Hanifa, Shu'ba, and the two Hammads (ibn Zayd and ibn

Salama)."

Sufyan al-Thawri praised Abu Hanifa when he said: "We were in front of Abu

Hanifa like small birds in front of the falcon," and Sufyan stood up for him when Abu

Hanifa visited him after his brother’s death, and he said: "This man holds a high rank in knowledge, and if I did not stand up for his science I would stand up for his age, and if not for his age then for his Godwariness (warn'), and if not for his Godwariness then for his jurisprudence (fiqh)." Ibn al-Mubarak praised Abu Hanifa and called him a sign of Allah. Both Ibn al-Mubarak and Sufyan al-Thawri said:

66. Abu Bakr Ahmed ibn Alt al Khatib, Tarikh-i-Baghdad(Arabic), P-13. 288

"Abu Hanifa was in his time the most knowledgeable of all people on earth."

Ibn Hajar also related that Ibn al-Mubarak said; "If Allah had not rescued me with

Abu Hanifa and Sufyan [al-Thawri] I would have been like the rest of the common people." Dhahabi relates it as: "I would have been an innovator."

An example of Abu Hanifa’s perspicuity in inferring legal rulings from source-texts is his reading of the following hadith:

The Prophet said: "Your life in comparison to the lifetime o f past nations is like the period between the time of the mid-afternoon prayer ( ‘asr) and sunset. Your example and the example of the Jews and Christians is that of a man who employed laborers and said to them: ‘Who will work for me until mid-day for one qirat (a unit of measure, part of a dinar) each?5 The Jews worked until mid-day for one qirat each.

Then the man said: ‘Who will work for me from mid-day until the ‘asr prayer for one qirat each?’ The Christians worked from mid-day until the ‘asr prayer for one qirat each. Then the man said: ‘Who will work for me from the 'asr prayer until the maghrib prayer for two qirat each?5 And that, in truth, is all of you. In truth, you have double the wages. The Jews and the Christians became angry and said: ‘We did more labor but took less wages.5 But Allah said: ‘Have I wronged you in any of your rights?5 They replied no. Then He said: ‘This is My Blessing which I give to whom I wish.5"

It was deduced from the phrase "We did more labor" that the time of mid-day to 'asr must always be longer than that between 'asr and maghrib. This is confirmed by authentic reports whereby:

The Prophet hastened to pray zuhr and delayed praying 'asr. 289

The Prophet said: "May Allah have mercy on someone who prays four rak'as before 'asr.

Ali delayed praying asr until shortly before the sun changed, and he reprimanded the mu’adhdhin who was hurrying him with the words: "He is trying to teach us the Sunna!"

Ibrahim al-Nakha'i said: "Those that came before you used to hasten more than you to pray zuhr and delay more than you in praying 'asr." Al-Tahanawi said:

"Those that came before you" are the Companions.

Ibn Mas'ud delayed praying 'asr.

Sufyan al-Thawri, Abu Hanifa, and his two companions Muhammad ibn a-

Ilasan and Abu Yusuf therefore considered it better to lengthen the time between zuhr

and 'asr by delaying the latter prayer as long as the Sun did not begin to redden, while the majority of the authorities considered that praying 'asr early is better, on the basis

of other sound evidence to that effect.

Like every Friend of Allah, Abu Hanifa had his enemies.' Abdan said that he

heard Ibn al-Mubarak say: "If you hear them mention Abu Hanifa derogatively then

they are mentioning me derogatively. In truth I fear for them Allah’s displeasure."

Authentically related from Bishr al-Hafi is the statement: "No-one criticizes Abu

Hanifa except an envier or an ignoramus." Hamid ibn Adam al-Marwazi said: I heard

Ibn al-Mubarak say: "I never saw anyone more fearful of Allah than Abu Hanifa, even

on trial under the whip and through money and property." Abu Mu'awiya al-Darir

said: "Love of Abu Hanifa is part of the Sunna." 290

It is to be mentioned that Abu Hanifa (699 — 767 CE / 80 — 148 AH) was bom in

Kufa, Iraq during the reign of the powerful Umayyad caliph Abdul Malik bin

Marwan. Acclaimed as Al-Imam al-A'zam, or Al-A'dham (the Great Imam), Nu’man bin Thabit bin Zuta bin Mah was better known by his kunya Abu Hanifa. It was not a true kunya, as he did not have a son called Hanifa, but an epithetical one meaning pure in monotheistic belief. In his reply to al-Mansur, Abu Hanifa excused himself by saying that he did not regard himself fit for the post. Al-Mansur, who had his own ideas and reasons for offering the post, lost his temper and accused

Abu Hanifa of lying. "If I am lying," Abu Hanifa said, "then my statement is doubly correct. How can you appoint a liar to the exalted post of a Chief Qadi (Judge)?"

Incensed by this reply, the ruler had Abu Hanifa arrested and locked in prison and tortured. Ya'qubi, vol.111, p.86; Muruj al-dhahab, vol.Ul, p.268-270. Even there, the indomitable jurist continued to teach those who were permitted to come to him. In

767, Abu Hanifa died in prison. It was said that so many people attended his funeral that the funeral service was repeated six times for more than 50,000 people who had amassed before he was actually buried. 67.

In Iraq, Imam Abu Hanifa formulated the principles of Jurisprudence. He was the first to give prominence to the doctrine of ‘Qiyes’ or analogical deductions. He introduced the principle of ‘Ijma\ Some Jurists were of the opinion that the validity of ‘Ijma’ as a source of law was restricted to the companions of the Holy prophet or at the most their successors of the first generation. Imam Abu Hanifa held that the doctrine of

‘Ijma’ was valid for the people of every age.

67. S. Abul Hasan, Imam Abu Hanifa, P-53. 291

Imam Abu Hanifa also recognized the authority of local customs and usages as a guide in the applications of law. Imam Abu Hanifa and his disciplines (Abu Yusuf,

Yahya bin Abi Zaid, Hafs bin Ghias, Daud al Tai, Habban, Zafar and Mandal) worked on the project for 30 years, and produced a comprehensive code of law. Unfortunately that code has been lost and only shorter works have been come down to us. 68.

68. Prof. Masudul Hasan,History of Islam, (Vol.-I), P-623. 292

2. TBN JARIR AT-TABARIfHistorian and QuranicCommentator)

In the 9th century A.C., Islamic learning was its peak. Muslim scholars and scientists, excelled in their learning and achievements in different fields. Abu Jafar

Muhammad ibn Jarir at-Tabari surpassed them all. Learned in Hadith and literature, he also studied many other subjects to further his knowledge of the holy Qur’an and the religion of Islam. During the end of his days, he was known as a commentator on the holy Quran, an expert in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and as a famous historian.

He was also the author of many books; the most famous of them was his Tafseer of the holy Qur’an and the other was his encyclopedia on Islamic history. 69.

At-Tabari was bom in the city of Amul in Tabaristan a mountainous region lying south of the Caspian sea in the year 839 A.C. Amul had been built on the banks of a river, and the nearest part was a place called Humm which was at the mouth of the river. Amul was a walled city with a huge population. There were several hospitals in the city for the care of the sick. Schools had been built for children and there were mosques for people to pray. Merchants would trade their goods in the market place, silks, carpets, vegetables and animals exchanged hands between the traders and the buyers.

The Brilliant Student:- At very young age, he was sent to a school to learn the holy

Quran and Calligraphy. In his student days, At-Tabari had developed a talent of mastering long and complex subjects. By the age of seven, he would recite the holy

Qur’an from memory. It was a great achievement and his parents were extremely proud of him.

69. Prof. Masudul Hasan, History of Islam (VoL-I), P-609. 293

In the second stage of his education in the city of Amul, he began to study the

Hadith and literature. The books tought him the sayings of Holy prophet(S:A), his action and his approval and disapproval of things. He took care to study them along with the chain of narrators who had reported them to others. 70.

When he had learnt all that was needed to know on the subject, he set his heart on setting down in the city of Rey to further his knowledge. Rey was a large, beautiful city that scholar’s of that period had made it their home. At Rey, he studied Hadith under Ar-Razi and two other scholars. Ar-Razi was a hard taskmaster and he took care to crosscheck with his students to make sure that they had learnt the Hadith from him properly. At-Tabari managed to learn one hundred thousand Hadith from him.

In this period, At-Tabari took a keen self-interest in learning poetry for it was the way to master the intricacies of the Arabic language. He learnt many of the poems and recited them from memory. He amazed his friends and teachers with progress he had made in the study of .

His stay in the city of Rey was fruitful and had served his purpose. He had been fortunate to learn under the greatest of teachers in those times. He wanted to acquire more and more and for that he had to travel to a different places and studies under different teachers. In the end, he decided to travel to Baghdad.

His teachers were very sorry to see him go. He had been a brilliant student during his entire academic career. Ar-Razi offered him a job of an assistant teacher in order to persuade him to stay at Rey, but At-Tabari wanted to study Hadith under the

70. D.E. Smith, History of Iran and Turkey, P-32. 294

guidance of Imam Ahmed-bin-Hambal in Baghdad, who was an authority on

Hadith and Tafseer. With this thought in his mind, he set out for Baghdad with one of the caravans that travelled from China along the Khurasan Road. 71.

At-Tabari was one of the rare scholars who studied without the help of a patron to finance his studies. He did not depend on others to help him out during the course of his studies. He studied and lived on what he earned and spent it on travelling and studying. He accepted only those gifts from his friends, which he was able to match and throughout his life, he was proud of this fact.

It is said that At-Tabari once refused a gift of 10,000 dirhams from a minister in the king’s court. He returned the gift with a message from the minister saying that if he did not want it for himself; he could give it to the poor. At-Tabari refused to accept it and replied that the minister should know the poor people in the land better than he did. He wished that the minister distributed the money himself. He did not want anybody to say that he accepted money from a minister even to distribute it to the poor. It is also said that, one day some of his students presented him with a carpet.

He accepted the carpet from the student, but insistead on paying its cost.

JOURNEY TO BAGHDAD:- On his way to Baghdad, At-Tabari visited the city of

Sawa, a famous centre for business and learning. It had fine buildings that housed many libraries. Astronomical observatories had been established there to study the movement of the stars and the planets. His next stop was in the city of Hamdhan and from there he headed towards Hulwan. The city of Hulwan divided the mountainous regions of Persia and the planes o f Iraq.

71. Ibid, P-55. 295

It was a city of gardens with fruit trees growing in it and the surrounding mountains with its snow-capped peaks made the town, a scenic place.

At Hulwan, At-Tabari came to know that Ahmed bin Hambal, the famous scholar of Hadith had died some months ago. He was extremely disappointed at this news, but he made up his mind to continue with his journey to Baghdad as he felt that he would gain much by studying at this city which was famous throughout the

Muslim world for its fine libraries, and scholars. 72.

Baghdad in those days was one of the largest cities in the world with population of two and a half million people. It was also the centre for trade and business. Pepole from all occupations coverged on the city to earn their livelihood. It had hospitals, mosques and public baths.

One of the first places visited by him was the academy. The director was a king man who showed At-Tabari around the entire campus and graciously allowed him the use of the library whenever he wished. At-Tabari was also able to talk to other scholars who studied there. He discussed with them their fields of stydy and got firsthand knowledge of the progress of education.

He sent several years in the city studying Hadith, fiqh and Tafseer with the religious scholars who worked there. At the age of 30 years, he had become a famous scholar'in his own-right and except for two short trips to Tabaristan, he spent his entire life in the city of Baghdad.

72. Inostranzeb, Iranian Influence on Muslim literature, P-19. 296

As a Popular Teacher:- At-Tabari was counted greatly as a popular teacher in

Baghdad. Students from distant land travelled to Baghdad to study under him. He gave lectures and encouraged them towards research work. He advised them to gain knowledge of medicine and mathematics also. He followed a daily programme of lecturing and writing. He would start writing from noon till it was time for afternoon prayers. After that he delivered his lecture to his students on Tafseer until the Maghrib prayer. After Maghrib prayer, he would lecture them on Law. He would retire to his room for the night and spent a good deal of it writing on different subjects. He wrote at an average of forty pages a day. 73.

He was very kind to his students and helped them during their studies. He would share meals with them. He advised them to develop the body along with their mind. On his part, he would always be clean and well dressed and won the respect of all with his good behavior.

His Works:- In the 10th century, At-Tabari wrote the first commentary on the

Holy Quran, entitled Jami’al bayan Fi Tafsir al Quran. He collected for the first time the ample material of traditional exegesis and created standard work.

At-Tabari had for a long time delivered writing a commentary of the Holy

Qur’an, but he always kept putting of the task. It would take years of hard work, preparation and study. His students and other scholars started pressurizing him to take up the task. They were willing to extend all help for him to complete the task for they felt that there was a need for a comprehensive commentary on the Holy Quran in

Muslim literature. But when At-Tabari told them that he wanted to write a commentary o f30,000 pages, they were stunned.

73. Ibid, P-23 297

They could not believe that any body could complete such a task within his life time. 74.

When the work began on the commentary the house of At-Tabari became a studio. Each of his students was entrusted with a specific task. They travelled to book shops and libraries to search for specialized information. Others copied his work and some worked on abridging his long comments. As the news began to spread, there was a steady stream of visitors to his house daily to see him how he was progressing on the task. He worked slowly and carefully and it took many years to complete the job that he had set out to do. In the commentary he made an in depth analysis of the

Quranic verses along with its aspects of style and meaning. The result was an encyclopedia that was 30(thirty) volumes long.

Orders began to pour in from libraries and academies of the Muslim world.

Everyone wanted to have copies of it. His fame and renown spread far and his commentary of the Holy Quran was well received everywhere and it became a reference book for the serious students of the Holy Quran. Its translation are popular today as it was in those days.

Besides, he also wrote Tarikh-e-Tabari in Arabic under the title o f Tarikh-ur-

Rusul Muluk consisted of 12 parts which later on was translated in Persian towards the middle of the 3rd century A.H. during the Samanid period (in 352 A.H.) by Abu

Ali Muhammad bin Muhammad Balami by the order of Amir Mansur bin Nu’h

Samani-under the title of Tarikh -e- Balami. Later on this translation work of Tarikfa

Rusul Muluk became famous as Tarikh-e-Balami. It was printed at publication and foundation of Iran culture.

74. Ashique Uddin Mazumder, An Outline History of Persian Literature, pp-22,23. 298

As a master of the commentator of the Holy Quran, traditions of the Holy prophet, logic, grammar, literature, lexicography, poetry, the great man, At-Tabari breathed his last in 310 A.H. 75.

75. E.G. Browne, Literary Histiry of Persia (Vol.-I), P-20. 299

E. The greatest Islamic Philosophers, Historians, Geographers, Astronomers,

Physicians, Mathematicians as well as Scholars of Persian blood and descent are:

l.Imam GhazzalifPhilosopher and Sufi)

Imam Abu Hamid Muhammad bin Ahmed al-Ghazzali rightly called the

Huzzatul Islam i.e, the proof of Islam and the champion of orthodoxy was reckoned the most richly endowed thinker of Islam and also the greatest scholar and writer of the Seljiuq period. He was bom in Tus at Tabran in 450 A.H. Tus lies near modern

Mushhad in North-east Persia. He lost his father while still very young. Although his father had entrusted him to the care of mystic friend, he got himself admitted in a seminary for receiving the education.76.

A1 Ghazzali first studied the Shafe’i-system of Jurisprudence from Shaikh

Ahmed al-Razkani in his home town and then moved on to Juijan for completing the course from Abu Nasr Ismail. Thereafter A1 Ghazzali went to Nishapur where he became a disciple of Imam ul Harmayan. His outstanding intellectual gifts were soon recognized and he was appointed as an assistant of his reputed teacher who used to say that A1 Ghazzali possessed on encyclopaedic knowledge. Although only 28 when he left Nishapur after death of his mentor in 478 A.H., he was held in greater respect than many other aged doctors of the time.He went to Nizam-ul-Mulk, the Prime minister of Malik Shah, who accorded A1 Ghazzali a coveted place in his court.

Himself an erudite scholar, Nizam-ul-Mulk fostered arts and literarture by a lavish

76. Ashique Uddin Mazumder, An Outline History of Persian Literature, pp-22,23. 300 patronage. Scholar in different branches of learning had gathered round him and discussion on literary and other academic topics had become an everyday affair. A1

Ghazzali had no match for, his genius as well as his polemical brilliance in these debates. Impressed by his outstanding intellectual gifts, Nizam-ul-Mulk selected A1

Ghazzali in 484 A.H. for appointment as a professor at the famous Nizamiah

University at Baghdad. This was the most coveted academic position of the time although A1 Ghazzali was then not more than 34 years of age. His renown as a savant, teacher and an eloquent speaker spread so rapidly that his lectures began to be over­ crowded by an ever large number of students and scholars. Sometimes in addition to as many as 300 students, hundreds of nobles and chiefs attended his lectures. A1

Ghazzali soon came to occupy on accout of his scholarship, intelligence and forceful personality, such a position of eminence in Baghdad that he was regarded a compeer o f the grandness and chiefs of the state. 77.

In prestige and solemnity, according to a chronicler of his time, A1 Ghazzali surpassed the nobility o f Baghdad including even the caliphate. In 485 A.H. the

Abbasid caliph A1 Muqtadi appointed him as a his ambassador in the court of Turkhan

Khatoon, Abbasid Caliph al Mustazir, held Ghazzali in high esteem and it was on his behest that he wrote a treatise to refute the cult of Batinite. He named the book ‘Al

Mustaziri’ after the Caliph’s name. 78.

Encounter with Philosophy:- The efforts made till the time of Al Ghazzali to

counteract the atheistic influence of Greek philosophy consisted merely of an apologetic vindication of Islamic tenets. Philosopher was then taking offensive and

77. Taz Uddin al Subki, Taqbaqat-al-Shafeiyah (Arabic), P— 113.

78. Daniel Brown, A New Introduction to Islam, pp-178-179 301 the scholastic of Islam, the dialecticians were content with parrying the attact.

Philosophy was undermining the very foundation of Islam while dialectics tried to shield it but name amongst the dialecticians and doctors of religion had the courage to strike at the roots of Philosophy. In fact no savant of Islam had tried to make any critical evaluation of the Philosophic premises and to beleaguer the aggressor in its own citadel. A1 Ghazzali was the first man who along with a profound knowledge of religious sciences, made a detailed and deep study of philosophy as well. He then wrote ‘Maqasid-ul-Falasafa (The aim of the Philosophers) in which he summed up the silent issues of Logic, Metaphysics and Physics. In this book he condensed the philosophical premises dispassionately in an explicit manner. He made it clear in the introduction to this book that Mathematics is a science which does not admit of any difference of opinion but it has nothing to do with the religion; either in the affirmation or negation of the latter Religion, however, comes into conflict with metaphysics. The logical syllogisms are sometimes wrong while there may also be differences of opinion in regard to the terminology employed in this branch of knowledge.

A1 Ghazzali then wrote another book entitled ‘Tuhfatul Falsafah’ (Incoherence of the Philosopher). In this book he criticizes, from an Islamic part of view, Physics and Metaphysics of the Pilosophical School and brings out their weakness and contradictions in a lucid and forceful language. We find A1 Ghazzali expressing himself self-confidently, in an elegant and incisive style.79.

79. Moulana Imdadullah, Sattikarer Samped (Beng.) translated from At tibrul Masbuq of A1

Ghazzali), PP-9,10. 302

Effect of the Incoherence of the Philosophers

The courageous criticism and, to an extent, the denigration of the philosophy by A1 Ghazzali began a new chapter in the history of Islamic scholasticism which was later brought to a successful completion by Ibn Taymiyah.

Tahfotul - Falasafa caused an stir in the ranks of the philosophers who had to suffer an irreparable loss on account of it, However, after A1 Ghazzali there arose no philosopher worthy of note for one hundred years. At last, Ibn Rush, a great admirer of Aristotle and a spirited defender of philosophy wrote Tahafut al Tahafut

(Incoherence of Incoherence) by way of rejoinder to Tahafatul Falsafah by the close of the sixth century. Many scholars are of the on view that if Ibn Rush had not put up the defense on behalf of philosophy, it would have been crippled by the hostile criticism of Al Ghazzali. Philosiphy was granted a fresh lease of life through the efforts of Ibn Rushd for another one hundred years. 80.

Attack on Batanites:-

Besides Philosophy, the crisis caused by the Batanite movement had received attention of the Ghazzali during his first stay in Baghdad when he wrote Al

Mustaz’hiri at the instance of the then caliph. Al Ghazzali 1ms made a mention of this book in his autobiography account of the search for truth entitled Al Munqidh min ad-

Dhalal. Al Ghazzali perhaps wrote three other treatises entitled (l)Hujjatul Haq (2)

Mufsalul Khilaf and (3) Qasim ul Batiniah. It is also mentioned that Imam Ghazzali has mentioned these two books in his another book entittleds Quran , page-26

80. Sayeed Athar Abbas Rizvi, A in India, P-66. 303

Two more books on the subject ‘Fadhayah al Ibrahiyah’ and ‘Mawahim ul Batiniyah’ have been mentioned in the list of Al Ghazzali’s writings. No one else could have encountered Batinites so successfully as Al Ghazzali did, for, he was folly aware of the ways of mystics besides being a savant of both the secular and religious sciences.

Taking shelter behind the terminology drawn from Philosophy, their cult of “esoteric meanings” was a combination of sophism and conspiracy. For a man like Imam

Ghazzali it was comparatively easy to smash this snare of Batinites. His effective answer to the challenger of Batinites made it a discredited sect ever after him. 304

Al-Ghazzali’s evaluation of Social conditions:-

The second remarkable achievement of A1 Ghazzali was his evaluation of the religious and moral state of the society from an Islamic viewpoint which awakened the spirit for re-Islamisation in the community. I’hya ul-Ulumud-Din Revival of

Religious Science) was the result of his endeavoures in this regards. 81.

Ihva -ul- Ulum - ud - Din:-

Ihya-ul-Ulum ud Din occupies a distinguished place among the first literary works which have had a lasting effect in moulding the moral and spiritual life of the

Islamic world.Hafiz Zain ud-din al Iraqi (author of Alfiyah), who brought out a collection of the traditions quoted in the ‘Ihya’, is of opinion that it is the foremost literary composition o f Islamic peoples. Abdul Ghafir Farsi, a contemporary o f Al

Ghazzali and a disciple of Imamul-Haramayan, says that no book like it had been written before. Another reputed scholar, Shaikh Muhammad Gazruni, remarked that if all the sciences were effected completely, he could revive them with the help of

‘Ihya’. Hafiz Ibn-Al-Zawzi differed from Al Ghazzali on many issues, but he has acknowledged the opularity and matchless sincerity of the ‘Ihya’ and has written a summary of it under the caption Minhaj ul Qasidin. The Ihya was written at a time when Al Ghazzali had returned home after more than ten years of seclusion and meditation in search of the truth. He now wanted to disseminate his message of reform and rectitude. In reflecting the tremendous sincerity and heroic sacrifice, heart felt certitude and ardent zeal of the author to revivify the true faith the ‘Ihya’ presents an striking example. 82.

81. Abdul Qadir al-Hasani al Idrus, T’arifiil-Ihya (Arabic), P-14.

82. A New Introduction to Islam, Daniel Brown, P-178. 305

Purpose of Ihva:-

Ihya-Ulum-ud-Din is not merely a book of criticism. One of the objectives underlying this books is to reform and islaminise the Muslim society. A1 Ghazzali really intended to produce a work which might be self-sufficient not only for the education and discipline of the seekers after truth but it might also be an adequate guide-book for the educators and preachers, save as an encyclopedia of Islamic sciences and may be used as a manual of injunctions for the Islamic way of life. He succeeded in making the book a compendium of Islamic beliefs and practices, measures required for purification of the soul, disciplines of moral conduct and cultivation of a mystical awareness of the truth. The book also presents and striking example of its effectiveness. Many of us would have shared the experiences of Shibli

Nu’mani who says that “every word of this has a magnetic effect on its reader; it takes hold of him and pulls the strings of his heart. The over bearing effect on the Thya’ is perhaps because it was written by A1 Ghazzali at a time when he was himself filled and deeply impressed with a feeling o f higher awakening.83.

The inner experience of unseen realities giving an insight into the higher realms, through which A1 Ghazzali had himself passed, and which is reflected in the

Tyha’ sometimes its readers dischanted, with the world. It creates a longing for solitude and penitence, contemplation and devotion and produces an awe and reverence of God peculiar to the mystic way of life which is often harmfiil for the health. The writer of these pages has himself experienced these feeling while going through the ‘Ehya’ for the compilation of this book.

83. Shibli Na’omani, AI Ghazzali (Urdu), P-48. 306

It is perhaps for this reasons that the mentors of mystics disciplines do not advise the novices to go through the ‘Iyha’ in initial stages. Perfect moderation and temperance can indeed be had only through the study of the traditions the biography of the prophet and the company o f a religious teacher who had modeled his life in accordance with the teaching of the Shariah. 84.

Ethical Philosophy of A1 Ghazzali:-

Besides being an eminent scholar, jurist, dialectician and a mystic, A1

Ghazzali was also a profounder of the . He studies in ethical Philosophy fathom the mysteries of head and heart and exhibits a penetrating insight into the eternal values of life. In fact A1 Ghazzali has left such an inedible mark on the subsequent thought that no study of Islamic ethics and ethical Philosophy can be deemed complete without a mention of A1 Ghazzali thought and writings on this subject too in which he, like a true thinker, sets out to examine the innate psychological descriptions and impulses actuating ethical behaviour. 85.

Critics of Ihva:-

Ibn Taymiyah’s verdict on the ‘Ihya’ is that on the whole it is a well written book employing an elegant style. At the same time, Ibn Taymiyah criticizes it for four reasons.

The first reason is that A1 Ghazzalis thought shows definite traces of Greek philosophy. The second ground for criticism of the Ihya is that A1 Ghazzali employs a syllogism which is not fully in keeping with the spirit of the Quran and the Sunnah.

84. Moulana Imadadullah. Sattikarer Sampad(Beng) (translation from Attibrul Masbuk of Imam Ghazzali), pp-9,10.

85. W.H. Gairdner, A1 Ghazzali’s Miskhutul Anwar, P-49. 307

The third reason given by Ibn Taymiyah is that the book contains many concepts and teaching of those treading the path of mysticism and their claims in regard to gaining insight into the divine truth. Ibn Taymiyah disagrees with A1 Ghazzali in regards to the latter’s view on mysticism. The fourth reason for disagreement of Ibn Taymiyah is that the book contains many traditions of doubtful authenticity. 86.

Despites these short-comings pointed out by him, Ibn Taymiyah writes about the Thya’:

“ Notwithstanding these defects, the Ihya contains the teaching of numerous illuminated mentors, and their experience in regards to the purification of self and the intuitive knowledge, which are identical with the canons of the Quran and the Sunnah and can thus be acceptable from a theological point of view. It is because of these reasons that the scholars hold different opinions about the Ihya and all of them are not opposed to it”.

Ibn A1 Zawzi has also criticized A1 Ghazzali for making use of unauthentic and weak traditions. He is of the opinion that this was because A1 Ghazzali was not a traditionalist. Hafiz Zain-ud-din A1 Iraqi later collected all the traditions mentioned in the Ihya and classified these according to the accepted norms and examined the authenticity or otherwise of each tradition. Ibn A1 Zawzi has also pointed out certain mistakes made by A1 Ghazzali in regard to the historical events mentioned by him in the Thya’. A1 Ghazzali was however, not a scholar of history or traditions.

86. Mohluddin Ahmed, (tr.) Saviours of Islamic Spirit, pp-163,164. Ibn-Al Zawzi maintains that A1 Ghazzali maintained several exampk mystics or the method restored to by them for penance and self purification which cannot be held permissible under the Shariah, much less to be recommended tin heme followed by the people. Ibn al Zawzi, however, acknowledges the effectiveness of the

‘Ihya’ and the valuable contribution it has made to the subsequent Islamic though’ i u has also summarized the ‘Ihya’ in a book entitled Minhaj-ul-Qasidin (Path <> the

Truth seekers) in which he has deleted the portion objectionable from his point ot view. This book of Ibn All Zawzi, however, lacks the inspiration and effect belles', characteristic of the ‘Ihya’.

Al Ghazzali’s refusal to return to Baghdad

Al Ghazzali was prevailed upon by Fakhul Mulk, the son of Nizam-ul \1ulk. who had become a vazier of the Seljuq prince Sanjar, to Nishapur in the month of

Zul-qadh, 499 A.H., and resume the chief professorship at the Nizamia l nivetsii ,

Fakhr-ul-Mulk was assassinated in the beginning of 500 A.H. by a Batinite emissarv and Al Ghazzali abandoned the profession of teaching shortly thereafter. Me returned to his native town Tus, and founded a small institution for the teaching of his ocal disciplines and the cultivation of a religious life. 87.

The then Seljuq appointed Sultan Ahmed, the elder son of Nizam-ul-Y1ulk. us his Vazier in 500 A.H., who again made a request to Al Ghazzali to resume his pc si at the Nizamiyah University, Baghdad, which had only been provisionally tilled in \ - a matter of fact, there was nobody in the entire world of Islam who could replace \i

Ghazzali.

87. Abu Hamid Muhammad tihazzali, Diya-ul Ulum-ud-Din, P-112. 309

The Nizamizah University at Baghdad was the premier institution of those days and occupied a pride of place in the educational and religious academics of the Abbasids.

Everyone felt the loss suffered by the Nizamiyah on account of Al Ghazzali’s retirement and was anxious for his return to teaching in Baghdad.

In order to impress that all the coutiers and the chiefs of the were anxiously awaiting the return of Al Ghazzali, all the high officials of the Caliph’s court signed letter. In yet another letter Ahmad wrote to Al Ghazzali: “Although scholars would go to the place where upon you happen to be present for acquiring knowledge from you, it appears reasonable that you should choose for your residence a place which is not only the metropolis of the Islamic world but is also easily accessible from all parts of the empire, “And such a place in obviously Baghdad”.

In reply to the royal edicts and the letters from his well-wishers Al Ghazzali sent a lengthy reply giving the reasons for not returning to his teaching profession in

Baghdad.

He pleaded that, one and a half hundred students who were receiving education under him in Tus, would find it extremely difficult to go all the way to

Baghdad with him. His family which was not with him earlier in Baghdad would have to face unnecessary hardship if he again migrated from Tus. He also said that in

Baghdad it would not be possible for him to remain unconcerned with the polemics and debates which had become the prevailing taste of the court hfe, while he had taken a vow at the Muqam-i-Ibrahim that he would never enter in to such futile controversies. c

Other reasons giving by Al Ghazzali were that he did not like to visit the caliph ih.i u accept any remuneration from the Caliphate, but it would be difficult for him m oe without either of these in Baghdad as he did possess only landed propern m lie capital which could support his family. The Abbasid Caliph as well as the Seljug King tried their best to persuade Al Ghazzali to return to Baghdad but he refused to comply with their requests. 88.

His work:- Before a few years of his death in 505 A.H. (1111 A.I).) Al

Ulumuddin, treating the Islamic theology, mysticism and philosophy which wa- translated into Persian by the name Kimiya S’adat for general readers in Persian

His another famous works are ‘Tuhfatus-Falasa and Maqasidul Falasala written on Philosophy and Science. Ma’yarul Ilm on Logic. Besides these he wrote book on Fiqh, Traditions of the holy Prophet, and the contemporary of the 1 Inly

Quran. .His other books are following:

1. Attibrul Masbuk.

2. Adabun. Nobi-(S:A).

3. Minhazul Abedin.

4. Mukashaftul Qutub.

5. Bidayatul Hedaya.

6. Tabligul Din.

7. Dakayekul Akhbar.

8. Siratul Mustacim.

88. Sayeed Athar Abbas Rizsi, A History of Sufism in India. P-66. 311

9. Soum.

10. Mustasfa.

11. A1 Murshidul Amin. 89.

Due to these books and greatness in knowledge and learning, Imam Ghazzali is highly honoured by making remark. ,

“If there be another prophet after Muhammad, surely it would have been

Imam Ghazzali.”

His Death:- A1 Ghazzali died at Tabran on the 14th of Jamadi-ul- Ukhra, 505 A.H.

(1111 A.D.) at the age of 55 years. Ibn al-Jawazi has given a graphic description of

Al-Ghazzalis death, as told by Ahmad A1 Ghazzali who was an eye - witeness of his brothers remarkable death.

“It was Monday. He got up in the morning made his ablution and performed the dawn prayers; he then asked to bring his shroud; taking it he kissed and laid it on his eyes with the words. I submit to the command of my Master; then he stretched out his feet, facing the Qibla, when people saw him, he had already passed away.90.

89. Zuhra-e-Khanlari Kiya, Farhang-e-Adabiate-Farsi-Dari, (Persian), P-361.

90. Muhi Uddin Khan,(Editor- Masik Madina), A1 Murshidul Amin of Huzzatul Islam Imam

Ghazzali, (P-I. Introdruction). 312

2. Avicenna (Physician and Philosopher)

His real name is Hussain, nick name, Abu Ali and pen name Abdullah, but his lineage is Hussain bin Abdullah bin Hasan bin Abu ali Sina who popularly and universally known to the west as Avicenna. He was bom in the village of Kharmishan near by Bukhara in 980 A.D. (3 Safar, 375 A.H.) and died at the age of 53 years in

1037 A.D. ( in the month of Ramadan, Day-Friday, 428 A.H.). He was buried in

Hamadan beneath the wall of Fusail. Abu Ali Hussain ibn Sina was called A1 Shaikh- ul Rais by the Arabs. 91.

He was one of the most outstanding and illustrious physicians, natural scientists and philosophers in the domain of medical science. Amongst the greatest figures of the era of Mahmud and of Iranians, in fact of Muslims culture in general were the scholars Avicenna and Al-Beruni. Where as the polyhistor A1 Beruni belongs almost exclusively to the field of Arabic learning, the Poet-Physician and

Philosopher Avicenna extends his activities to other domains as well as.

After studying the Quran, Arabic Literature, Logic, Mathematics and

Astronomy, he devoted his time to the study of physics, metaphysics and medicine and soon earned a wide reputation as a successful physician.

In the 16th year of his age he was giving tuition to eminent physician who came to him to study different branches of medicine and learn from him the modes of treatment which he has discovered by his practice. During the period of his studies he never slept an entire night, nor passed a day in any other occupation but study.

91. Hazrat Moulana Mohd. Hanif Ganguwee, Zafrul Musallin Ba-Ah-lalul Musannifin (Urdu),

P-464. 313

He had not reached his 18ta years when he had completely mastered all the science to the attention of which he had directed to his studies.92

It was after his establishment as a physician that he happened to see one of A1

Farabi’s philosophical works. This, according to De Boer, decided his philosophical development. A1 Farabi’s metaphysical and logical speculations, which originated in the Neo-platonic commentaries and paraphrases of Aristotellian works, determined the direction of his thought, at the age of 16th or 17th only.

At a very young age Ibn Sina received a commission for the medical treatment of Nuh bin Mansur, the Sultan of Bukhara. Here he happened to secure admission to the Royal Library which was of incomparable richness as it contained not only all the celebrated works which were found in the hands of the public, but others not available anywhere else, and whose contents and even the titles were unknown. He discovered treatise on the sciences of the ancients (Philosophical doctrines of the Greeks) and became acquainted with them. With his wonderful memory and sharp power of

assimilation he ransacked all the treasuries of knowledge which unable him to

systematize the learning of his time.

At the. age of 21, Ibn Sina made a mark as a writer of eminence. He wielded a

powerful pen with clarity of style and diction and a comprehensive system. Among

his scientific works the leading two are ‘Kitab al-Shifa’ (Book of Healing) and A1

Qanun Fit Tibb (The Canons of Medicine) which are the culmination and master

piece of Arabic systematization.

92. Ibn Khailikan, Wafayat ul Ayan (Arabic), PP-440-446. 314

This medical encyclopedia deals with general medicine, simple drugs, disease affecting all parts of the body from head to foot, specially pathology and pharmacopoeia. This work reveals he possessed a wonderful power of observation as is evident from his remarks on the distinctions of mediastintis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of Phthisis and the spreading o f diseases by water and soil etc. 93.

Ibn Sina gives a vivid description of the skin and deals comprehensively with the diseases of the sexual organs and the nervous system. He has outlined pharmacological methods, on almost modem lines and his materia medica contains no less than 760 drugs.

Dr. Robinson observes, “The canon of Avicenna, consisting approximately a million works, is the most influential text book ever written; for six centuries it dominated the medical schools of Asia and Europe”.

Ibn Sina was the first to use catheters made of skins of various animals and mentions intravesical injections, by means of a silver syringe. He expressed advanced views in and physical culture. He dealt exhaustively with the intra-uterine development of the human embryo.

\ In surgery Ibn Sina made an allusion to intubation of the larynx and described the tracheotomy. He further described operations for empyema with cautery or knife, for piles and fistula by ligature. In the discussion of dislocations has included a method of reposition of the head of humerous. He also knew and practiced the method of treating spiral deformities by forcible reduction which was reintroduced by Calot in

1968.

93. H. Carbin, Avicenna and the Visionary Racitai, P-37. 315

Ibn Sina described the symptoms of pyloric stenosis and of gastric ulcer. His description of diseases of the liver and the gall bladder are remarkable. He also left excellent description of respiratory diseases and gave a scientific account of the differential diagnosis of pleurisy. He distinguished between true meningitis and meningioma which may accompany certain acute diseases. With regards to facial paralysis. Ibn Sina distinguished the central and peripheral types. He very well knew the movements of contraction and dilatation of the pupils and discovered the insertion of the eye muscles. He further knew the functions of the lachrymal ducts.

Ibn Sina, an Iranian philosopher, adopted a combination of the deductive and inductive methods and considered logic to be an induction to all other subjects. He held the mind to be the perfection of their body. He regarded ‘Allah’ to be beyond space, time and motion. He propounded the theory of ‘Love’ and held that things which were imperfect strove for perfection and this striving was love. He held that the universe is moved by the power of love towards Allah. 94.As a boy he already showed a talent and cured the Samanid ruler Nuh bin Mansur, which achievements opened to him the doors of the magnificent literary of the Samanids. After death of his father he left his native land and started his eventful but nevertheless highly prolific literary life. Although Sultan Mahmud tried his best to

94. Prof. Masudul Hasan, History of Islam, P-653. 316

retain him at his court but Avicenna could not remain there under the Sunna master. He fled first to Khavarazm and thence to the Ziyarids, but not until he reached the courts of the Buayids did he succeed in escaping from the reach of Mahmud’s power. He established medical reputation by curing Samanid ruler Nuh-II bin Mansur, whose favour and protection, he thus secured. 95.

His works:- Avicenna was unquestionably the most gifted man of his age. As philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and poet, he has left his influence impressed on two continents. He was also the most distinguished Muslim physician to the medieval time and was known as “The prince of physicians”. He composed about 240 books in different languages. Some of works were translated into different language.

These include:

1. Kitabush Shifa (in to 8 chapters).

2. Kitabul Fit Tib.

3. Isharat (When he was 21 years of old, it was written).

4. Nazat.

5. Danish Nama-e-Elahi.

6. Hasid wa Mahsul (On Fiqh into 20 chapters but it was lost).

7. A1 Mazmu’h.

8. A1 Birru wa Ismu (on ethics).

9. A1 Insaf (into 20 chapters, when Sultan Mahmud plundered Isfahan, but it was lost).

95. E.G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia, VoL-I, P-375. 317

10. A1 Irsadul Qulliah.

11. A1 Hedayah.

12. A1 Makhtasarul Aowsat.

13. A1 Qawleez.

. 14. Lisanul Arab (into 10 chapters).

15. Kitabul Mabda Wal Mia’ad.

16. Kitabul Mubahisat.

17. AIHudud. 18. Hashiyah-e-Qanun. etc.96. But the fame and reputation of Avicenna is based on the work Kitabul Qanun Fit

Tib (Canon of Medicine) and the philosophical Kitabush Shaifa (Books of Healing), compendiums that are equally famous in the east and the west, classical surveys of the scientific knowledge of his time.

A1 Qanun is great book written on medicine. It dealt with general medicine, drugs, pathology and pharmacopea. He possessed much clinical insight and is given credit for the first description to several drugs and diseases. He propounded the theory o f the

‘humorous’ of the body. It was he who first discovered the creative nature of Sunlight.

He warned against the danger of drinking water from polluted sources. With

Avicenna, Islamic medicine reached its peak. He systematized and rationalized the heritage of medicine. His master piece ‘ is regarded as the

Arab replica of the great works o f and Galen’. 97.

96. Moulana Mohd Hanif Gangowee, Zafrul Musallin Ba Ahllul Musannifin (Urdu), PP-468,469.

97. E.G. Browne, Islamic Medicine, P-120. 318

The Qanun was published in Arabic in Rome in 1593 A.D. It was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona in the 12th century. It became the text book for medical education in the school of Europe. The demand for it may be judged from the fact it was issued sixteen times - fifteen editions being an Latin and one in Hebrew, and that it was re-issued more than twenty times during the 16th century. In 1930

Cameron Gruner partly translated this book in to English, called “A Treatise on the

Canons of Medicine of Avicenna”. Prom the 12th to 17th century the Qanun served as the chief guide to medical science in the west. Dr. William Osier, author of “the

Evolution of Modem Science”, has rightly remarked, the Qanun has renamed a medical for longer period than any other books.

Kitabush Shifa al Nafs ( of the Soul). He tried to harmonize philosophy with religion and explained religious dogma in the light of reason in the book.

He also believed in the immortality of the soul. He affirmed that there is duality between essence and existence in all things except Allah. He held that existence is an accident that happens to the essence. He propounded the theory of ego and self awareness. He hold that the experience of sufis were a valid subject for philosophical study. He regarded allegorical takes as expensive of philosophical truth. 319

3. AL FARABIflPhilosopher)

Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Tarkhan Abu Nasar A1 Farabi, Arabic writing

Muslim philosopher of Turkish origin was bom in 870 in Farab of Transoxana, the central Asian province north of the Oxus river. Having studied first in Khurasan and then in Baghdad, where he lived for a considerable time. He eventually transferred himself to the court of Shia’its mler of Aleppo, Saif-al-Daula. He died near Damascus in 950 A.D. (339 A.H.) 98.

Al-Farabi’s teachers, the Christian Arabic philosopher of Baghdad, was late descendents of the 6th century christianized school of Alexander and his writings show everywhere the influence of this blend of Aristotelian and Neo-Platonist thought.

Later Arabic philosophers depend on his achievements. He believed in the essential identity of Plato’s and Aristotle views following Plato in politics and Aristotle in logic and physics; his metaphysics combine Aristotelian and Neo-Platonist thought. His

Para-phrase of Plato’s laws is written in support of special political theories of his own and is not meant to give an accurate account of the work in all its detail.

According to Abu Nsr Muhammad al-Farabi the aim of philosophy is to know

Allah through rational and logical argument. He held that logic leads to the knowledge of the unknown by which the real can be distinguished from the unreal, and the good from evil He was an exponent of Neo-philosophy. His philosophic approach was deductive, rational and abstract. He held Allah as pure intellect.

He had written only three comprehensive works treating philosophy. In his book - “Arra-Ahl al Madinah al Fadila”

98. Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica Ltd., , (VoI.-IX), P-69. 320

(The opinions of the people o f the various city) and Al-Siyasat al-Madangiyya (

Political regims), he propounded the concept of “Vrituous city” is comparable to

Plato’s and “First chief’. His concept of “Vrituous City” is comparable to Plato’s concept of “Ideal City” and his concept of “First Chief’ is comparable to Plato’s concept of “Philosopher King”. 99.

In this treaties “Tahsil ul Sa’ada” (The achievement of happiness) he viewed that he is a false philosopher who has theoretical knowledge, but lacks the power to engender it in other people. On the other hand a true philosopher has this power. He held that the supreme activity of the highest type of man has an educational purpose.

He asserted that prophets are true philosophers for they transmit true knowledge to the people. 100.

A1 Farabi believed that beyond the material objects and their knowledge and intellectual experience, there is a particular faculty called love, through which everything in the universe, including man, reaches its highest perfection. He also composed some on music and medicine.

He is reckoned at the high rank of master thinker. He was a genious and he wrote on various disciplines o f knowledge including philosophy and political science.

His books on political include.

1. Siyasat at Madinah.

2. Ara Ahl al Madinah al Fazilah.

3. Jawami al Siyasat.

4. Ijtima at al Madinah.

99. F. Dieterici, Al Farabi’s Philosophische Abhandlungon, P-2.

100. A History of Sufism in India, P-24. 321

He was the first Muslim writer to relate and harmonize Greek political thought to

Islam. He equated the supreme philosopher ruler of the Greeks with the Imam of

Muslims. 322

4. AL BERUN1

Abu Rehan Muhammad, son of Ahmad, sumamed, Al-Biruni was a learned mathematician, astronomer, geographer and also Sanskritist 101.

Abu Rehan Muhammad bin Ahmad Al-Beruni is ranked as one of the greatest learned men and celebrated Iranian historian. He is also reckoned at the luminary star at the court of the Ghaznawid Sultan Mahmud. He entered India in the train of

Mahmud o f Ghazni. He was bom in Khvarazm in 440 A.H. (972-73 A.D.) and breathed his last in the year 1051A.D. in Ghazna. Al-Beruni passed the early part of his life in his birth place and spent few years under the services of the Khvarazm

Shahas and the Ziarids. Then he went to Ghazna for the service of Sultan Mahmud and soon attained the attention of the Sultan. During his Indian expedition the Sultan retained with him.

It is also noted that Al-Beruni was the product of an Islamic that occurred after the collaps of Islamic power towards the end of 8th century and beginning o f the 9*. Although Islam has penetrated into the settled lands of central

Asia in late 7th and early 8th century, the entire region really came into the civilizational spectrum only by the beginning of the 9th century, after the decline of

Arab Islamic power.

However, if is a pity that this period of glory lasted only a few centuries. One of the lasting manifestation of such a two way interaction of civilization was the galaxy of notable thinkers, scholars, and travelers originating from Central Asia and the North-east. One such notable personality was Abu Rehan Al-Beruni.

101. B.C. Law, Al-Beruni’s Knowledge of Indian Geography, P-1. A1 Beruni was bom (in 362 A.H.) in the other part of the city of Kat (hence ns name Biruni from Birnn), the capital o f the Afrizhud Khanate Khwarzim). later the

Uzbeck city of Khiva. 102.

He spent the first 25 years of his life in Khvarazim studying both \tah sciences” and non Arab sciences’ (essentially Greek mathematics, astronomy and medicine etc.) in about 999 after the Affizhid Khanate was over thrown, he left Ins

home land for the Samanid kingdom of Bukhara and secured the patronage ot v -

Amir.

As the fortunes of various ruling clans in the region Zig-Zagged. M Bemm also moved from one Amir to another but continued to read, write and learn In the last three quarters of his life, he spent in the service of Sultan Mahmud at Gha/na H e main fame and reputation at the Ghaznawid court was as “MONAJJIM' or n>nri astrologer.

As is well known, beginning from early medieval period of history nun <1 ideas and letters had to seek patronage for their pursuits from the ruling elites v

Beruni was no exception, though his relationship with his Patron was unique so far as his patron during the last three decades of his life, devoted his time and energy i grabbing wealthy and fortune, Al-Beruni sought knowledge. By all counts it m ems that at least 12 years of Al-Beruni’s service with Sultan Mahmud were spent in India as he accompanied the Sultan Mahmud on his numerous military expedition

102. Akhtatul Wasey, Islam and the Modern Age, Vol.-XXXIV, No.-l, (Megazine) F P-62. 324

Al-Beruni has emerged as one of the two greatest intellects of the then Muslim world, the other being Ibn Sina. Though Al-Beruni’s reputation in the Ghaznawid court rested mainly on being known as the court of astrologer, he was a prolific writer, who mostly preferred to use Arabic over Persian. Al-Beruni wrote his memorable accounts of the Indian life and culture and learned Sanskrit during that expedition.

The polyhistor Al-Beruni is unique among the Islamic scholars on account of his uncompromising love of truth, his precision and critical spirit. Thus he explains historical phenomena by economic causes and considers certain aspect of religion to be incompatible with science. It is striking that both Al-Beruni and Avicenna attached importance to rendering knowledge accessible to those of their compatriots who were unacquainted with the . Arabic tongue. It is also no use surprising that at his early period they were capable of writing a clear, robust scholarly Persian prose.

His Works:-He wrote many works on different subjects, these include:

1. Tahqiq-e-Hind.

2. Al- Asrarul-Baqiah.

3. Al Tafhim livavil Sanatul Tanjum. 4.Qanun-e-Masudi.

Tahqiq-e-Hind:- It is an important prose work Which was finished in about 1030

A.D. It provides the most authentic account about ancient India. The book also gives us an account of religion, philosophy, literature, geography, chronology, astronomy, customs, laws, and of India.

Al- Asrarul-Baqiah :- Asrarul-Baqiah (vestiges of the past) is written in about the year 1002. A.D. dealing with the lives of Iranian Muslims, Christians, Jews and

Persians. 325

A1 Tafhim livavil SanatuI Tanium:- It is another valuable book which provides the detail information on the beginnings of the art and astrology.

Oanuit-e-Masudi:- It is also valuable book of him which dedicated in the name of

Sultan Masu’d Ghaznawi.

Al-Beruni is counted as distinguished scholar who wrote also a book - ‘the book of the demarcation of the limit of areas’ which provides the determination of latitudes and longitudes, geodelect measurements and other astronomical calculations.

103.

Al-Beruni also produced some important works on-

1 .Bibliography. 2. Mathematics and Astronomy.

3.Geography. 4.Pharmacology and Mineralogy.

S.History and Chronology. 6. History of Religion.

7.Indology.

103.Prof. Masudal Hasan, History of Islam, P-670-680. 326

He made a special study with the problem of numerical series and the determination of the radius of the earth.

Abu Rehan Al-Beruni was one of the unusually unique scholar personalities that Islam has natured in the history o f human civilization. We may not comprehend or analyze his scholarship but the traditions of enquiry and tolerance, set up and promoted by him about a thousand years ago, not withstanding his own unequivocal religious faith and conviction, certainty backbone is even today in the midst of cynicism and pessimism o f our times. 327

5 .AL RAZI

His real name, Abu Bakkar Muhammad bin Zakaria Razi is rated as one of the greatest physicians and philosophers of the Islamic world. He was known to the west as Rhazes. He was bom in 865 A.D.(251 A.H.) at the ancient town of Rey near modem Tehran, the principal city of the north east part of the province of Persia.

He started his primary education from his native land. A1 Razi earned profound knowledge in philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, medicine and literature. His reputation spread all over the world after serving Abu Saleh Mansur bin Ishaq, king of

Samanid dynasty and set up a state hospital for patients in Rey. There after he advanced towards Baghdad and there he also established an another state hospital. At the end o f his life he was afflicted by blindness or sightless and died in 313 A.H.(925

A.D.) at the age of 60 years and two months in his native land. 104.

In his early youth, he studied music (on which he wrote an encyclopedic work) philosophy and logic. But in his early thirty he evinced keen interest in the medical profession and visited the Baghdad hospital several times to be fully conversant with the methods of treatment at the hospital.

He acquired learning from great masters but with his industry and intelligence he soon surpassed his teachers, and after a short time was appointed Superintendent and Chief Physicians at the Ray hospital. In addition to the heavy duties which these posts entailed. Razi had also to undertake the training of the medical students. In the

Muslim fashion, the master sat on the floor in the great, cool, paved court yard, with his pupils around him.

104. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, E.I.S., (Vol.-II), P-1130. 328

In the inner most ring were the seniors, while the juniors sat beyond in an outer ring.

When a patient came for treatment, he had first to describe his symptoms to the elementary students. If the latter understood the case, they prescribed for it. Otherwise the patient was passed on to the “second year men”. One may assume that there was very little beyond the powers of these youngmen, but if even they could not handle the case it was taken over by Razi himself .105

Such was the feme of Razi as an administrator and physician that sometimes during the reign of the caliph A1 Muktafi (902-907) A.D., he was offered the post of Director and Chief Physician at the Baghdad hospital which he accepted how long he held this office is unknown, but he seems to have travelled a great deal, attending the Persian nobility and even the Caliphs themselves.

He was liberal, generous, courteous and affable to everyone and exceedingly kind to the poor. The ablest physician of his age. Razi was a keen student of earlier authorities. “His chief anxiety and care were to study what the most famous learned men, such as Hippocrates and Galen, had written in their works, so that he made himself master of such knowledge as falls to the lot of very few physicians”. 106.

The Muslim physicians were expert in the art of psychotherapy, and a story told of Ali Razi in his connection is amusing enough to be related here. A certain

Emir was in capacitated with severe rheumatism, which his own medical attendants were unable to cure. He therefore, summoned Razi, who, after unsuccessfully trying several methods of treatment, finally said that he would try a new treatment but that it would cost the his best horse and his best mule.

105. E.G. Browne, Islamic Medicine, P-32.

106. Jamal Uddin Abul Hasan A1 Qifti, Tarikh nl Khulafa (Arabic), pp-368-375. 329

The terms were accepted and the horse and the mule were handed over to

Razi, who then took Emir to a Turkish both outside the city and went into the hot room with him. After a suitable time had elapsed, during which draughts and dutches were administered to the patient, Razi went out dressed, and returned with a knife in his hand. The startled Emir was amazed to hear a torrent of abuse pouring from the lips of the eminent physician, but when Razi at length brought the matter to a climax by threatening to kill him, the Emir’s fear and anger knew no bounds. He sprang to his feet in order to summon,the guard forgetting all about his rheumatism. But Razi had fled to the outer door of the bath, where his servant was awaiting with the horse and mule. They did not stop until they crossed the frontier. Razi afterwards wrote and explained that this provocative words and acts were designed as a part of the treatment, and the Emir, who was completely relieved from the ailment, had grace enough to see the humour of the situation. He rewarded his ingenious healer with many rich presents and assigned him a yearly pension equivalent to 1000 and 200 donkey loads of com.

According to proof E.G. Browne, “AI Razi was the greatest and most original of all the Muslim physicians and one of the most politic as an author. 107.“Proof.

B J. Holmyard thinks, “Conspicuous among this Muslim chemical physicians stands the great figure of Rhazes, who though he differed Bombastes as widely as possible in temperament and character, may well be called the Paracelsus of Persia, since he thaught and practised the study of chemistry as a valuable aid to medicine. “His emdition was all embracing and his scientific output remarkable, amounting to more than 200 works, half of which are medical. -

107. E.G. Browne, History of Arabian Medicine, P-44. 330

His Works:- He also wrote a monumental work, Kitabul-Mansuri in ten volumes of which a Latin translation appeared in Milan in the eighties of the fifteenth century. It deals with Greek medicine.Parts of it have been rendered into German and French.

One of the most celebrated of his monographs is that on ‘Small pox and

Measles’ entitled ‘A1 Judari wal Hasbah’. It was first translated into Latin in 1565 and later into several European languages, including English and went in to forty editions between 1498 to 1866. According to Prof. P.K. Hitti, “This treatise served to establish A1 Razi’s reputation as one of the keenest original thinkers and greatest clinician not only of Islam but of the Middle Ages”.108. He discovered the cause of small-pox in blood ferment and suspected the germ origin from several diseases.

108. Prof. P.K; Hitti, History of the Arabs, P-360. 331

His another most important medical work was A1 Hawi (The Comprehensive

Book), an encyclopaedia in the annals of medical information. It consists of more than

20 volumes. In each chapter on the individual diseases he quotes all the Greek,

Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit authorities and then describes his own views based on practical experience, giving evidence of his erudition and insight. It was translated into Latin under the auspices of Charless - 1 of Anjou by the Sicilian Jewish physician, Faraj Ibn Salim (Farragut) of Girgenti, in 1279 and was repeatedly printed from 1486 on words. These works of A1 Razi exercised a remarkable influence on

European medicine. He was the first physician to write a book on pediatrics, the special ailments of children.

European scholars credit Razi with having given a better account of the curvature of the spine than any other author up to his time. He is also admitted to be first writer of a book devoted to the diseases of children, the first to maintain that disorders of the bladders are accompanied by blood in the urine.

Dr. Robinson calls Al-Razi a genitio-urinery speacialist. In this writings on gonorrhea he gave a detailed description of structures and if, these produced any degree of retention of urine, he at once introduced the Catheter, for he was a master of the principles of Catheterism. To avoid obstruction from blood and pus, he bears numerous hole in the sides of the extremity which enters the bladder. Not finding the classical bronze catheter sufficiently flexible, he invented one of lead.

A1 Razi was the first who consistetly used injections. To abate the smarting pain during urination he employed injections o f tepid vinegar, or treated the bladder with injection of opium dissolved in rose water. He realized the need of relieving the inflammation and prompt healing of the urethra by local means and by internal 332 medicaments. It seems that a gonorrheic was as safe in the hands of A1 Razi as in our own.

His principal work is ‘AI Ilmul Ilahi’ (Divine science). Besides, he also wrote the following books on different subjects. 109.

Al Qauanin Tabiata Fil Hikmata Filsafa.

1. Al Qaulu Fil Hauly.

2. Al Qaulu Fi Zamane wa-Makan.

3. Al Kitabul Shakuk.

4. Kitab Elalul Ma’dan.

5. Isbatul Samit.

6. Kitab ul Aksir.

7. Kitab ulHazr.

8. Kitab-e-Sharf ul Sanath and others.

All his works on physics, mathematics, astronomy and of which a large number are enumerated by the bibliographers have perished.

109. Dr. Zuhairya Khanlari Kiya, Far hang Adabiat-e Fari Dari, pp-223.224. 333

Al Beruni frequently refers to Razi’s work. He also devoted a complete risala

(tract) to a study of the life and work of Razi. He lists the books of Razi as he knew them. He divides them, according to P. Kraus edition, in to the following books, classification brochure or letters. 110.

Name of the Subjects Number of the Books

1. Medicine. 56

2. Natural Sciences (dealing with Matter,

Space, time, motion, nutrition, growth,

Putrefaction, meteorology, optics and alchemy). 33

3. Logic. 07

4. Mathematics and Astrology. 10

5. Interpretations, summaries and resumes. 07

6. Philosophy. 16

7. Metaphysics. 06

8. Theology. 14

9. Chemistry 21

10. Aesthetics 02

11. Fine Arts.

110. Prof. Ziauddin Ahmad, Influence of Islam on World Civilization, pp-130-131. 334

A1 Razi left his mark on surgery also. He was the inventor of the Seton. His

interest in physics is edivent from his investigations on the determination of

specific gravity by means o f the hydrostatic balance called by him Mizan al Tabi’i

and his book Kitab al Asrar displays his keenness on chemistry as well through

his description of chemical processes and apparatus. He is held to the greatest

physician of Islam, indeed of the whole during the Middle ages.

He is also believed in the curative value of sunlight and fresh air. In gynecology he trusted and advocated the use of the speculum for the examination of the patients. He even practicised psychotheraphy. He was eminent surgeon. He was the first to use Seton in surgery. He propounded a hospital at Baghdad. He lost his sight during the later part of his life. He refused to be operated up on saying, “I have seen enough of the world, and have no desire to see it further”.

Zakariya Al Razi professed the existence of five eternal principles in metaphysics namely- the creator, the soul, the matter, the time and space. He believed in the evolution of scientific and philosophical knowledge. His approach to philosophy was inductive, experimental and concrete. He held that all bodies are composed of corporeal atoms. Contrary to Aristotle he held that space exists independently o f the bodies, and time is not a function of motion. He stood for

‘^Equality of Man”. He was opposed to the principal of the authority. He held that ordinary people were endowed with the capacity to handle their affairs in a reasonable way. 3 3 5

6.Fakhruddin Razi (Philosopher. Political thinker & Mufassirf

His real name Abu Abdullah Fakhruddin Muhammad bin Umar bin Hussain

Tabari Razi who is betterly known as Ibnul Khutaib’ was esteemed as one of the greatest philosophers and scholars whom Iran had produced in the 6th century. He was the last of great political thinker of the medieval period. He was not only jurist, a theologian but also political thinker. He acquired profound knowledge in various important subjects.

Imam Fakhruddin Razi further developed the synthesis between faith and reason. He held that reason had a limited scope and should operate within the frame work of faith. His criticism of rational theory was that it operated within certain presup-positions which were open to question and as such much reliance couldnot be placed on reason. Neverthless reason should be pressed in to service in aid of faith wherever possible. He held that Allah’s action should not be judged by man’s standard of justice and wisdom, and a such reason could not be the only tool for understanding the dogmas of religion. In the matter of religion both reason and faith had to play their role, but the role of reason was necessarily subservient to that of faith. 111.

He composed many works on Kaalam in Arabic language. These include:

1. Nehayatul Aqul.

2. Kitabul Arbayeen.

3. Mah Sil-c-Afkarul Mustaq^ddimen-wa-Mustaakhirim-

4. Risala-e-Dar Ma’raj.

111. Ifrpf. Masudul Hasan, History of Islam, (Vol.-I), P-628- 336

He also wrote many books on philosophy and science. These include:

1. AlMolakhas.

2. Sharh-e-Isharath.

3. Sharh-e-Yunul Hikxnah.

4. Mubahisul Mashriqah.

He composed on Tafsir

1. Miftahul Ghaib.

2. Tafsir-e-Kabir (well known to the world).

3. Nehatul Ahjaj. 112.

He wrote an encyclopedia work in Persian entitled ‘Jami’ul Ulum or Hadiwue

Anwar’ which contains numerous chapters on political matter as well. This book has been dedicated in the name of Ala Uddin Taksh Khawarazam Shah in 547 A.H. He expressed the art of politics to be supreme art in the book. He compared society to the body and politics to the heart which ruled the other parts of the body.

His other authentic work entitled ‘Risala-e-Ruhiya’ which contains Ruh and

Fana, body and scientific death, advise and counsel.

His another work ‘Usui Aqaid’ divided in to 8(eight) chapters.

Besides these, he wrote on astronomy entitled Risala-e-Ikhtiarat Alaia and dedicated it in the name of Ala Uddin Khawarazam Shah. It contains of two chapters and also translated in to Arabic.

This eminent author and political thinker breathed his last in 1222 A.D. (606

A..H.).

112. Zuharaiya Khanlari Kiya, Farhange-e-Adabiate Farsi Dari, pp-367,368. 337

7. A1 Khawarizmi, (Mathematician. Astronomer & Geographer)

We know few details of Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi's life.

One unfortunate effect of this lack of knowledge seems to be the temptation to make guesses based on very little evidence. Toomer suggests that the name al-Khwarizmi may indicate that he came from Khwarizm south of the Aral Sea in Central Asia. He then writes:-

But the historian al-Tabari gives him the additional epithet "al-Qutrubbulli", indicating that he came from Qutrubbull, a district between the Tigris and Euphrates not far from Baghdad, so perhaps his ancestors, rather than he himself, came from

Khwarizm. Another epithet given to him by al-Tabari, "al-Majusi", would seem to indicate that he was an adherent of the old Zoroastrian religion. The pious preface to al-Khwarizmi's "Algebra" shows that he was an orthodox Muslim, so Al-Tabari's epithet could mean no more than that his forebears, and perhaps he in his youth, had been Zoroastrians.

This is not the last disagreement that we shall meet in describing the life and work of al-Khwarizmi. However before we look at the few facts about his life that are known for certain, we should take a moment to set the scene for the cultural and scientific background in which al-Khwarizmi worked. The date of birth and death of

Al Khawarizmi(780-850 A.D.) are uncertain, but according to H. Suter he died between 835-844 A,D. and C.ANallino thinks it is after 846-847.

Harun al-Rashid became the fifth Caliph of the Abbasid dynasty on 14

September 786, about the time that al-Khwarizmi was bom. Harun ruled, from his court in the capital city of Baghdad, over the Islam empire which stretched from the 338

Mediterranean to India. He brought culture to his court and tried to establish the intellectual disciplines which at that time were not flourishing in the Arabic world. He had two sons, the eldest was al-Amin while the younger was al-Mamun. Harun died in

809 and there was an armed conflict between the brothers. 113.

Al-Mamun won the armed struggle and al-Amin was defeated and killed in

813. Following this, al-Mamun became Caliph and ruled the empire from Baghdad.

He continued the patronage of learning started by his father and founded an academy called ‘the House of Wisdom’ where Greek philosophical and scientific works were translated. He also built up a library o f , the first major library to be set up since that at , collecting important works from Byzantium. In addition to the House of Wisdom, al-Mamun set up observatories in which Muslim astronomers could build on the knowledge acquired by earlier peoples.

113. Prof. Zainuddin Ahmed, Influence of Islam on World Civilization,PP-98,99. 339

Al-Khwarizmi and his colleagues Banu Musa were scholars at,the House of

Wisdom in Baghdad. Their tasks there involved the translation of Greek scientific manuscripts and they also studied, and wrote on, algebra, geometry and astronomy.

Certainly al-Khwarizmi worked under the patronage of Al-Mamun and he dedicated two of his texts to the Caliph. These were his treatise on algebra and his treatise on astronomy. The algebra treatise Hisab al-jabr w'al-muqabala was the most famous and important of all of al-Khwarizmi's works. It is the title of this text that gives us the word "algebra" and, in a sense that we shall investigate more fully below, it is the first book to be written on algebra.

Rosen's translation of al-Khwarizmi's own words describing the purpose of the book tells us that al-Khwarizmi intended to teach us that

... what is easiest and most useful in arithmetic, such as men constantly require in cases o f inheritance, legacies, partition, lawsuits, and trade, and in all their dealings with one another, or where the measuring of lands, the digging of canals, geometrical computations, and other objects o f various sorts and kinds are concerned.

This does not sound like the contents of an algebra text and indeed only the first part of the book is a discussion o f what we would today recognise as algebra.

However it is important to realise that the book was intended to be highly practical and that algebra was introduced to solve real life problems that were part of everyday life in the Islam empire at that time. Early in the book al-Khwarizmi describes the natural numbers in terms that are almost funny to us who are so familiar with the system, but it is important to understand the new depth of abstraction and understanding here:- 340

When I consider what people generally want in calculating, I found that it always is a number. I also observed that every number is composed of units, and that any number may be divided into units. Moreover, I found that every number which may be expressed from one to ten, surpasses the preceding by one unit: afterwards the ten is doubled or tripled just as before the units were: thus arise twenty, thirty, etc. until a hundred: then the hundred is doubled and tripled in the same manner as the units and the tens, up to a thousand; so forth to the utmost limit of numeration.

Having introduced the natural numbers, al-Khwarizmi introduces the main topic of this first section of his book, namely the solution of equations. His equations are linear or quadratic and are composed of units, roots and squares. For example, to al-Khwarizmi a unit was a number, a root was x, and a square was x1 2 3. However, although we shall use the now familiar algebraic notation in this article to help the reader understand the notions, Al-Khwarizmi's mathematics is done entirely in words with no symbols being used.

He first reduces an equation (linear or quadratic) to one of six standard forms:

A\

1. Squares equal to roots

2. Squares equal to number

3. Roots equal to number 341

4. Squares and roots equal to numbers; e.g. x2 + 10 x = 39.

5. Squares and numbers equal to roots; e.g. x2 + 21 - 10 x.

6. Roots and numbers equal to squares; e.g. 3 x + 4 = x2.

The reduction is carried out using the two operations of al-jabr and al- muqabala. Here "al-jabr" means "completion" and is the process o f removing negative terms from an equation. For example, using one of al-Khwarizmi's own examples, "al- jabr" transforms x2 = 40 x - 4 x2 into 5 x2 = 40 x. The term "al-muqabala" means

"balancing" and is the process of reducing positive terms of the same power when they occur on both sides o f an equation. For example, two applications of "al- muqabala" reduces 50 + 3 x + x2 = 29 + 10 x to 21 + x2 = 7 x (one application to deal with the numbers and a second to deal with the roots).

Al-Khwarizmi then shows how to solve the six standard types of equations.

He uses both algebraic methods of solution and geometric methods. For example to solve the equation x2 + 10 x ~ 39 he writes. 114 A square and 10 roots are equal to 39 units. The question therefore in this type o f equation is about as follows: what is the square which combined with ten of its roots will give a sum total of 39? The manner of solving this type of equation is to take one-half of the roots just mentioned. Now the roots in the problem before us are 10. Therefore take 5, which multiplied by itself gives 25, an amount which you add to 39 giving 64. Having taken then the square root of this which is 8, subtract from it half the roots, 5 leaving 3. The number three therefore represents one root of this square, which itself, of course is 9. Nine therefore gives the square.

114 Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khawarizm,Kitab-ai Jabar Wai-Muqabalab (Arabic),P-

30. 342 he geometric proof by completing the square follows. Al-Khwarizmi starts with a square of side x, which therefore represents x2 (Figure 1). To the square we must add lOx and this is done by adding four rectangles each of breadth 10/4 and length x to the square (Figure 2). Figure 2 has area x2 + 10 x which is equal to 39. We now complete the square by adding the four little squares each of area 5/j x 5k = 25U. Hence the outside square in Fig 3 has area 4 x 25/4 + 39 = 25 + 39 = 64. The side of the square is therefore 8. But the side is of length 5k + x + 5k so x + 5 = 8, giving x = 3.

These geometrical proofs are a matter of disagreement between experts. The question, which seems not to have an easy answer, is whether al-Khwarizmi was familiar with Euclid's Elements. We know that he could have been, perhaps it is even fair to say "should have been", familiar with Euclid's work. In al-Rashid's reign, while al-Khwarizmi was still young, al-Hajjaj had translated Euclid's Elements into Arabic and al-Hajjaj was one of al-Khwarizmi's colleagues in the House of Wisdom. This would support Toomer's comments.

In his introductory section al-Khwarizmi uses geometrical figures to explain equations, which surely argues for a familiarity with Book II of Euclid's "Elements".

Rashed writes that al-Khwarizmi's:-

Treatment was very probably inspired by recent knowledge of the "Elements".

However, Gandz argues for a very different view:-

Euclid's "Elements" in their spirit and letter are entirely unknown to [al-

Khwarizmi]. Al-Khwarizmi has neither definitions, nor axioms, nor postulates, nor any demonstration of the Euclidean kind. 343

I think that it is clear that whether or not al-Khwarizmi had studied Euclid's

Elements, he was influenced by other geometrical works. As Parshall writes.

“Because his treatment of practical geometry so closely followed that of the Hebrew text, Mishnat ha Middot, which dated from around 150 AD, the evidence of Semitic ancestry exists”.

Al-Khwarizmi continues his study of algebra in Hisab al-jabr w'al-muqabala by examining how the laws of arithmetic extend to an arithmetic for his algebraic objects. For example he shows how to multiply out expressions such as

(a + b x) (c + d x)

Although again we should emphasise that al-Khwarizmi uses only words to describe his expressions, and no symbols are used. Rashed sees a remarkable depth and novelty in these calculations by al-Khwarizmi which appear to us, when examined from a modem perspective, as relatively elementary. He writes:-

Al-Khwarizmi's concept of algebra can now be grasped with greater precision: it concerns the theory of linear and quadratic equations with a single unknown, and the elementary arithmetic of relative binomials and trinomials. The solution had to be general and calculable at the same time and in a mathematical fashion. 115.

Musa A1 Khawarizm was among the most important of the early 9th century astronomers. Apart from his notable contribution to Mathematics, he also wrote an astronomy, especially on Ptlemy’s ‘Almagest’ (Syntaxis).

115. Ibid, P-36. 344

He prepared a set of ‘’(astronomical tables) of future planetary and stellar position, called “Zijal Sindhind”, since they were based on some Hindu tables that were brought to Baghdad. These tables are the first of the major Islamic Astronomical works that have survived in its entirely.

He was also a voracious reader and used to devote his time to study and research in the royal library. He took great interest in Mathematics, Geography,

Astronomy and History. He wrote Kitab al-Tarikh and his writings reveal that his personality was imbued with scientific genius.

His most important mathematical work is an Algebra-Hisab al Jabr Wa’l

Muqabala not only gave the name to this significant branch of mathematics to the

European world but also contained, in addition to the usual analytical solution of linear and quadric equations, geographical solution of typical quadric equations. It was revised by Shuja Ibn Aslam in the first of the 10th century, J. Ruska terms this work as “Process of calculation for Integration and equation. The book contains very varied matter

Process of integration and equation, the simplest forms of equation.

a Surviving measuration.

b. Testamentary regulations for division of inheritance.

The book was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremon, Robert of Chester and Adelard Bath.

Al Khawarizm’s writings have influenced Abu Kamil, Al Karkhe, Omar

Khayyam and Leonardo of Pisa 345

An arithmetical work of A1 Khawarizmi only survives in a Latin translation, which accprding to J. Ruska, is ‘Kital-al-Jam’wal Taffiq’ (Book of Addition and

Substraction). His treatise on astronomy and arithmetic are also known only from their Latin translations.

8.Abiil Farai Isfahani(Astronomer and Historian)

Real name, Abul Faraj Ali ibn Hussain Isfahani, also known as Abul Faraj or, in the west as AbulFaraj was an Iranian scholar ofArab Quraish origin. He was bom in Isfahan of Iran in the year 284A.H(897 A.D) during the reign of Abbasid caliph A1

Mu’tazid, but spent his youth and studied his early education in Baghdad. He was a direct descendant of the last of the Umayyad caliph Marwan-II and was thus connected with the Umayyad ruler in Spain, and seems to have kept up a correspondence with them and to have sent them some of his works. He became famous for his knowledge of early Arabian antiquities.

His later life was spent in various parts of the Islamic world, in Aleppo with its governor Saif ud-Dawlah (To whom the book of songs he dedicated), in Rey with the

Buwayhid Ibn Abbad and elsewhere.

Abul Faraj Isfahani acquired perfect knowledge from different prominent scholars like Ibn-Zaid, Ibnul Ambari, Ibn Qudamah and others. He is very skilled in storytelling, histography, criticism and photography. He is musician and poet also.

His works:- He wrote innumberable books on different subjects. Some of them may be mentioned.

1. Kitabul Aghani. 346

2. Resa-ud-Dik.

3. Muqatil-e-Talibin.

4. Adabul Gurab.

5. Kitab-e-Adab Symah

6. Kitab-ul Khusyan. and others.

But his Kitabul Aghani (The book of songs and anecdotes) is very famous in the

Islamic world. It is a collection of poems and songs with stories of the composers and singers in many volumes from the oldest epoch of Arabic literature down to the 9th century. The poems were put to music, but the musical songs are no longer readable.

Because of the accompanying biographical annotations on the authors and composers, the work is an important historical source. It contains a mass of information as to the life and customs o f the early Arab and in the most valuable authority we have for their pre-Islamic and early Islamic days.This book is remarkable on Arab history and also has been called by Ibn Khaldun as “The Register of the Arabs”

This great poet and musician died in 14 Dhil Haj, 365 A.H. (976 A.D.) in

Baghdad. 116.

116. Moulana Muhammad Hanif Gonguwee, Zafrul Musailin Ba Ahlul Musannifin, pp-544.545. 347

9. Abdur Rahman A1 Sufi (Astrologer)

Now we come to a famous astronomer of the 10th century, named Abul

Hussain Abdul Rahman al-Sufi. He was bom in Rey (Persia) in 903 A.D. and died in

966 A.D. He was known as in the west as Azophi. He was a prominent astronomer of the medieval times. His knowledge of both the Islamic and Greek astronomy, particularly urinometry, was comprehensive. He was the first to observe the change of the colour of stars, the change in the magnitude of stars, the proper motion of stars, the long period variable stars and the southern constellations which have been wrongly ascribed by modem astronomers to some later ones. 117.

A1 Sufi was patronized by the Buwayhid ruler Adud-al Dawlah (949-982) who was a great patron of astronomy, and had built an observatory at . A1 Sufi wrote for the ruler a book on urinometry, entitled “Kitab al-Kawakib al Thabit al-

Musawwar(The book of the fixed stars). It is available in original Arabic as well as in the Franeh translation of Schjellerup. In this book he gives a complete description of the constellations of the heavens. He also gives the position of each star of constellations, illustrating with pictures. The book contains 55 astronomical tables along with illustrations of 48 constellations in 96 diagrams as seen in the heavens.

The Artistic value of the pictorial illustrations in this work is very great, and represents one of the best examples of the paintings. Al-Sufi has not only corrected the errors of the observations in the work of his predecessors like Al-

Battani, but also pointed out many faulty observations found in Ptolemy’s Almagest.

He defined carefully the boundaries of each constellation, and recorded the magnitudes and positions of stars after making new observation.

117. Dr.(Mufti) M. Mukarram Ahmed,Science in Islam, P-245. 348

‘The book of the fixed stars’ is one of the three masterpieces of observational astronomy of the medieval times, the other two being the catalogues of and

Ulug Beg, prepared in the 12th and 15th centuries respectively. It is an addition to the

Muslim’s knowledge on urinometry.

The later astronomers like Al-Beruni, Alfonso, Prince of Castile, Khawaja

Nasir uddin Tusi, prince of Ulug Beg and Jai Singh II, based their catalogues of the stars on this authentic catalogue. This work was translated in to Latin, French and

Persian, and a commentary on it was written in Spanish.

It served as a basis for later works in Western Europe. The modem astronomers like Hauber, Down, Argelander, Ideler, Schellerup and Knobel had made an extensive use of it.

A1 sufi prepared a fine celestial globe. Several celestial globes which cover the period from the 11th to 18th century show the star position and magnitudes according to Al-Sufi. He showed a remarkable accuracy in the design of the . He wrote a treatise on this instrument. In this treatise he throws light on the astronomical techniques as practiced at that time. 118.

118. Ibid, P-246. 349

10. Abul Wafa Buziani (Geometrician & Astronomer)

Abul Wafa Muhammad al-Buzjani was bom in 940 A.D. at Buzjan in

Khurasan and died in 997 or 998 A.D. He introduced the use of the secant and tangent in trigonometry and astronomical observation. His chief works are A1 Kitabul Kamil and Kitabul Hindisah.

Ibn Khallikan thinks that Abul Wafa was a celebrated calculation and one of the most distinguished masters in the science and geometry. He deduced from geometry certain corollaries which had still them remained undiscovered.

Ibn Yunus highly extolled his works, taking them as guides in most of his investigations and citing the authors words as a conclusive authority. Abul Wafa composed a good and useful treatise on the manner of finding the value of chords, of arcs (Fi Istikhraj al Autar). He also wrote ManaziP, a good arithmetical treatise and v ‘MudkiP, an introduction in arithmetic. 119.

He gave a new method of constructing sin tables, the value of sin 30 being correct to the 18th place of decimal. A number of European mathematician for example Delambre in Historic de L’ astronomie av Moyen Age and H. Suter in the encyclopedia of Islam, have discussed isolated problems handled by Abul Wafa but no extensive text of his work has yet been published.

Carra de Vaux has evaluated his contributions saying ‘Abul Wafa’s sevices to trigonometry; becomes still more explicit and acquires the formula for the addition of angles. Sin(a+b)= Sin a Cos b + Sin b Cos a

R

119. Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al- A’yan, P-320,321. (Vol.-II). 350

The formula, discovered at this time, did not, however, became known to the

Latin world and Copernicus seems to have been unaware of it. Rhaeticus , the pupil and editor of Copernicus rediscovered it very laboriously in his Opus Platinum de

Triangulis, after having given another formula much more complicated than Abul

Wafa’s . This is not the end of the series rendered by Abul Wafa to science. A geometer of great ingenuity, he dealt with a number of problems and studied the quadrature of the parabola and the volume of paraboloid: in algebra, he translated and made an exhausive commentary on , but these writings are lost. 120.

It was also explained that he was also one of the last Arabic translators and commentators of Greek works. He wrote commentaries on Euclid, Diophantors, and

Al-Khawarizmi, and a practical arithmetic entitled kitabul-Kamil (The complete

Book} .A book on applied geometry named kitabul Handasah is also ascribed to him.

He gave the solution of geometrical problems with one opening of the compass. He described the construction of a square equivalent to other squares, and approximately construction of regular heptagon (taking for its side half in side of the equilateral triangle inscribed in the same circle). He described regular polyhedron and gave the construction of parabola by points. He gave the geometrical solution of x4= a and x4+ax3=b.

Abul wafa’s contribution to the developments of trigonometry is remarkable.

He was the first to show the generality of the sine theorem relative to spherical triangles. He gave a new method of constructing sin tables, the value of Sin 30 being correct to the eight decimal places.

120. T.W. Arnold. Legacy of Isalm, pp-389,390. 351

He knew relations of Sin (a+b) and also the relation equivalent to 2sina a/2=l+eos a sin a=2sina/2 cos a/2. He introduced the secant and cosecant which are among the six fundamental elements of trigonometry. He made the study the tangent, and compiled a table of tangents. He had the knowledge of those simple relations between the six trigonometric lines, which are now often used to define them. 121.

121. Dr. (Mufti) M. Mukarram Ahmed, Science in Islam, P-234. 352

11. All Ibn A1 Abbas (Physician and Surgeon)

Ali Ibn A1 Abbas, known to the west as Haly Abbas, flourished fifty years later than Al-Razi. He was Persian by birth and died in 994 A.D. His monumental work, the medical encyclopaedia, Kamil al Sina’-ah al Tabbiya (the whole medical

Art), comprises 20 volumes, on the theory of practice of medicals and contains remarkable contributions to dietetics, material medica and surgery. To the Latins it is known as ‘Liber Regius’. He dedicated this publication to the Buwayhid Amir ‘ Adud- al Dawla. It was translated in Latin in 1227 and printed at Lyons in 1523 by Michel

Capella. Ali Ibn al-Abbas corrected many of errors of Hippocrates and Galen. 122.

Al Abbas gave a conception of the capillary system and proofs of the motions of the Womb during parturition (Child-birth) whereby the child does not come out but is pushed out of the mother’s body.The 2nd and 3rd discourses o f Ali’s book deal with anatomy and the 9th book o f the 2nd part is about surgery. In this he has described the anatomy of the brain with great minuteness and details.

The surgical techniques of Ali Abbas is no less remarkable. His lucid description of the surgical operation for the removal of tubercular glands is a fine specimen of his art. He says, “Cut the skin longitudinally down to the gland. Retract the skin with hooks. Dissect slowly and gently, freeing the gland from the tissues around it. Take care not to cut any vessel or puncture any nerve. If a vessel is cut, ligate it, lest the haermorrhage obscure the field and prevent you from carrying out a proper and through operation.

122. Ameer Ali, Spirit of Islam, pp-385,386. 353

After removal of the gland, put you finger into it to feel for any small glands that might be left. If there are any, remove them too, when all the glands are removed, suture the incision”.

Ali Abbas recognized the gravity of cancer and says that the medicians do not help in curing the disease. He suggests removal of whole area effected by cutting at distance from the growth so that none of its roots are left. And he advices that after removal blood should not be stopped from running but that the surgeon should see that the diseased blood is drained off. 123.

12. Abu Ma’shar (Astronomer)

The Muslim learned astronomy from the writings of Greek masters and also assimilated all the available knowledge from Persia, Egypt, Syria, Iraq and India, and built up their own edifice of astronomical and mathematical science by their indefatigable endeavour, Keen observation, incessant practical research and enquiry.

The results of these experimental researches have been scientifically incorporated bu

Abu Masher (known to the west as Albumasher). He was a contemporary of A1 kindi and at the age of forty he devoted his attention to the study of astronomy and astrology. He passed the major portion o f his life at Baghdad and died at Wasit in 886

A.D.

Abu Ma’sher known as the author of the first work on Astrology wrote the book entitled ‘Introduction to Astrology’. He also made the celestial phenomena his special study; and his Zij-abi Ma’shar or the table of Abu Ma’shar has always

remained one of the chief sources o f astronomical knowledge. Among his famous

123. Ibid-P-387 354

works are Kitabul Mudkhal al-Kabir, Kitabul Q-iranat, Kitab al-Uloof and

Mawalidual Rijal wal Nisa. 124.

According to Barun Carra de Vaun, “Abu Ma’shar was an astronomer and astrologer of great renown. Four of his work, including De Conjunctionibus et,

Annorum revolutionibus, were translated into Latin by Johannes Hispalensis and

Adelard of Bath.

124. Ibn Khallikan, Wafiyalul A’yan, P-325. 355

13. Abu Mansur Muwaffaa (Physician. Druggist & Pharmacologist)

A Persian Pharmacologist Abu Mansur Muwaffaq Ibn Ali-al Harawd who flourished in Hirat in the tenth century, was apparently the first to think of compiling a treatise on Materia Medica in Persian. He travelled extensively in Persia and India to obtain necessary information. He wrote, between 968 and977 A.D. a book entitled

Kitab al- Abniyahan Haqaiq al- Adwiyah (foundations of the true properties Remeies)

125, It contains Greek, Syriac, Arabian, Persian and Indian knowledge. It deals with

585 remedies (of which 466 are derived from plants, 75 from minerals and 44 from animals). He classified them into four groups according to their action, and gave the outline of a general pharmacological theory.

Abu Mansur distinguished between sodium carbonate (natrum) and potassium carbonate (qali). He had some knowledge of arsenious oxide, cupric, oxide, silicic acid, antimony and so on. He knew the toxicological effects of copper and lead compounds, the depilatory virtue of quick time, the composition of plaster of and its surgical use.

14.Abul Hasan Khushvar Ibn LabbantTrigonomctrianl

Abul Hasan Khushayar bin Labban was bom in Persia. He was a celebrated scientist as well as renowned mathematician. He made valuable contribution to the development of trigonometry. He continued the investigations which Abu la’far started on the tangent and compiled a table of tangents. He solved the quadratic equation and his solution came to be known as Al Haythans problem. 126.

125. Dr. (Mufti) M.Mukarram Ahmed, Science in Islam, P-217.

126. Ibid, P-235. 356

15.Abul Hasan Ali A1 Nasai (Mathematician)

The Persian mathematician Abul Hasan Ali al-Nisavi, who flourished under the Buwayhid Sultan, Majd-al-Dawlah and under his successors, wrote a practical arithmetic in persian and translated it into Arabic. In his arithmetic called A1 Mughnifil Hisab al Hindi, he explains the division of fraction and the extraction of square and cubic roots. His replacement of sexagesimal by decimal fraction is remarkable, e.g. 127.

16.1bn Khurdah Beh (Geographer)

The most prominent geographer in the history of the world is Abul Qasim Muhammad bin Khurdad Beh who is known to the world as the Khurdad Beh. In the ninth century A.D. several descriptions of roads and countries came to existence. One such description entitled the Kitab al Masalik wal Mamalik{Book of Roads andCountries) was composed in 232 A.H. by Ibn Khurdad Beh, a geographer of Persian origin, who was the director of Posts under the Abbasid caliph. The book, which is the authors main work contains brief narrations of journeys in distant lands. It is an important source for the study of the topography of the Muslim empire. It was translated into French. The author of this work was bom in about 825 and died in 912 A.D.128,

1 2 7 . Ibid , P - 2 3 6 .

1 2 8 . Ibid , p - 2 3 7 . 17. Abdullah Ibn Muoaffah(Scholar)

The Iranian Ruzbih, when converted to Isalm, took up the name Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa. His father Dazwah, a Zoroastrain, was a tax-collector of Iran appointed by Hajjaj ibn Yusuf. He was commonly known as A1 Muqaffah (curled up handed i due to the fact that he was badly tortured by Hajjaj for his theft from the tax he collected.

Ibn al Muqaffah was bom in about 106 A.H. in Iran and brought up in Hasarah in princely manner. From his very childhood he was curious for learning lie had close friendship with Khalid ibn Ahmed, the grammarian from whom he acquired deep knowledge in the Arabic language. He was secretary of Dawud ibn Hubau during the Umayyad period and the uncle of Isa ibn Ali Mansur during the Abbasul period.

It is said that he embraced Islam only for the sake of worldly benefit I Ic v> as accused of heretic activities such as challenge to the Quran and translation of books < *t heretic. He was put to death in 142 A.H. (760 A.D.) by the order of caliph Al -Vtansui for anti-Islamic activities as well his hostile remark against the caliph at the ago of only. Some historian say that Ibn-al-Muqaffah was killed in the hand of Sufi vat ibn

Mu’awiyah, the Governor of Basarah.

His works:- Ibn-al-Muqaffah was the greatest pillar of the Persian Arabic translation activity, which started at the beginning of the Abbasid period. I hc most celebrated translation has been upto this day the book Kalila-wa-!)imna,ihc Atabic translation of Sanskrit work Panchtantra made at the time of caliph Al Mansur from the middle Persian or Pahlavi recession of it. He also translated the Persian historical 358 work Khudai- Name under the title of Sayral Muluk al A’jam. His another works include:

1. AyenNama. 2. GahNama.

3. Kitab Majdak.

4. Kitab-e-Taj. (Written on the character of Just king Anushirwan).

5.Kitab e- Adabul Kabir. 6.Kitab-e-Adabul Saghir. 129

18.AL-FARGHANI (Astronomer!

Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathir al-Farghani, bom in Farghana,

Transoxiana, was one of the most distinguished astronomers in the service of al-

Mamun and his successors. He wrote "Elements of Astronomy" {Kitab fi al-Harakat al-Samawiya wa Jawami Urn al-Nujum i.e. the book on celestial motion and thorough science of the stars), which was translated into Latin in the 12th century and exerted great influence upon European astronomy before Regiomontanus. He accepted

Ptolemy's theory and value of the precession, but thought that it affected not only the stars but also the planets. He determined the diameter of the earth to be 6,500 miles, and found the greatest distances and also the diameters of the planets.

AL-Farghani's activities extended to engineering. According to Ibn Tughri Birdi, he supervised the construction o f the Great Nilometer at al-Fustat (old Cairo). It was completed in 861, the year in which the Caliph al-Mutawakkil, who ordered the construction, died.

129. Dr. Zuhrai-e-Khaniari Kiya, Farhang-e-Adabiyat-e-Farsi Dari, P-16. 359

But engineering was not al-Farghani's forte, as transpires from the following story narrated by Ibn Abi Usaybi'a.

Al-Mutawakkil had entrusted the two sons of Musa ibn Shakir, Muhammad and

Ahmad, with supervising the digging of a canal named al-Ja'fari. They delegated the work to AL-Farghani, thus deliberately ignoring a better engineer, Sind ibn Ali, whom, out of professional jealousy, they had caused to be sent to Baghdad, away from al-Mutawakkil's court in Samarra. The canal was to run through the new city, al-

Ja'fariyya, which al-Mutawakkil had built near Samarra on the Tigris and named after himself. Al-Farghani committed a grave error, making the beginning of the canal deeper than the rest, so that not enough water would run through the length of the canal except when the Tigris was high. News of this angered the Caliph, and the two brothers were saved from severe punishment only by the gracious willingness of Sind ibn Ali to vouch for the correctness of al-Farghani's calculations, thus risking his own welfare and possibly his life. As had been correctly predicted by astrologers, however, al-Mutawakkil was murdered shortly before the error became apparent. The explanation given for A1 Farghani's mistake is that being a theoretician rather than a practical engineer, he never successfully completed a construction.

The Fihrist of Ibn al-Nadim, written in 987, ascribes only two works to AL-Farghani:

( 1) "The Book o f Chapters, a summary of the Almagest" (Kitah al-Fusul, Ikhtiyar al-

Majisti) and (2) "Book on the Construction of Sun-dials" (Kitab 'Amal al-Rukhamat).

The Jawami, or 'The Elements' as we shall call it, was Al-Farghani's best-known and most influential work. Abd al-Aziz al-Qabisi (d. 967) wrote a commentary on it, which is preserved in the Istanbul manuscript, Aya Sofya 4832, fols. 97v-l 14v. Two

Latin translations followed in the 12th century. Jacob Anatoli produced a Hebrew 360 translation of the book that served as a basis for a third Latin version, appearing in

1590, whereas Jacob Golius published a new Latin text together with the Arabic original in 1669. The influence of 'The Elements' on mediaeval Europe is clearly vindicated by the presence of innumerable Latin manuscripts in European libraries.

References to it in mediaeval writers are many, and there is no doubt that it was greatly responsible for spreading knowledge of Ptolemaic astronomy, at least until this role was taken over by Sacrobosco's Sphere. But even then, 'The Elements' of Al-

Fargbani continued to be used, and Sacrobosco's Sphere was evidently indebted to it.

It was from 'The Elements' (in Gherard's translation) that Dante derived the astronomical knowledge displayed in the 'Vita nuova' and in the 'Convivio'.130

130.Google com. 361

19 Other Scholars of Persian Orgin are:

Besides them, many other Islamic scholars are mentioned in the history of

Persia who was from the Persian speaking regions and devloted their life for the cause of Islam. Here we shall mention only their short lives along with special feature as because if we discuss elaborately, the shape of our thesis will be enlargd.

A1 Baizawee (Quranic Commentator)

His real name Abdullah surname Nasir uddin, Kuniya (Patronymics) Abul

Khair or Abu Sayeed. His father’s name was Umar bin Muhammad bin Ali, so his fullname, Nasir Uddin Abul Khair (Abu Sayeed) Abdullah bin al Baizawee (al

Baidawee) who was bom in Baiza (Baida) of Persia. So he was called Al Baizawee in connection with the village of Al Baizawee. He is regarded as an imitator of Shafi’a school and his father was considered as Mufti of that school during his time. It is to be noted that Mansur Hallaj was inhabitant of Baiza.

His works: In the 13th century Al Baizawee wrote a commentatory ( Tafsir) on the

Holy Quran entitled “Anwarul Tanzil wa Asrarul Ta’wil”. It was an improvement on

Al Zamakhshari’s work, and is regarded by the Sunnis as one of the best commentaries.

Besides this, he also wrote many books on different subjects, these include:

1. Mukhtasirul Wasit ( on Jurisprudence of Shafi’a School)

2. Minhazul Usui ( Written on Usui)

3. Mirsadul Usui. 362

4. Tawali’ul Anwar (on Kaalam)

5. Misbahul Arwa’h ( on usul)

6. Sharhay Masab’ih ( on Hadis)

7. Sharhay Kafiyah ( on Na,h i.e. grammer)

8. Sharhay Matali’h (on Monthiq i.e. logic)

Allama Taj uddin Sabaki remarked in his famous book “Tabaqatul Rubra” that

Allama Baizawee was highly reckoned as Kazi ( Judge), Abid, Zahid as well as

greatman of his life time.

This great Quranic commentator breathed his last in 685 A.H. (1282A.D.) in

Tabriz and was buried at the same place.131

131. History of Islam, P-610. 363

A1 Zamakhshari ( Quranic Commentator)

Iran had produced a large number of Islamic scholars for the development of

Persian literature and Islamic faith and ideology. A1 Zamakhshari was one of them.

His real name was Abul Qasim Mahmud bin Umar bin Muhammad al Zamakhshari

Khawarizmi, who was popularly known as Al Zamakhshari in the Muslim world but he was called Jarullah (Neighbour of Allah). He had profound knowledge in the

Quranic commentary, grammer and Hadith compilation.

His works:- In the 12th century he worte a commentary on the “Holy Quran entitled

Al Kashshaf unil Asrarul Tanjil”. He devoted particular attention to pointing out rhetorical beauties of the KIja£' of Holy Quran. It explains the Saraf, Nah and Sha’ne

Nuzul (cause of descending for Aya). This commentary had a Mu’tazilite.132

Besides, his other works are mentioned below-

1) Kitabul Fars ( Book of Fars). It is written in the early years of the 12th century which described the geographical features of Persia.

2) Kitab-ul-Muqaddamatul Adab. (it is written for Khawarizm shah and deals with Old Persian Lexicography)

3) Asasul Balaghat.

4) Kitab Anmudaz (It is an extract of Kitabul Mufassal)

5) Kitab Mufassal. (written in 514 A.H.)

This peat Quranic commentator was bom in Zamakhshar of

Khawaraz and died in 538 A.H. (1144A.D)

132.Farhang-e-Adabiyat-e-Farsi Dari, P-255 364

Ibrahim al Mosuli (Musician)

Abu Ishaq Ibrahim bin Mahan who was known as Nadin Mosuli, was regarded as the greatest musician in versality. At first his father’s name as Maimun. He belonged to the tribe of Arzan Farsi. His father, firstly, migrated to Kufa. And in Kufa

Ibrahim was bom. Thereafter he went to Mosul and stayed there permanently. For this he was known as Mosuli. He died in 188 A.H.

Ibrahim al Mosuli flourished during the reign of Harun al-Rashid. As an all round musician he personified the spirit of classical Arab music. He is rated as one of the gratest musicians of the Middle Ages. Mukhariq, a pupil of Ibrahim al Mosuli was a master singer of the age of the caliph of Al Mamun. 133

Ibn Outaibah (Scholar)

Ibn Qutaibah is rated as one o the Bible Scholars in the Islamic world. His real name is Abu Muhammad Abdullah bin Muslim bin Qutaibah Kufi al- Dinawari who was bom in Kufa in the 9th century but his father was bom in Merv of Iran. He had left many contributions in literature and history. 134

He spelled out the functions o f the Head of the State elaborate terms. He laid down the principles to regulate the selection of high functionaries of the State. He also advocated the need of the integrating the non-Arabs and the Arabs.

133. History oflslam , P-687.

134. Farhang-e-Adabiyat-e-Farsi Dari, P-15. 365

His works:- He worte many works. Some of them are mentioned below.

1) Kitab-ul-Maarif (a store house of information about Arab genealogies)

2) AdabulKatib

3) Uzunul Akhbar (on political treatise in 10 volums)

4) Kitab-us-Sha’har (Book of poetry and poets)

He wrote the history of the Islamic empire upto the time of the Abasid Caliph

Harun ar-Rashid.

This great scholar died in 270 A.H. (889A.D.)

Ibn Ishaq (Biographer)

Ibn Ishaq was from Persian descends who is rated as biographer only. He wrote a comprehensive biography of the Holy Prophet. It is an important history of the times of the Holy Prophet. He died in 768 A.D.

The most erudite sehlar Behman ibn Firuq, whose was Al-Kisai, who was a famous scholar of the Holy Quran and was the tutor of Amin and Mamun, the sons of Harun ar- Rashid, his disciple Zikriya was also once a Zarathustrian.

Renowned compiler of Hadith Behram Maghribi, erudite historian Hamza

Isphahani, the famous grammarians A1 Farsi and Zajjaj all were of Persian stock and also proud of Iranian lineage. CHAPTER-6

CONCLUSION & BIBLIOGRAPHY 366

CHAPTER - 6

CONCLUSION

In the light of aforesaid discussion, it is clear that Islamic scholars of Persian origin are generally considered as the custodian and guardian of Islamic civilization and education. Iran is also esteemed as the touch-bearer of Sufi theosophy as well as art and learning to the Islamic world

Iran, one of the oldest civilizations, has played a significant role to spread human civilization in the world . Its language Persian , not only influenced the human race of its territory , but also the surrounding nations of the region to a great extent Iran and Persia : The two names have been used to designate the same country , but are not truly synonyms, when the

Aryan peoples migrated from their original territory south of the Aral Sea to the upland plateau below the Caspian Sea , they called the new region Iran , which means ‘Land of

Aryan ( ‘Airavejo’, ‘Aryavarta’)

The great royal palace site of the Achemenid dynasty, which originally ruled over the region north east of the head of the Persian G ulf, was called Parsa , taken into the Greek language at the time of Alexander , the Great as Persepolis . The powerful Achaemenid

Empire was called Iran, but the regional and palace name became transferred to the province within the empire as Pars or Fars , and hence the people of many other lands came to be called the country Persia . In Sassanian times , the official name of the empire of Iran was

Iranshahr .Since 1935 when the Iranian government, for the sake of consistency , requested all foreign countries to use the official name of Iran , the correct designation has gained general usage . On the otherhand the language of country is Persian . Farsi to the inhabitants , since it is the language of ancient Parsa, and it is written in Arabic characters 367

As we know Persia i.e, Iran has always been centre of learning and cultural activities since the time immemorial. Almost all the rulers of different dynasties that ruled over pre- Islamic Iran like Achamenian, Parthian and Sassanian, were patrons of art and learning. In the two battles namely Qadesia (636) and Nehavand (642), which was fought between Persian Empire and the Arabs, the last ruler of the Sassanian period Yazdgird-III though tried his best to check the advance of the Arabs but it was badly defeated. Consequently Persian Army was completely routed. Gradually the

Persian adopted the Muslim faith and Iran was islaminized and came under the

Islamic state. Later on other Persian speaking regions like Afghanistan, Tadzhikistan,

Uzbekistan and Central Asia started to embrace Islam. As a result, they were islaminized.

There at Medina after the death of prophet Hazrat Muhammad (Peace be up on him) in the year 632 A.D., four successive Khalifas 1. Hazrat Abu Bakr. 2.Hazrat

Umar Farooque 3.Hazrat Uthman Gani 4,Hazrat Ali (R:A). were chosen by the people. But after the Martyrdom of Hazrat Ali in 661 A.D. Hazrat Moaweya founded a new Umayyad dynasty at Damascus. The last Umayyad khalifa was defeated in 750

A.D. in the battle o f Zab and the famous Abbasid caliphate commenced its way. Out of gratitude to the Iranians, by whose support they were raised to power, the Abbasid began to favour them with high post. The Abbasid region has been considered a golden age of the Iranians. The Khalifa now gradually began to entrust power to the

Iranians. The Iranian festival like Nu-roz, Mehargan etc. began to be celebrated at court.

When two races are brought into contact for sometimes they mutually borrow thought and ideals willingly and unwillingly. The Iranians were compelled to express themselves in Arabic for more than two centuries. The keen witted Iranians rapidly 368 picked-up Arabic and soon obtained such a mastery over the Arabic language and freed themselves from the shade of the Arabs. The richest fruit of the harmony of

Iranian and Islamic culture may best be seen in Sufism. Moreover, many scholars are of opinion that Sufism originated from the Zoarasterism.

It is worthy to note that Persian has been playing very important role since the very beginning of Islam. In the early years of the 7th century, a well-known Persian named Salman-e-Farsi left his motherland for Arab. He was the first to establish contact between Iran and Islam. He was one of the most faithful companions of the prophet Muhammad (S:A) was pleased with his intelligence as to consider him one of the members of his family. He is who taught how to prepare ditches in Ghazvae-

Khandaq.

It is to be mentioned that Islam is Miraculous and chosen religion in the world.

Islam stands for peace, peace for all, not for Muslims, alone, In fact Islam, when defined, incorporates in its fold, safety and security for the whole mankind. Holy

Quran, the divine scripture addressed all human beings, not only the Muslims.

Prophet of Islam, Hazrat Muhammad (peace be upon him) is known as the benefactor of mankind. Islam’s message is for the whole universe and Allah is the Lord of all the worlds. Islam is universal in its nature, essence, belief, philosophy, ideology approach and practice. Islam, however from its early days, advocates non violence, peace, fraternity, but ironically today it has been made known merely for militancy and terrorism. Islam which, on the very firstday, had raised the banner of reasoning and enlightment in a dark age on the one hand and humanity, equality and fundamental rights on the other is today termed as an orthodox and autocratic faith. 369

The words Islam stands for complete surrender and submission to the will of

Allah. The name of the religion originating in Arabic during the 7m century through the prophet Muhammad (S:A). The followers o f Islam are known as Muslim and then- religion embraces every aspect of life. The message of Islam enshrined in the declaration of faith. There is no God but Allah and Muhammad (S:A) is His last messenger. Islam established the link between man and his Creator and thereby lifts him in.the scale of values.

Sir Wolsely Haig says that the rise of Islam is one of the marvels o f history. It was in the year 622 A.D. that the prophet of Islam was given away from his native city, Mecca but within a century his successors, and followers were able to set up an empire which extended from the Atlantic to the Indus and from the Caspian sea to the cataracts of the . Within a hundred years of the death of the prophet, the Muslim overthrows two mighty empires viz, Sassanid and Byzantine empires.

It is cited that islaminization of Persian speaking regions first began with the letter written by Hazrat Muhammad (S:A) to the king of Sasanian dynasty named

Parviz Harmuz Nawshirwan in which he had requested him to embrace Islam. But unfortunately he not only refused to accept Islam but also tore his letter. When this incident was brought into the kind notice of Hazrat Muhammad (S:A) he stated,

“May God divide his kingdom in to pieces”. Later on during the reign second caliph of Islam, Hazrat Umar Farooque under the command of Nu’man after the two grim battles of Qadessia (636) and Nehavand (641) the whole was captured by the Islamic forces. Gradually the Persians adopted the Islamic faith and Iran was islaminzed and came under the Islamic government. 370

Indian sub continent and Afghanistan came under Islamic rale first time when

Muhammad bin Qasim eonqured Sindh in 712 A.D. Later on Mahmud Ghaznawi, the real founder of Ghaznavid empire brought . Gradually the inhabitants of

Tazdhikstan and Uzbekistan started to embrace Islamic faith. The credit for expansion of Islam in the Central Asian region goes to the Samanid of Transoxiana and Persia

(874-999 A.D.). The founder of this dynasty was Nasr bin Ahmed (874-92), a great grandson o f Saman. It was under the Samanid that final Sabjugation of Transoxiana to Muslim rule was effected their capital Bukhara, their leading city Samarqand, almost eclipsed Baghdad as centre of learning and art.

It is worthy to be noted that the Abbasid dynasty which is considered to be the golden period of Islamic history. It was established, after overthrowing the Umayyad dynasty by Abul Abbas Saffah. He was the first and also the greatest caliph of the

Abbasid period started from 750 to 1258 (132 to 656 A.H.). The last Umayyad caliph

Marwan-II was defeated in 750 in the battle of ‘ZAB’ and the famous Abbasid caliphate commenced it way.

The Abbasid dynasty of 37 caliphs reigned in Baghdad for 508 years. It was extended from the shores of North Africa to the Indus, from the Red Sea to the

Caspian Sea, and into the valleys o f north western slopes of the Himalaya. The

Abbasid caliphate was brought to an end in 1258 when caliph A1 Musta’sim was put to death by Halaku.

The successful and erudite rulers who ruled the Abbasid dynasty. Mention may be made. 1. As- Saffah (750 A.D.).

2. Al-Mansur (754 A.D.).

3. Al-Mahdi (775 A.D.).

4. Al-Hadi (785 A.D.).

5. Harun ar Rashid (786 A.D.).

6. Al-Amin (809 A.D.).

7. Al-Mamun, the Great (813 A.D.).

8. Al-Mu’tasim (833 A.D.).

9. Al-Wasiq (842 A.D.).

10. Al-Mutawakkil (847 to 861 A.D.)

11. Al-Muntasir (861 AJD.).

12. Al-Musta’sin (862 A.D.).

13. Al-Mu’tazz (866 A.D.).

14. Al-Mu’tadi (869 A.D.).

15. Al-Mu’taxnid (870 A.D.).

16. Al-Mu’tadhid (892 A.D.).

17. Al-Muqtafi (902 A.D.).

18. Al-Muqtadir (908 A.D.}. 19. Al-Qahir (932 A.D.).

20. Al-Radhi (934 A.D.).

21. Al-Muttaqi (940 A.D.).

22. Al-Mustakfi (944 A.D.).

23. Al-Muti (946 A.D.).

24. Al-Tai (974 A.D.).

25. Al-Qadir (991 A.D.).

26. Al-Qa’im(1031 A.D.).

27. Al-Muqtadi (1075 A.D.).

28. Al-Mustazhir (1094 A.D.).

29. Al-MustarsMd (1118 A.D.).

30. Al-Rashid (1135 A.D.).

31. Al-Musqtafi 1136 A.D.).

32. Al-Mustanzid (1160 A.D.).

33. Al-Mustadi (1170 A.D.).

34. Al-Nasir (1179 A.D.).

35. Al-Zahir (1225 A.D.).

36. Al-Mustansir (1226 A.D.).

37. Al-Musta’sim (1242-58 A.D.) 373

The Abbasid dynasty flourished all round development of kingdom and in the field of music, medicine, philosophy, calligraphy, literature, translation, trade and commerce, education system, astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, physics, history, geography, astrology, etc.

The biographical notes and contributions of those Islamic scholars who were from Persian speaking countries and devoted their life for the cause of Islam needs to be evaluated.Brief is a evaluation of those scholars.

A1 Qisai, famous scholar of Koran, was the tutor of Amin and Mamun, sons of

Harun Al-Rashid.The famous koranic commentators Ibn-e-Qutaibah, Zamakhsari, A1

Boyzawee were all Persians.

The renowned compiler of the Hadith Like Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim,

Imam Tirmidhi, Imam Nesai and Imam Ibn-e-Majeh were all Iranians .

Founder of Hanafi school Imam Abu Hanifa, the scholar of Hadith, Behram

Maghribi were of Persian descent.The illustrious scholars Al-Beruni, Abu Ali Sina,

The erudite translator Abdullah ibn Muqaffah were of Persian origin.

The greatest physician A1 Majusi. A1 Razi, the expert geographer Khurdad

Beh, the grammarian, A1 Farsi were also proud of their Persian lineage.

The great Sufis and Arifs like Abdul Qadir Jilana, Bayazid Bustami, Mansur al

Hallaj, Imam Ghazzali were all Persians. The great Arabic scholar Ibn-e-Jarir Tabari, the musician like Ibrahim al Mausil and Al Isfahani were of Persian blood.

The great astronomer, Abu Mashar and Al Faraghni, came from Balkh and

Transoxiana respectively. Al Farabi and Fakhruddin Razi, the great philosophers, were of Persian blood. 374

A1 Khawarizam, the great mathematician,Abu Mansur Muaqqaf the great druggist, Abdur Rahman Sufi and Abdul Wafa, the great scientists, all were from

Persian speaking regions. One of the mightiest physicians of the Islamic world was the Persian Razi known in Europe as Rhages and whose books were translated in to many languages. The list selected from several books is by no means exhaustive, but we serve to show the numerical strength and quality of writers who though known to the world as Arabs by reason of their names, religion and languages, were all Iranian descent.

It may be concluded in “CONTRIBUTION OF PERSIANS TO ISLAM

DURING THE ABBASID PERIOD(750-1258A.D.): A CRITICAL STUDY, a comprehensive survey, is a golden chapter in the history of Islam. It, as a whole, considered as the encyclopaedia of Islamic scholars who are from Persian speaking regions. The untiring zeal and services rendered by Persian Islamic scholars for the cause of Islam resulted in totality to highlight Islam’s contributions to the whole world. Iran is one of the most important centres of art and learning. The main theme of this thesis is to show the numerical contributions and achievements of Islamic scholars who though known to the world as Arabs by reason of their names, religion and languages, were all of Iranian descent.

Last not the least, my honest intention and untiring attempts regarding

“CONTRIBUTION OF PERSIANS TO ISLAM DURING THE ABBASID

PERIOD: A CRITICAL STUDY is to highlight the life and works of Persian Islamic scholars who lived during the Abbasid period . BIBLIOGRAPHY 375

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61. Scwartz, E.: Science and Civilization in Islam, 2nd edn., 1966. Cambridge,

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1 .http:/www.islam uth world. Com/hadith/articles/sihasittah compilers.htm

(Compiler of Sihasittah)

2.http:/kitabun,com/shopping 3/article in for. Php?(Classical

3 .http:/www.google.com