A Maldição Dos Recursos Antes Do Tempo: Expetativas De Recursos Na África Oriental – Uma Análise Comparada Entre Madagáscar E Moçambique

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A Maldição Dos Recursos Antes Do Tempo: Expetativas De Recursos Na África Oriental – Uma Análise Comparada Entre Madagáscar E Moçambique A maldição dos recursos antes do tempo: expetativas de recursos na África Oriental – uma análise comparada entre Madagáscar e Moçambique João Pedro Garrido Conduto Dissertação de Mestrado em Ciência Política e Relações Internacionais (especialização em Globalização e Ambiente) Novembro, 2018 Dissertação apresentada para o cumprimento dos requisitos necessários à obtenção do grau de Mestre em Ciência Política e Relações Internacionais com especialização em Globalização e Ambiente, realizada sob a orientação científica da Professora Doutora Alexandra Magnólia de Vicente Quirino Alves Dias Saraiva Ao meu avô, Com eterna saudade. Agradecimentos Embora esta dissertação seja o culminar de um trabalho de investigação individual, é inútil considerar que tal poderia ter sido feito sem o apoio de um conjunto de pessoas, ao qual gostaria de dedicar um especial agradecimento. Por todo o trabalho e paciência, pelas críticas construtivas e palavras de motivação, dirijo as primeiras palavras de gratidão à minha orientadora, a Professora Doutora Alexandra Magnólia Dias, com quem tive o maior privilégio de trabalhar nestes últimos anos. O seu interesse contagiante por África e o seu apoio continuo foram essenciais para o trabalho que aqui se desenvolveu. Agradeço à Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa, a casa que me acolheu nos últimos cinco anos. Gostaria de agradecer ao corpo docente do Departamento de Estudos Políticos, por toda a partilha de conhecimento e por estimularem o meu interesse pela Ciência Política e pelas Relações Internacionais. Em particular, gostaria de agradecer à Professora Doutora Ana Santos Pinto, cujas aulas de Metodologias foram preciosas para a elaboração deste trabalho. Reservo ainda um especial agradecimento às Professoras Doutoras Ana Lúcia Sá e Edalina Rodrigues Sanches, pelas ferramentas que me providenciaram no curso sobre o Estudo da Política em África e por todos os conselhos e palavras de encorajamento. Aos meus amigos, Maria Carolina Freitas, Joana Pereira, Ana Andrade Costa, Daniela Pinheiro, Bárbara Cruzeiro, Gabriel Soares, João Gaio e Silva, Emanuel Gonçalves, Hugo Gomes, Gonçalo Mendes Pinto, Mariana Peça e Fabiana Capra, o mais sincero obrigado. Por todo o apoio, paciência e amizade e por tornarem Lisboa na minha segunda casa. Por último, agradeço àquela que será sempre a minha primeira casa, aquela que me ensinou tudo aquilo que realmente importa. À Maria Nunes, a minha família escolhida, por estar sempre presente. Aos meus avós, por todo o carinho. Aos meus pais, Célia Garrido e Carlos Conduto, o maior obrigado de todos, por todos os esforços, por todo o amor e por permitirem que tudo isto fosse possível. Às minhas irmãs, Inês, Mariana e Sara, por serem – todos os dias – a melhor parte de mim. Por tudo isto e para todos estes, não existem palavras suficientes para agradecer. A maldição dos recursos antes do tempo: expetativas de recursos na África Oriental – uma análise comparada entre Madagáscar e Moçambique RESUMO A teoria da maldição dos recursos, que na sua génese se foca na componente económica da distribuição de recursos, numa perspetiva da Ciência Política e Relações Internacionais pretende estabelecer e demonstrar uma relação entre a abundância de recursos e fenómenos políticos como a ocorrência de conflito violento, a permanência de regimes autoritários e o aumento dos níveis de corrupção governamental, entre outros. Inserindo-se no domínio desta teoria, autores como J.G. Frynas, Geoffrey Wood e Pedro C. Vicente têm desenvolvido projetos e dedicado os seus estudos a um fenómeno muito específico que merece mais atenção do ponto de vista da investigação em Ciências Sociais: o impacto da expectativa de recursos no campo político. Esta abordagem, semelhante à maldição dos recursos (e partindo da mesma), foca-se em Estados que, possuindo reservas de recursos (gás, petróleo, diamantes, entre outros), começam a sofrer implicações políticas mesmo antes da exploração dos recursos ter sido iniciada. O presente estudo propõe uma investigação neste sentido, recorrendo a dois estudos de caso da África Subsariana (região simultaneamente rica em recursos e em desafios políticos): Madagáscar e Moçambique. Partilhando algumas caraterísticas (localização geográfica, instabilidade política, abundância de recursos, altos níveis de pobreza) e divergindo noutras (legados coloniais distintos, diferente tipologia de recursos), os dois Estados africanos têm um forte potencial para contribuir nesta linha de pensamento, de um ponto de vista comparado. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Recursos Naturais; Política Interna; Desenvolvimento; Conflito; Democracia The resource curse before time: resource expectations in East Africa – a comparative study between Madagascar and Mozambique ABSTRACT The resource curse theory, which in its genesis focuses on the economic component of resource distribution, from a perspective of Political Science aims to establish and demonstrate a relationship between resource abundance and political phenomena such as the occurrence of violent conflict, the permanence of authoritarian regimes and increasing levels of government corruption, among others. Inserting themselves in the domain of this theory, authors like J.G. Frynas, Geoffrey Wood and Pedro C. Vicente have dedicated their studies to a very specific phenomenon that deserves more attention from the point of view of the academic research: the impact of resource expectations in the political field. This approach, similar to that of the resource curse, focuses on states that have discovered vast resource reserves (gas, oil, diamonds or others), begin to suffer political implications even before resource exploitation has begun. The present study proposes a research in this direction, using two case studies from Sub-Saharan Africa (a region simultaneously rich in resources and political challenges): Madagascar and Mozambique. By sharing some characteristics (geographical location, political instability, resource abundance, high levels of poverty) and diverging in other (distinct colonial legacies, different typology of resources), the two African states have a strong potential to contribute to this literature, from a comparative perspective. KEY-WORDS: Natural resources; Internal politics; Development; Conflict; Democracy Índice 1. Introdução………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1 1.1. Recursos naturais e a globalização…………………………………………………………3 1.2. Problematização……………………………………………………………………………………5 1.3. Metodologia………………………………………………………………………………………….7 1.4. Os estudos de caso………………………………………………..………………………………8 1.5. Desenho da investigação……………………………………………………………………….9 2. Revisão da literatura………………………………………………..…………………………..………..13 2.1. Teoria da maldição dos recursos………………………………………………………….13 2.2. A dimensão económica………………………………………………………..……………..15 2.3. A dimensão política……………………………………………………………………………..16 2.3.1. Rentier-states e rent-seeking…………………………………………………………17 2.3.2. Recursos naturais e corrupção…………………………………………………..….18 2.3.3. Recursos naturais e competição política………………………………..……..19 2.3.4. Recursos naturais, instituições e democracia………………………………..20 2.3.5. Recursos naturais e conflito………………………………………………………….21 2.3.6. Expetativas de recursos naturais…………………………………………………..23 3. Contextualização histórica e política……………………………………………………………….25 3.1. Madagáscar…………………………………………………………………………………………25 3.1.1. Clivagens étnicas da formação social do Madagáscar……………………26 3.1.2. Tsiranina e a Primeira República (1960-1972)……………………………….27 3.1.3. O interlúdio militar, Ratsiraka e a Segunda República (1972- 1992)…………………………………………………………………………………….………28 3.1.4. Os anos 1990 e o nascer da democracia malgaxe (1992- 2002)…………………………………………………………………………………………….29 3.1.5. O Período Ravalomanana (2002-2009)………………………………………….31 3.1.6. Recursos naturais: tipologia e geografia…………………………………….…33 3.2. Moçambique……………………………………………………………………………………….34 3.2.1. O Período Machel e a guerra civil (1975-1986)………………………….….35 3.2.2. O Período Chissano (1986-2004)……………………………………………………36 3.2.2.1. O fim da guerra e o caminho para a democracia (1986- 1994)……………………………………………………………………………………….36 3.2.2.2. O pós-guerra e o início da democracia (1994-2004)……..38 3.2.3. O Período Guebuza (2004-2011)……………………………………………………40 3.2.4. Recursos naturais: tipologia e geografia…………………………………………41 4. Alterações ao nível do quadro legal e institucionais…………………………………………43 4.1. Madagáscar…………………………………………………………………………………………44 4.2. Moçambique……………………………………………………………………………………….47 4.3. Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)………………………………49 4.4. Indicadores de atratividade do setor extrativo…………………………………….51 4.5. Considerações……………………………………………………………………………………..57 5. Exploração de recursos e o impacto nas populações locais………………………….…60 5.1. Madagáscar…………………………………………………………………………………………61 5.1.1. Populações deslocadas e mecanismos de compensação………….…….63 5.1.2. Impacto social da exploração mineira……………………………………….……64 5.2. Moçambique……………………………………………………………………………………….67 5.2.1. Populações deslocadas e mecanismos de compensação………….…….68 5.2.2. Impacto social da exploração mineira………………………………………..….71 5.2.3. Impacto da exploração de gás natural em Cabo Delgado………………..73 5.3. Considerações……………………………………………………………………………………..75 6. As descobertas de recursos naturais e o conflito…………………………………………….78 6.1. Madagáscar…………………………………………………………………………………………79 6.1.1. A crise política de 2009-2013…………………………………………………………81 6.1.2. O impacto da instabilidade política………………………………………………..84 6.2. Moçambique……………………………………………………………………………………….86
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