Visual Imagery on False Memories
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How Self-Relevant Imagination Affects Memory for Behaviour
APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Appl. Cognit. Psychol. 21: 69–86 (2007) Published online 10 July 2006 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/acp.1270 How Self-Relevant Imagination Affects Memory for Behaviour AYANNA K. THOMAS1*, DEBORAH E. HANNULA2 and ELIZABETH F. LOFTUS3 1Colby College, USA 2University of California, Davis, USA 3University of California, Irvine, USA SUMMARY Research has demonstrated that imagination can be used to affect behaviour and also to distort memory, yet few studies have examined whether the effects of imagination on behavioural estimates and memory are related. In two experiments, the effects of imagination on self-reported behaviour and subsequent memory for that behaviour were investigated. A comparison of behavioural estimates collected before and after imagination demonstrated that reported estimates of behaviour changed after imagination. In addition, memory for the original estimates of behaviour was also affected, suggesting that imagination may impair one’s ability to remember originally reported behaviour. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the observed changes in reported behaviour were accompanied by the largest errors in memory for originally reported behaviour when participants generate images based on self-relevant scenarios. On the other hand, memory distortion was minimized when participants read but did not imagine self-relevant scenarios. These results have direct application to clinicians and researchers who employ imagination techniques as behavioural modifiers, and suggest that techniques that are self-relevant but do not include imagery may be a useful alternative to imagination. Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. For decades, researchers have been interested in whether imagination, or mental simulation, can influence how we plan, perform, study and behave. -
7.1 Memory Systems
Psychological Science – Chapter 7: Memory 7.1 Memory Systems • Memory is a collection of several systems that store information in different forms for differing amounts of time. • The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model o Memory is a multistage process. Information flows through a brief sensory memory store into short-term memory, where rehearsal encodes it to long-term memory for permanent storage. Memories are retrieved from long-term memory and brought into short-term storage for further processing. o The Atkinson-Shiffrin model includes three memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long- term memory (LTM). o Stores retain information in memory without using it for any specific purpose. o Control processes shift information from one memory store to another. o Some information in STM goes through encoding, the process of storing information in the LTM system. o Retrieval brings information from LTM back into STM. This happens when you become aware of existing memories, such as what you did last week. • Sensory memory is a memory store that accurately holds perceptual information for a very brief amount of time. o Iconic memory is the visual form of sensory memory and is held for about one-half to one second. o Echoic memory is the auditory form of sensory memory and is held for considerably longer, but still only about five seconds. o Iconic memory can be detected in a memory experiment: the whole report and partial report conditions. In the whole report condition, researchers flash a grid of latters on a screen for a split second and participants attempt to recall as many as possible – the whole screen. -
Crashing Memory 2.0: False Memories in Adults for an Upsetting Childhood Event
UC Irvine UC Irvine Previously Published Works Title Crashing Memory 2.0: False Memories in Adults for an Upsetting Childhood Event Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6vx8w81s Journal Applied Cognitive Psychology, 30(1) ISSN 0888-4080 Authors Patihis, L Loftus, EF Publication Date 2015 DOI 10.1002/acp.3165 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Applied Cognitive Psychology, Appl. Cognit. Psychol. 30:41–50 (2016) Published online 15 September 2015 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/acp.3165 Crashing Memory 2.0: False Memories in Adults for an Upsetting Childhood Event LAWRENCE PATIHIS1* and ELIZABETH F. LOFTUS2 1University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, USA 2University of California, Irvine, USA Summary: Previous crashing memory studies have shown that adults can be led to believe they witnessed video footage of news events for which no video footage actually exists. The current study is the first to investigate adults’ tendency to report memories of viewing footage that took place when they were children: the plane crash in Pennsylvania on 11 September 2001. We found that in a computer questionnaire, 33% indicated a false memory with at least one false detail. In a more detailed face-to-face interview, only 13% of the group described a detailed false memory. Familiarity with the news story, fantasy proneness, alcohol use, and frequency of negative emotions after 9/11 were all associated with a Persistent False Memory. Participants who had received prior suggestion were more likely to later report false memories in the subsequent interview. We discuss our novel results and the importance of the paradigm. -
Memory Specificity, but Not Perceptual Load, Affects Susceptibility to Misleading Information
Memory specificity, but not perceptual load, affects susceptibility to misleading information Francesca R. Farina1,2,* & Ciara M. Greene1 1School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Ireland. 2Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland. Note: This paper has not yet been peer-reviewed. Please contact the authors before citing. Correspondence may be sent to Francesca Farina, Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland. Email: [email protected] 1 Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the role of perceptual load in eyewitness memory accuracy and susceptibility to misinformation at immediate and delayed recall. Despite its relevance to real-world situations, previous research in this area is limited. A secondary aim was to establish whether trait-based memory specificity can protect against susceptibility to misinformation. Participants (n=264) viewed a 1-minute video depicting a crime and completed a memory questionnaire immediately afterwards and one week later. Memory specificity was measured via an online version of the Autobiographical Memory Test (AMT). We found a strong misinformation effect, but no effect of perceptual load on memory accuracy or suggestibility at either timepoint. Memory specificity was a significant predictor of accuracy for both neutrally phrased and leading questions, though the effect was weaker after a one-week delay. Results suggest that specific autobiographical memory, but not perceptual load, enhances eyewitness memory and protects against misinformation. Keywords Perceptual load; memory specificity; eyewitness; misinformation. 2 General Audience Summary The misinformation effect is a memory impairment for a past event that occurs when a person is presented with leading information. Leading information can distort the original details of a memory and produce false memories. -
Imagination Reduces False Memories for Everyday Action Sentences: Evidence from Pragmatic Inferences
ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 20 August 2021 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.668899 Imagination Reduces False Memories for Everyday Action Sentences: Evidence From Pragmatic Inferences María J. Maraver *, Ana Lapa , Leonel Garcia-Marques , Paula Carneiro and Ana Raposo CICPSI, Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal Human memory can be unreliable, and when reading a sentence with a pragmatic implication, such as “the karate champion hit the cinder block,” people often falsely remember that the karate champion “broke” the cinder block. Yet, research has shown that encoding instructions affect the false memories we form. On the one hand, instructing participants to imagine themselves manipulating the to-be-recalled items increase false Edited by: Rui Paulo, memories (imagination inflation effect). But on the other hand, instructions to imagine Bath Spa University, United Kingdom have reduced false memories in the DRM paradigm (imagination facilitation effect). Here, Reviewed by: we explored the effect of imaginal encoding with pragmatic inferences, a way to study Marie Geurten, false memories for information about everyday actions. Across two experiments, University of Liège, Belgium Marek Nieznan´ski, we manipulated imaginal encoding through the instructions given to participants and the Cardinal Stefan Wyszyn´ski University, after-item filler task (none vs. math operations). In Experiment 1, participants were either Poland Naveen Kashyap, assigned to the encoding condition of imagine + no filler; pay attention + math; or Indian Institute of Technology memorize + math. In Experiment 2, the encoding instructions (imagine vs. memorize) and Guwahati, India the filler task (none vs. math) were compared across four separate conditions. Results *Correspondence: from the two experiments showed that imagination instructions lead to better memory, María J. -
UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA, IRVINE Not All False Memories Are
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, IRVINE Not All False Memories Are Created Equal DISSERTATION submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Psychology and Social Behavior by Rebecca Michelle Nichols Dissertation Committee: Professor Elizabeth F. Loftus, Ph.D., Chair Professor Peter H. Ditto, Ph.D. Professor Linda J. Levine, Ph.D. 2014 © 2014 Rebecca Michelle Nichols TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES v LIST OF TABLES vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii CURRICULUM VITAE viii ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION xiii INTRODUCTION 1 LITERATURE REVIEW 2 The Misinformation Effect 2 The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Paradigm 4 Rich False Memories: Imagination Inflation 9 Relatedness of Paradigms 13 AIMS OF THE RESEARCH 17 METHOD 18 Participants 18 Materials: False Memory Paradigms 19 Materials: Individual Difference Measures 23 Procedure 24 RESULTS: False Memory Paradigms 26 The Misinformation Paradigm 27 The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Paradigm 28 The Imagination Inflation Paradigm 30 Discussion 34 RESULTS: Relationships Among False Memories in All Three Paradigms 35 The Misinformation and DRM Paradigms 35 The Misinformation and Imagination Inflation Paradigms 36 The DRM and Imagination Inflation Paradigms 37 Confidence 39 Discussion 39 RESULTS: Individual Difference Predictors 43 The Misinformation Paradigm 43 ii The DRM Paradigm 43 The Imagination Inflation Paradigm 45 Discussion 47 GENERAL DISCUSSION 50 Practical Implications 54 Strengths, Limitations, and Future Directions 55 Concluding Remarks 59 REFERENCES -
Can Implicit Post-Event Information Influence Explicit Eyewitness Memory?
City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works Student Theses John Jay College of Criminal Justice Spring 6-2017 Can Implicit Post-Event Information Influence Explicit yE ewitness Memory? Hang Sze Chau CUNY John Jay College, [email protected] How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/jj_etds/15 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] Running Head: UNCONSCIOUS PROCESSING OF POST-EVENT INFORMATION 1 Can Implicit Post-Event Information Influence Explicit Eyewitness Memory? Hang-Sze Chau John Jay College of Criminal Justice City University of New York UNCONSCIOUS PROCESSING OF POST-EVENT INFORMATION 2 Table of Contents Introduction 4 Misinformation Effect 5 Source Monitoring 7 Implicit Learning 9 Methods 13 Results 19 Discussion 23 Reference 30 Appendix 37 UNCONSCIOUS PROCESSING OF POST-EVENT INFORMATION 3 Abstract This study examines whether unconscious -
False Memories About Food Can Lead to Food Avoidance
Social Cognition, Vol. 23, No. 1, 2005, pp. 11-34 BERNSTEINCONSEQUENCES ET AL. OF FALSE FOOD MEMORIES FALSE MEMORIES ABOUT FOOD CAN LEAD TO FOOD AVOIDANCE Daniel M. Bernstein University of Washington Cara Laney, Erin K. Morris, and Elizabeth F. Loftus University of California, Irvine In two experiments, we suggested to 336 participants that as children they had be- come ill after eating either hard–boiled eggs or dill pickles. Eighty–three additional control participants in Experiment 1 received no suggestion. In both experiments, participants’ confidence increased in line with the suggestion. In the second ex- periment, we used a pretest/posttest design and found that enhanced confidence was accompanied by avoidance of the relevant food item. These results demon- strate that adults can be led to believe falsely that eating certain foods as children made them sick and that such false beliefs can have consequences. “Who...cancloythehungryedgeofappetitebybareimaginationof afeast” (from The Tragedy of King Richard the Second, Act I, Scene III). People often misremember their past. Misleading details can be planted into a person’s memory for an event that actually occurred (e.g., Loftus & Palmer, 1974; see Ayers & Reder, 1998, for review). It also is possible to plant entirely false memories, or what we call “rich false memories” (Loftus & Bernstein, 2005). In one of the first studies of rich false memories, participants were led to believe that they had been lost in a shopping mall for an extended period of time before be- ing reunited with their parents (Loftus & Pickrell, 1995). In other work, participants falsely remembered spilling a punch bowl at a wedding This research was supported by the National Institutes of Health (Grant NRSA 1F32 MH64264–01). -
Impairing Existing Declarative Memory in Humans by Disrupting Reconsolidation
Impairing existing declarative memory in humans by disrupting reconsolidation Jason C. K. Chana,b,1 and Jessica A. LaPagliaa aDepartment of Psychology and bNeuroscience Interdisciplinary Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50014 Edited by Robert Desimone, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, and approved April 23, 2013 (received for review October 23, 2012) During the past decade, a large body of research has shown that through a memory test, the results almost unequivocally show memory traces can become labile upon retrieval and must be re- that retrieval actually makes the original memory less, not more, stabilized. Critically, interrupting this reconsolidation process can susceptible to interference (17–20). In sum, scant evidence exists abolish a previously stable memory. Although a large number of to support the idea that declarative memory undergoes recon- studies have demonstrated this reconsolidation associated amne- solidation upon retrieval. sia in nonhuman animals, the evidence for its occurrence in hu- Distinct neural systems subserve the formation and retrieval of mans is far less compelling, especially with regard to declarative fear, motor, and declarative memory (21). Whereas memories memory. In fact, reactivating a declarative memory often makes it acquired via fear conditioning or motor sequence learning can be more robust and less susceptible to subsequent disruptions. Here relatively localized neurologically (22), the encoding and retrieval we show that existing declarative memories can be selectively of declarative memories rely on a more distributed network (23– impaired by using a noninvasive retrieval–relearning technique. In 27). This complexity might be one reason why declarative mem- six experiments, we show that this reconsolidation-associated am- ory is particularly resistant to treatments designed to disrupt re- nesia can be achieved 48 h after formation of the original memory, consolidation. -
How Advertising Can Change Our Memories of the Past
MAR WILEJ RIGHT INTERACTIVE Top of text Make My Memory: How Top of CT Advertising Can Change Our Memories of the Past Kathryn A. Braun Harvard Business School Rhiannon Ellis University of Pittsburgh Elizabeth F. Loftus University of Washington ABSTRACT Marketers use autobiographical advertising as a means to create nostalgia for their products. This research explores whether such referencing can cause people to believe that they had experiences as children that are mentioned in the ads. In Experiment 1, participants viewed an ad for Disney that suggested that they shook hands with Mickey Mouse as a child. Relative to controls, the ad increased their confidence that they personally had shaken hands with Mickey as a child at a Disney resort. The increased confidence could be due to a revival of a true memory or the creation of a new, false one. In Experiment 2, participants viewed an ad for Disney that suggested that they shook hands with an impossible character (e.g., Bugs Bunny). Again, relative to controls, the ad increased confidence that they personally had shaken hands with the impossible character as a child at a Disney resort. The increased confidence is consistent with the notion that autobiographical referencing can lead to the creation of false or distorted memory. ᭧ 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Base of text Psychology & Marketing ᭧ 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Vol. 19(1):1–23 (January 2002) 1 Base of DF MAR WILEJ LEFT INTERACTIVE Top of text Advertisers play off consumers’ memories and emotions through the use Base of text of autobiographical referencing. The use of such referencing can cause consumers to focus less on rational product information and more on the feelings evoked by their recollected memories (Sujan, Bettman, & Baumgartner, 1993). -
Mechanics of Memory – a Review
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN MULTIDISCIPLINARY FIELD ISSN – 2455-0620 Volume - 2, Issue - 9, Sept - 2016 MECHANICS OF MEMORY – A REVIEW Pampori, Z. A. and Malla, W. A Division of Veterinary Physiology, SKUAST-Kashmir, Alusteng, Srinagar, Kashmir, J&K State, India. Email - [email protected] Abstract: The interaction of living organisms between themselves and with the environment is essential for survival. The communication among different living species involves the integrity of central nervous system which generates brain activity such as arousal, attention, learning and memory. Moreover, face perception and recognition of faces are fundamental brain processes for human relationship. The ability to hold objects in memory is essential to intelligent behavior, but its neural basis still remains poorly understood. Advances in neuroscience research for past two decades have contributed to clarify the intricate puzzle about brain recognizing objects. Key words: Biology of memory, Construction of memory, Neurophysiology of memory, Types of memory. INTRODUCTION: Memory provides an organism the competence to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Memories make you feel comfortable with familiar people and surroundings, tie your past with your present, and provide a framework for the future. Most people talk about memory as if it is a thing or part of a body, like bad eyes or a good head of hair. But it does not exist as a "thing" that you can touch. It is a concept that refers to the process of remembering. The most difficult problem in discussing memory and one of the mysteries of the brain is neural basis of memory. -
Comparing the Effectiveness of Six Methods of Misinformation Delivery
The medium and the message: Comparing the effectiveness of six methods of misinformation delivery in an eyewitness memory paradigm Ciara M. Greene1*, Richard Bradshaw1, Charlotte Huston2 & Gillian Murphy2 1 School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Ireland 2 School of Applied Psychology, University College Cork, Ireland *Corresponding author. Please send correspondence to [email protected] Data availability: The data and materials associated with this paper may be found at https://osf.io/vgqw4/. This paper is currently in press at the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 1 Abstract Studies of eyewitness memory commonly employ variations on a standard misinformation paradigm. Participants are 1) exposed to an event (e.g. a simulated crime), 2) misled about certain details of the event and 3) questioned about their memory of the original event. Misinformation may be provided in the second step via a range of methods. Here, we directly compared the effectiveness of six misinformation delivery methods – leading questions, elaborate leading questions, doctored photographs, simple narratives, scrambled narratives, and missing word narratives. We presented 1182 participants with a video of a simulated robbery and randomly assigned them to receive misinformation about two out of four critical details via one of these methods. In line with the levels of processing account of memory, we report that methods that encourage deeper processing of misinformation result in more memory distortions. Contrary to previous reports, doctored photographs were not a successful method of implanting misinformation. The six delivery methods resulted in minimal differences in confidence and metamemory estimates, but participants were more likely to notice the presence of misinformation in the simple narrative condition.