State and Revolution in Finland Historical Materialism Book Series Editorial Board Sébastien Budgen (Paris) David Broder (Rome) Steve Edwards (London) Juan Grigera (London) Marcel van der Linden (Amsterdam) Peter Thomas (London) volume 174 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/hm State and Revolution in Finland By Risto Alapuro LEIDEN | BOSTON This title is published in Open Access with the support of the University of Helsinki Library. This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license, which permits any non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided no alterations are made and the original author(s) and source are credited. Further information and the complete license text can be found at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ The terms of the CC license apply only to the original material. The use of material from other sources (indicated by a reference) such as diagrams, illustrations, photos and text samples may require further permission from the respective copyright holder. First edition of State and Revolution in Finland was published in 1988 by University of California Press. The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available online at http://catalog.loc.gov LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2018043939 Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill‑typeface. ISSN 1570-1522 ISBN 978-90-04-32336-0 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-38617-4 (e-book) Copyright 2019 by the Authors. Published by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi, Brill Sense, Hotei Publishing, mentis Verlag, Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh and Wilhelm Fink Verlag. 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To Aappo and Mikko ∵ Contents Acknowledgements xi Maps, Tables and Figures xiii 1 The Formation of a Small Polity 1 1 The Problem 1 2 A Comparative Perspective 2 3 What Is to Be Explained 11 4 Plan of the Book 13 Part 1 State-Making and the Class Structure 2 Dominant Groups and State-Making 19 1 The Early Nineteenth Century 19 2 Economic Integration 28 3 The Late Nineteenth Century 34 3 The Agrarian Class Structure and Industrial Workers 38 1 The Industrial and Agricultural Revolutions in Finland 38 2 Freeholding Peasants and Agrarian Workers 40 3 The Link between Industrial and Agrarian Workers 45 4 Crofters 46 4 Territorial Integration 49 1 Finnish Regions up to 1809 49 2 Reorientation from Stockholm to St. Petersburg 56 3 Territorial Integration in the Late Nineteenth Century 58 4 Core-Periphery Interaction – the County of Viipuri and Eastern Finland 63 5 South-Western Finland as a Core Region 66 6 Declining Ostrobothnia 70 7 Division of Labour and State Penetration in Northern Finland 73 8 Summary 74 viii contents Part 2 National Integration and Class Integration 5 Finnish Nationalism 79 1 The Dual Nature of Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Europe 79 2 Finland in a European Perspective 83 3 The Consolidation of a National Culture 85 4 Conclusion 91 6 Before the Revolution: Organisation, Mobilisation, and the Role of Russia 94 1 Early Mass Organisation 94 2 The Finno-Russian Conflict 103 3 The General Strike of 1905, Parliamentary Reform, and the Rise of Agrarian Socialism 106 7 Regional Consolidation of Party Support 118 1 Regions as Loci of Party Systems 118 2 The South-Western Core Region 120 3 The County of Viipuri 122 4 Ostrobothnia 122 5 Eastern Finland 124 6 Northern Finland 125 7 Conclusions 126 Part 3 The Abortive Revolution 8 On Preconditions for Revolutionary Situations 131 9 The Abortive Revolution of 1917–1918 137 1 Socialists within the Polity 137 2 The Rise of Multiple Sovereignty 146 3 The Revolutionary Situation 152 4 The Aftermath 160 5 The Social and Regional Basis for the Revolution 162 6 On the Character of the Finnish Revolution 168 7 Breakdown of Society or Contest for State Power? 172 contents ix 10 State and Nation after the Failed Revolution 179 1 The Failed Revolution and the Nation 179 2 The Persistence of the Volcanic Model of the Finnish Revolution 183 3 On the State, the Nation, and Class Balance 185 4 The Lapua Movement, 1930–2 189 5 The Mass Movement and the Dominant Classes in Finnish Fascism 194 Part 4 The Finnish State and Revolution in a European Perspective 11 Eastern European Revolutionary Movements 201 1 National Movements in the Baltic Provinces 202 2 Revolution in the Baltic Provinces, 1905 and 1917–18 210 3 Challenges in East-Central Europe 221 4 Fascism in Eastern Europe 231 12 The Formation of Finland in Europe 236 1 Economic Consolidation 236 2 The Formation of State and Nation 239 3 Political Organisation and Mobilisation before 1917 241 4 Revolutionary Situations in Small European Polities 244 5 State and Revolution in Finland 246 Postscript to the Second Printing 250 1 A Personal Note 250 2 A Recapitulation 252 3 The Reception of the Comparative Perspective 254 4 Structures and Actors 260 5 The Associational Tradition in the Political Process 264 6 Causes and Scripts 266 Bibliography 269 Index 298 Acknowledgements The most fundamental debts for the completion of this book are owed to two persons. Erik Allardt’s emphasis on structural conflicts in social analysis and the comparative scope of his teaching have provided a basis from which this project has grown. No less important have been Erik’s comments and personal support during many years, as well as the stimulating setting for research and the exchange of ideas provided by the Research Group for Comparative Soci- ology at the University of Helsinki. More specifically, the roots of this book go back to the academic year 1973– 4, which I spent in the Center for Research on Social Organization of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Peasants and political conflicts were, in exciting ways, central issues in Charles Tilly’s work. In the intellectual milieu surrounding him it was natural to come to grips with big structures and large processes without feeling them to be too huge. Since the inception of this book, years later, Chuck’s continuing encouragement and advice have greatly facilit- ated the progress of the work up to publication. Many other friends and colleagues have helped me with valuable criti- cism. Matti Alestalo, Edmund Dahlström, Max Engman, Michael Hechter, Antti Karisto, Pauli Kettunen, Matti Klinge, Klaus Mäkelä, Andreas Moritsch, Veijo Notkola, Gert von Pistohlkors, Seppo Pöntinen, Per Schybergson, Hannu Soik- kanen, Henrik Stenius, Irma Sulkunen, Jukka-Pekka Takala, Hannu Uusitalo, and Matti Viikari have read the manuscript or essential parts of it. Their com- ments and suggestions not only corrected many of my errors but also led to a restructuring of the whole work and to repeated efforts at clarifying my argu- ment. Gavin Bingham and, as copyeditor, Anne Canright, with their care and effort, greatly contributed to improving the language and the entire presenta- tion. I also wish to thank Jutta Scherrer for giving me the opportunity to present the preliminary, and in many ways obscure, idea of the character of the revolu- tionary process in Finland in her seminar at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris in 1981. I completed the major part of this study while a research fellow of the Academy of Finland. I am grateful also to the Emil Aaltonen Foundation, the Finnish Cultural Foundation, and the Kone Foundation for their financial sup- port. Parts of some chapters have previously appeared in Mobilization, Center- Periphery Structures and Nation-Building, edited by Per Torsvik and published by Universitetsforlaget in 1981 (Chapter 3); The Politics of Territorial Identity: Studies in European Regionalism, edited by Stein Rokkan and Derek W. Urwin xii acknowledgements and published by Sage in 1982 (Chapters 4, 5, and 7); Who Were the Fascists: Social Roots of European Fascism, edited by Stein Ugelvik Larsen, Bernt Hagtvet and Jan Petter Myklebust and published by Universitetsforlaget in 1980 (Chap- ter 10); andThe Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Europe, edited by Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan and published by Johns Hopkins University Press in 1978 (Chapter 10). The latter article was written with Erik Allardt; I have drawn here from the section I originally prepared myself. All the materials utilised here are reproduced with the permission of the publishers. Maps 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are reprinted, with permission, from Engman 1978, Jutikkala 1959, Lento 1951, and Kero 1974. Maps, Tables and Figures Maps 1 Finland, the Baltic Provinces of Russia, and Scandinavia in the nineteenth century (including the border between Sweden and Russia in 1721 and 1743) 21 2 Main Finnish regions and the line between the Reds and the Whites in the revolution of 1918 52 3 The counties of Finland at the beginning of the twentieth century 53 4 Regional distribution of passport-holding Finns living in Russia in 1881, by domicile in Finland 57 5 The Finnish railway network by 1918, with the Saimaa