Committing to a Tramway Through Policy Development

Committing to a tramway through policy development

Alexander Linné

Urban Studies Two-year master 30 credits Spring 2020 Supervisor: Peter Parker

Committing to a tramway through policy development

Summary

This thesis researches a decision-making process culminating in the building of a tramway in Lund, Sweden drawing on theories of institutionalism and isomorphism (DiMaggio & Powell, 1991; Chien 2008; Czarniawska, 2015), and policy development (Flyvbjerg, Skamris holm, & Buhl, 2003). Discourse analysis and a case study is used as methodology to interpret and analyze collected empirical data. The overall objective of this thesis is to find out what role policies play in decisions of urban infrastructure investments. A case study will help to find out if the decision to build a tramway in Lund was influenced by the global phenomenon of cities growing more alike. More specifically, the thesis researches the driving factors behind the decision to build a tramway in Lund and how policies influenced the decision. By doing this, the thesis uncovers and break down what influenced the decision to build a tramway to reveal potential risks or benefits for decision-makers in Lund municipality. The empirical data mostly consists of documents found on the official website (sparvaglund.se) for finding information about the tramway in Lund.

The analysis of the empirical data over the tramway project uncover a certain level of local development isomorphism in the decision-making process. The municipality singled out a tramway to be the only feasible public transport mode, that could solve the city’s anticipated capacity problem. The decision formed a sort of singular truth because it is, empirically, the only appropriately investigated alternative. The decision to build a tramway is supported by a couple of policy documents which creates a narrative for a certain political intent. Then, findings in these essential policy documents reveal an intentional or unintentional commitment to a certain degree of local development isomorphism. The thesis concludes that the decision to build a tramway in Lund has been reinforced by consultancy involvement by adopting strategies that are perceived as successful in eliminating risks and abide to external pressures. Resulting in municipalities forming similar, if not identical, solutions to potential problems. Inclusion of consultancy groups may therefore reinforce the tendency of imitation phenomena outlining the future for municipalities in Sweden.

Keywords: Imitation, Lund, tramway, policy, isomorphism Number of words: 18271

Contents 1. Introduction ...... 7 1.1 Research objective and purpose ...... 9 1.2 Literature review ...... 10 1.2 Layout ...... 11 2. Methodology ...... 12 2.1 Discourse analysis ...... 12 2.2 Case study ...... 13 2.2 Material ...... 14 3. Theoretical framework ...... 16 3.1 Isomorphism of local policy development ...... 16 3.1.1 Coercive pressure typology...... 20 3.1.2 Mimetic learning typology ...... 20 3.1.3 Normative involvement typology ...... 21 3.3 Summarising the theoretical framework ...... 21 4. The tramway project in Lund ...... 22 4.1 Lund in a multi-city region ...... 22 4.2 Global policy development ...... 24 4.3 The emergence of tramway discussions in Lund ...... 26 4.4 The controversial tramway ...... 28 4.5 Policy documents in Lund ...... 29 4.5.1 Pre-study: tramway Lund C to ESS ...... 29 4.5.2 LundaMaTs ...... 31 4.5.3 Lund comprehensive plan ...... 32 5. Analysis...... 34 5.1 How the municipality assessed the availability of a tramway ...... 34 5.2 The tramway constructed through policies ...... 37 5.3 How isomorphism helps explain the decision to build a tramway in Lund ...... 40 6. Conclusion ...... 43

7. Discussion ...... 46 8. References ...... 48 8.1 Pictures ...... 52 8.2 Newspapers / magazines ...... 52 8.3 Public material ...... 52

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the department of Urban Studies in Malmö University for offering me the opportunity to study an interdisciplinary scientific field that is rising to be crucial to cities every day. Also, for managing to push through the COVID-19 pandemic.

I would like to disclaim that this thesis is not about giving critique to the municipality of Lund or saying that the investment in a tramway is appropriate or not. Making the most appropriate urban infrastructure investment is challenging. Instead, this thesis is about finding out if there are underlying potential issues or risks in the decision-making process to develop the tramway in Lund. This should hopefully give insights into the transport infrastructure decision-making processes in a growing municipality. Allowing for improvements in decision-making processes that hopefully in the end, helps decision-makers to develop Lund in the most appropriate way.

I would also like to thank my partner for the quality of time spent during COVID-19 isolation. In the end, this allowed for discussions that positively improved this thesis.

1. Introduction

In recent discussions of urban infrastructure investments, a controversial issue has been whether actual costs are overrun, risks overlooked, and benefits exaggerated. On one hand, some argue that infrastructure investments have positive economic impacts, improve accessibility, increase land and property values. From this perspective, investments in urban infrastructure is good for the general wellbeing of a city. On the other hand, however, other argue that the exceptional power of intervention and decision-making that project agencies obtain in the process of developing a major urban project may leave vulnerable gaps in urban policy development. In the words of Flyvbjerg, Skamris-Holm, & Buhl (2003), one of this viewer’s main proponents, “…with overwhelming statistical significance that in terms of costs transport infrastructure projects do not perform as promised”. According to this view, decisions of urban infrastructure projects needs to be thoroughly investigated before implemented in the built environment. In sum, then, the issue is what the decisions of urban infrastructure investments are based on or what influences it. This thesis view is that decisions of urban infrastructure investments are often based on other cities successful investments. Though this thesis concede that imitating other cities may turn out to be successful, this thesis still maintain that blindly importing solutions from a globalization context may turn out be counterproductive and have economic, social, and environmental consequences. For example, Edinburgh struggled many years with building a tramway but finally got it operating in 2014. Although some might object that learning from others are key to success, the thesis replies that not considering one’s own location and context will bring about sub-optimal solutions. The issue is important because urban infrastructure investments often carry a substantial investment sum which may be partly based on arbitrary parameters.

Infrastructure projects play an important role in what they deliver, as they significantly alter the built environment and require large investments. Additionally, major infrastructure decisions are subject to uncertainty. In addition, transport infrastructure projects carry a substantial time horizon and large budget. Although investments in infrastructure may be crucial to economic growth, making the right urban infrastructure investment is challenging. This raises questions concerning on what grounds decisions of transport infrastructure are made and how they are justified?

This thesis explores how policy development influences urban transport infrastructure decisions. Undoubtedly, cities are growing more similar in terms of communication systems and general 7

policies which signify that the structure of organizations and policy development are in the process of converging on a global level (Drori, Yong Jang, & Meyer, 2006). It is the conception of local municipalities or cities imitating the organizational forms of global cities while still applying their own practice. Czarniawska (2015) identifies some risks when the imitation happens, it is possible that the process is prolonged greatly and that costs may skyrocket. It is when the local context is neglected, and global policies are applied that procurement may not be optimal or appropriate for the given situation. These statements and the concept of isomorphism together form the framework for analysis. Additionally, the tramway project is explored through the three interrelated types of isomorphism: Coercive-, mimetic-, and normative isomorphism. This thesis research if these three mechanics of isomorphism influenced the decision to build a tramway in Lund. The tramway project in Lund, Sweden is used to test and substantiate this theoretical inquiry through applying local development isomorphism (Chien, 2008) theory in a real-world context. The narrative of this thesis focuses specifically on a theoretical perspective of imitation. On this basis, the thesis also explores if there is a relation between the processes of decision-making of transport infrastructure and imitating other cities successful urban policy development.

The case study of Lund provides insight on how a decision-making process of a major tramway infrastructure project may be outlined in Sweden. Lund presents an interesting case as it is the only city in Sweden that is currently building a completely new modern tramway. This is noteworthy because it allows for an open discourse analysis of publicly available material and to apply selected theories to understand the underlying reason to why the tramway is being built. The process offers an opportunity to study a major developing urban infrastructure project in Sweden. The decision constitutes a main step in reshaping the communications and networks in the municipality. Therefore, an understanding of the process of tramway in Lund is critical because it has an extensive history that is not transparent but clearly influences the way problems and solutions are framed in the decision-making process. To understand the process, it becomes central to identify the key points that shaped the outcome. This opens up opportunities to understand the process of how the tramway was constructed through policy development even though the tramway project is a project of physical transit solution. Analyzing key points in documents supporting the decision provides a broad knowledge of the process itself and concepts of global policy development, and the phenomenon of imitation. The thesis will contribute to how policy development influences urban infrastructure decisions in Sweden.

1.1 Research objective and purpose

The overall objective of this thesis is to find out what role policies play in decisions of urban infrastructure investments and what influenced the decision to build a tramway in Lund. Urban infrastructure investment decisions are researched by presenting a case study about a tramway project in Lund. A case study allows for an open discourse analysis of publicly available material and to apply selected theory to understand what influenced the decision to build a tramway. The case study will help narrow down the research objective and to collect empirical data to analyze. Additionally, this thesis tests local development theory as explained by Chien (2008) to find out if the decision to build a tramway in Lund was influenced by the global phenomenon of cities growing more alike. The analysis hope to uncover and break down the decision in order to reveal potential risks or benefits to decision-makers in Lund municipality. Infrastructure investment decisions needs to be fully investigated because they are inherently uncertain – as supported by multiple scientific findings (Flyvbjerg, Skamris Holm, & Buhl, 2003). Furthermore, it is also important to understand the processes of how alternatives were framed and how the tramway was communicated and justified, leading up to the decision. By answering those questions, this thesis sheds light on what influences infrastructure investments for the sake of policy development and assurance of a well-integrated and optimal transportation system. This would allow for the identification of key points in the decision process that can be subject to analysis and potential improvement.

The research provides a solid understanding as to how the decision-making process was shaped and what the decision was partly based on. To clarify, this thesis elaborates upon whether the decision to build a tramway in Lund was influenced by mimetic measures as described by Chien (2008) or not.

The following research questions will form the base of this thesis:

1. What role does policies play in decisions of urban infrastructure investments?

2. What influenced the decision to build a tramway in Lund?

By asking these questions, this thesis will draw from an understanding of urban planning to explore the processes of decision-making in a major urban infrastructure. This research is informed by earlier studies of transport policy development (Wang, et al. 2018; O’Brien, et al. 2019), also similar research already conducted on the tramway in Lund (Reinholdsson, 2013; Huynh, 2018; Hjalmar & Jakobsen, 2017). This study thus links to a broader range of decision-making processes related to large urban infrastructure investments in Sweden. This thesis helps to understand what influences a decision of a major infrastructure investment in a municipality in Sweden. Hopefully, the conclusion will shed light on possible benefits or consequences of local policy development. 9

1.2 Literature review

It is often the case that economic impact is the focus of international research of transport infrastructure. This may be because the economic calculation is quantifiable and relatively easy to measure. Moreover, several scientific findings reveal that light rail projects are often used to help regenerate, boost employment, and increase property values of urban areas (Knowles, Ferbrache, 2016). Research on transport infrastructure projects has both been criticized and endorsed. One side of it generally finds that large-scale projects often have actual costs are overrun, risks overlooked, and benefits exaggerated (Flyvbjerg, Skamris Holm, & Buhl, 2003). The other side suggests that tramway transport infrastructure investments have positive economic impacts, improve accessibility, increase land and property values, but location and context is relevant (Knowles & Ferbrache 2016). Furthermore, research also show that transport infrastructure has a positive impact on tourism inflows and that high-income destinations are more frequently revisited (Khadaroo & Seetanah, 2008). The outcomes of large-scale urban infrastructure projects are often subject to uncertainty and may therefore exceed the budget. This is why decisions of urban infrastructure investments have been widely associated with uncertainty, particularly in forming similar solutions to other cities. The relation between organizations growing more alike and decisions of urban infrastructure is well-established; a journal by Powell and DiMaggio (1983) describe the phenomena of organizations imitating other successful organizations to stay competitive. However, in an era of effortless accessibility to information, imitating others are easier than ever, and the findings of older studies like this one might be even more relevant than before. In light of this phenomena, researchers have become interested in the specific developments of cities converging on a global level. Chien (2008) theorizes that regions in development zones in Jiangsu in China would decide on similar solutions when: they are subject to new regulations from the government; they seek the same immobile/mobile resources; regional leaders imitate so-called successful experiences; leaders are selected from a professional managerial pool; and, regions engage the services of professional consultancies. Several empirical studies have focused on institutions and organizations forming similar strategies to cope with uncertainties (Boxenbaum & Jonsson 2017; Cairney, 2019; Narayanan & Adams, 2016), while Chien (2008) confirmed a relationship between imitation and policy development for investment decisions. Across these studies, there is consistent evidence that organizations are imitating other successful organizations not necessarily by actively choosing to do so, but by engagement with different interactive aspects of isomorphism. Nevertheless, there is a lack of robust research on the notion of imitation in urban planning, even so on a municipal level in Sweden.

1.2 Layout

The first chapter outlines the decision-making process behind the controversial tramway project in the municipality of Lund. To this end, the thesis provides insight to the project’s context in Lund, both historically and contemporary.

Chapter two describes the methodology used which outlines discourse analysis as the primary method of interpreting texts and analyzing documents.

Chapter three elaborates upon the theoretical framework used to analyze the collected empirical data. The main emphasis of this chapter is developing an in-depth understanding of the concept of isomorphism. This will help to ensure a theoretically informed analysis of the empirical material. The thesis takes as its point of departure the new institutionalism (DiMaggio & Powell, 1991) and combines it with local development isomorphism (Chien, 2008).

Chapter four presents the empirical data that provides insights to the tramway project in Lund. This chapter elaborates on the tramway project’s background, and how the project takes place in relation to its context in the built environment in Lund.

Chapter five recapitulates the empirical data by analyzing and comparing it to local development isomorphism. Furthermore, this thesis analyzes how the municipality assessed the availability of a tramway in Lund. This will shed light on how alternatives to the tramway project were framed.

Chapter six concludes the thesis by answering the research questions and demonstrates the empirical and theoretical contributions of the thesis.

2. Methodology

This chapter discusses the collection of empirical data and reflect upon the methods used. Moreover, it outlines the scope and limitations of this research and how it may affect the outcome. The purpose is to make the reader understand how the analysis was conducted and how the conclusion was reached.

2.1 Discourse analysis

This research applies a comprehensive approach to the problem, relying on qualitative and interpretive method to explore the topic. To study policy development and decision-making processes discourse analysis has been suggested as a useful tool (Bacchi 2015; 2016). Discourse analysis is a broad term to study the use of language (Byrne, 2017) in different subfields such as ethnography of communication, interactional sociolinguistics, conversation analysis and critical discourse analysis (Frey, 2018), However, it is also used in philosophy, humanities, and the social sciences. Writers such as Foucault established the significance not just of discourse but of discourses – emphasizing the importance in which knowledge becomes relevant in its context. The discourse analysis originates from the perspective of social constructivism, that identities and the social world are constructed from discourse. Phillips & Hardy (2002) explain it in one sentence as: “Without discourse, there is no social reality, and without understanding discourse, we cannot understand our reality, our experiences, or ourselves”. Discourse analysis focuses on communication between different actors and the patterns of interaction (Byrne, 2017). This method is primarily used when exploring the relationship between texts and its social context. Moreover, it is also defined as an interrelated set of texts and the production, distribution and reception of texts that produce a social reality. An individual texts on its own is not adequate to produce an understanding of a topic, instead it is through interconnections with other texts and discourses that together are making. Policy documents are not uncommon material for discourse analysis (Bacchi 2015; 2016). Discourse analysis is appropriate when empirical data is relatively homogeneous and focused on a particular topic. 12

This thesis uses discourse analysis to study the tramway project in Lund as a narrative to understand what influences decision-making processes in the municipality. The empirical data is analyzed as for how it creates emphasis for a certain intent and what was the reasoning behind it. In this sense, the empirical data is interpreted based on both the details of the material itself and on contextual knowledge about the tramway. This will allow the thesis to analyze the tramway project for themes and patterns to discover a certain purpose for the tramway to uncover what influenced the decision.

Figure 1: Map of methods related to discourse analysis (Sage research methods, 2020).

2.2 Case study A case study is selected to help focus this thesis by researching what influences urban infrastructure investment decisions. Lund is selected in which a controversial decision has been made about building a tramway. A case study is appropriate for gaining concrete, contextual and in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows the research to construct meanings and implications of the case. It helps build a narrative around what influences decision- making of a major infrastructure investment in a municipality in Sweden. Selecting one case will keep this thesis focused and manageable. The case provides new or unexpected insights into what influenced a relatively transparent decision-making process of a major infrastructure investment. Although selecting one case study is not sufficient to draw conclusions of what influences decision-making processes in all municipalities in Sweden. However, it will give in-depth insights to the decision-making processes of one particular municipality in Sweden. Conducting multiple case studies to compare different decisions in multiple municipalities would provide a limited

conclusion to decision-making processes in Sweden. Although it would illuminate different aspects of this research on a wider scope. 2.2 Material

The official documents relating to the policy development and decision-making process of the tramway in Lund are well suited for using the method of discourse analysis to reveal how the decision was made and justified.

An abundance of information covering the tramway project is available on various websites, however this research carefully picks out a selection of newspapers and articles that was considered purposeful for the thesis. Furthermore, essential official documents published by the municipality and consultants are selected to give a broad scope to this research. These public documents demonstrate the municipality’s intent and perspective to communicate the tramway project. For instance, the website from where the empirical data is collected has multiple official documents containing information that may or may not be critical or noteworthy to this study. However, only a few is carefully chosen to properly analyze methodically and include in this study while the other documents are read for the researcher to get an understanding of the context for the decision- making process in the tramway project.

Notably, discourse analysis recognizes that it is impossible to study all aspects of discourse (Phillips & Hardy, 2002). Therefore, a subset of texts and articles has been selected to make the context manageable. Empirical data is selected to limit official documents published by either the municipal, consulting firms or other organizations. Discourse analysis also considers the researcher’s cultural and social background when interpreting the texts and documents. Which is why the end result may be subject to invalidation. Several studies on this particular subject would have to be conducted to properly validate the claim that this thesis makes. It is also important to keep in mind that this thesis demonstrates a relationship between decision-making and imitation. Statements and sentences in official documents and texts have been critically analyzed to look for wordings that circulate an intent in the decision to build a tramway in Lund. Most of the official documents can be found in a website called spårväglund (https://sparvaglund.se/), which is the official site for finding information about the tramway project in Lund.

The following official documents have primarily been used as empirical data:

1. Pre-study: tramway Lund C to ESS (Lund municipality, 2011).

2. LundaMaTs III (LundaMats III, 2014).

3. Lund comprehensive plan (Lund municipality, 2010).

4. Spårväglund (https://sparvaglund.se/) 14

The documents listed above are selected to provide a basis for the analysis. The selection of documents is based on their relevance to the tramway project from the perspective of a resident in Lund. This is focused on how frequently a particular set of documents are referred to and communicated as basis for the decision. This helps the analysis by identifying linkages to selected theories.

3. Theoretical framework

The theoretical framework will consider insights from policy development, organizational theories, and isomorphism, and how it may act as a catalyst for a particular vision within a Swedish municipality. The purpose of this chapter is to present and discuss the theoretical perspective and key concepts that will inform the analysis.

3.1 Isomorphism of local policy development

Isomorphism is a concept that explains why firms, organizations or businesses within a similar organizational field, tend to look the same over time. Isomorphism is closely related to institutionalism by developing a sociological view of institutions and organizations. However, the original institutionalism is a distinctive approach to study social, economic, and political phenomena, although there is a consensual understanding that it is easier to define what institutional research is not, rather than what it is (DiMaggio & Powell, 1991). This may be because researchers who do organizational research vary in their defining of institutions in different disciplines. They also vary in their emphasis on micro and macro components as well as their underlining of cognitive and normative aspects of institutions. Fundamentally, institutional studies are an analytic framework which attempts to explore themes of change, conflict, and competition, and therefore falls under the category of social science. The main purpose of this kind of theoretical tradition is to provide a valuable lens for understanding contemporary organizations and management.

The new institutionalism emerges with a new focus from the old institutionalism. The old institutionalism focuses on state/government laws and rules which are applied to citizens. The new institutionalism shifts its focus on the interaction between different institutions within society, and how institutional dynamics, rules and norms determine the behavior and actions of individuals. On a micro level, new institutionalism unravels why and how institutions emerge in a certain way within a given context (DiMaggio & Powell, 1991).

On a macro level, new institutionalism argues that institutions in the global arena develop to become similar, not matter the given context and even though they evolved differently (DiMaggio & Powell, 1991). John Meyer is a prominent scholar of rationalized governances. During 1985- 2002, Meyer assessed factors that influenced national administrative rationalization in the worldwide movement for governance reforms. It is important to note that the key point with institutional analysis is not to expose the inefficiency or optimality of organizational practices. Instead, institutional analysis develops robust explanations of how institutions incorporate historical experiences into their policies and organizing logics. The vagueness of how decisions are framed and the doubt if a particular decision is the most appropriate decision, is something that urban planners and politicians battle every day. According to new institutional theory, organizations tend to turn to mimetic measures to look for a solution in times of uncertainty (Powell & DiMaggio, 1991).

A way to deal with uncertainty and risk is to push for certain policies. Politicians may push through policies that makes the city “trendy” and “modern”, because that would mean media attention, and attract investors and tourists, eventually generating economic prosperity (Czarniawska, 2015). Barbra Czarniawska describes that cities are being teared between the global and the local. The local are growing more similar to the global which is a phenomenon of imitation and a strive for “success”. Ideas and trends that spread across the world are powerful forces contributing to both organizations and individuals becoming more similar. Ideas travel easily and fast in the global world and may influence and explain glocal societies. Barbra Czarniawska (2015) writes about how organizations watch and imitate each other if there are no official rules or professional values which they must abide. Czarniawska relates this phenomenon to fashion by arguing that fashion is created by nobody and everyone: those who create the fashion, and those who follow the fashion (2015, p. 130). For instance, tramways in Stockholm differs so much from tramways in Rome that they are impossible to compare. Yet both cities invested in tramways because they were trendy (Czarniawska, 2015). Edinburgh struggled many years with building a tramway and finally got it operating in 2014. In addition, fashion is known to be repeating itself in a circular fashion. The phenomenon of imitation in city management is best described by isomorphism (Powell & DiMaggio, 1991, Chien 2008).

Isomorphism is explained by Shiuh-Shen Chien (2008) as a phenomenon of global policy development growing more alike around the globe. Chien describes the phenomenon as a result of local and regional governments and institutions engaging in policy innovation to increase economic development since the 1970s. The idea of policy innovation was that local employment and economic prosperity and growth would be achieved through innovation. Chien points out that a consequence of this was that governments and institutions formed similar (and sometimes identical) development strategies. These policy innovations were specifically focused on:

1. New space for production (export processing zones and development zones). 2. New methods or facilities for production (internet access and skilled labor). 3. New markets for consumption (gentrification or cultural activities). 4. New sources of development financing (the Structure Fund of the European Union). 5. New roles cities (Brussels as the European capital).

These five policy innovations form an informal agency for cities growing more alike. Specifically, policy development for infrastructure strategies was particularly formed to have similar agendas. The policy innovations strongly tie into liberal economic ideologies whereas the market is decentralized as a notion for economic growth.

Chien (2008) develops the concept of local policy isomorphism from national development zones in the Jiangsu province in post-Mao China. Chien (2008) finds that the rapid economic growth in China is not only seen on a national level, but also predominantly at a local level. Local governments were encouraged to engage in local policy innovation for rapid economic growth. The result varied both negatively and positively for these development zones. Some of the zones was dominated by multinational corporations which became a growth engine. Some of the zones rushed to build infrastructure for airports and seaports without researching their own local relative advantages. This resulted in a lot of regions growing more alike whereby the concept local development isomorphism sprouts. The general argument made by the author, Chien, in his work The Isomorphism of Local Development Policy: A Case Study of the Formation and Transformation of National Development Zones in Post-Mao Jiangsu, China, is that local governments aiming for economic growth tend to formulate and implement very similar, or even identical, policies. More specifically, the author argues that organizations competing for investments engage in mimetic learning measures to cope with the uncertainties of development. He writes, “…local policy isomorphism can be understood as the consequence of local policy innovations whereby different policy agents at various spatial scales strategically interact with others in order to respond to macro (national and global) economic and political restructuring”. In this passage, the author is suggesting that organizations indulge in policy innovation to attempt to generate real and positive local economic development. In conclusion, the author’s belief is that in some cases, organizations would form similar strategies when they are subject to new regulations from the central government. Also, seek the same mobile resources and engage in services of professional consultants. In my view, the author is right because organizations tend to evolve into becoming similar over time by adopting similar strategies. More specifically, I believe that constrained organizational fields with limited access to local consultancy groups may be inclined to form similar global policies. For example, cities implement policies to reconfigure prioritizes from cars to people. Although the author might object that among the 12 development zones studied in his work, only a few succeeded in generating good economic performance as planned. I maintain that imitating other global successful policies does not necessarily translate 18

into decent local growth. Therefore, I conclude that simply imitating other organizations without considering their own localities may be subject to sub-optimal solutions and loss of long-term sustainability.

Three mechanics of isomorphism coercive-, mimetic- and normative typology is described to intermingle in an empirical setting. However, they tend to derive from different circumstances and may lead to numerous outcomes. The three mechanics are not always empirically distinct, as Powell & DiMaggio (p. 150, 1991) writes: “external actors may induce an organization to conform to its peers by requiring it to perform a particular task and specifying the profession responsible for its performance”. The three mechanics of isomorphism is described more thoroughly in the following chapters.

3.1.1 Coercive pressure typology

Isomorphism is divided into three themes of imitative processes which is then circulated into five sub-themes as a theoretical framework for analysis. The first theme coercive pressure typology (CP) is described as various parties resembling one another because of external formal, or informal coercive pressures. For instance, compulsory regulation (CP1) means that regions or cities are forced to develop in a certain way due to formal regulations or informal rituals. For example, companies must abide to certain regulations or laws depending on what systematical framework they are under. Informal coercive pressures are created by traditions or rituals where companies are forced to adopt a particular marketing strategy in order to attract and attain customers. For instance, black Friday, where shops are likely to be forced to offer 50-70 percent discounts. In some circumstances, organizations are forced by the government to adopt new regulations or policies. For instance, adopt new pollution control technologies to correspond environmentally friendly strategies. Coercive pressure may also stem from subtle sources such as global movements or trends. Organizations modelling themselves accordingly may attract capital or investors because they get the attention of media. This ties unto the second sub-theme immobile/mobile resource (CP2). Organizations create similar policies in order to pursue immobile funding from the same authority (Chien, 2008). For example, an organization pursuing funding for a project may have increased odds if the project is aligned with environmentally friendly policies.

3.1.2 Mimetic learning typology

Mimetic learning typology (ML) is typically when organizations face uncertainty tend to imitate other organizations that seem successful according to themselves (Chien, 2008). Uncertainty is a powerful force that encourages imitation. In this sense organizations are adopting similar strategies and policies to help prosper economic, social, and ecological sustainability. One such example is Japan’s modernization strategy during the nineteenth century. New governmental initiative was based on successful western prototypes. They studied courts, the police, and the army in France, the postal system and the navy in Great Britain, banking, and art education in the United States. In return, less productive companies are now implementing their perceptions of Japanese models and strategies. This has a ritualistic aspect – companies at least show that they are trying to improve by adopting those new innovative strategies (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). For example, cities facing congestion problems use similar policies to London’s or Stockholm’s “successful” congestion charge. Under such circumstances, organizations tend to mimic other organizations that are perceived as successful (Chien, 2008). Mimetic learning typology is described as a standard response to uncertainty to eliminate risks. 20

3.1.3 Normative involvement typology

The last theme is described as normative involvement typology (NI) and explains the usage of similar professional sources for consultancy. One professionalization stems from formal education and one from professional training. Universities and professional institutions are two important pillars for the development of organizational norms and behavior. The two control and greatly influences the way professional behave and what sorts of solutions are presented. Large firms conforming in educational programs, workshops, consultancy activities, or employer-school networks reinforce the notion of organizations in the same field growing more alike. A few large firms are significantly responsible for the professionalization of a particular field (Powell & DiMaggio, 1983). Professionals tend to propose similar strategies or policies to proposed problems. Particularly when these professionals work together with one another, emphasizing and propagating on certain ideologies and norms. Consultancy involvement (NI1) is where regions would formulate similar if not identical development strategies based on some consult company or association. The last theme for isomorphism is Personnel recruitment (NI2) where regions and cities make similar decisions because mayors, leaders, or managers are recruited or headhunted from the same pool of experience (Chien, 2008).

3.3 Summarising the theoretical framework

It is important to note that the isomorphic processes can increase organizational efficiency or enhance its competitiveness in a particular field. Organizations may be rewarded for affiliating themselves with policies or strategies that other successful organizations use. Nevertheless, copying these policies or strategies does not ensure that it is the most appropriate action to take in its local context.

The concept isomorphism in sociology addresses the notion of similarity of processes and structures of organizations. It is the conception of local municipalities or cities imitating the organizational forms of global cities while still applying their own practice. Czarniawska (2015) identifies some risks when the imitation happens, it is possible that the process is prolonged greatly and that costs may skyrocket. It is when the local context is neglected, and global policies are applied that procurement may not be optimal or appropriate for the given situation. These statements and the concept of isomorphism together form the framework for analysis. This thesis research if the three mechanics of isomorphism influenced the decision to build a tramway in Lund. This thesis will explore the mechanics of each isomorphism that is theoretically distinctive but nevertheless intertwined when analyzing the empirical data.

4. The tramway project in Lund

This chapter introduces the case study with background information about the city. Firstly, this chapter will describe the contemporary situation of Lund and Scania as a multi-city region and how they are connected to discussions of a large rail-network. Secondly, this chapter describes traffic planning in Lund since the 1900s and how this is related to the emergence of a tramway in Lund, contributing to policy development within the municipality. Furthermore, the text clarifies how ideas of a tramway developed and how it concretized.

4.1 Lund in a multi-city region

Lund is typically characterized by its medieval cobblestone and half-timber houses built in an organic city-grid. The city is located south-west in a so-called multi-city region in Scania with close proximity to two larger cities, Malmö and Helsingborg. With a population of 124 935 and growing, a couple of development plans to cope with this growth has been set in motion (SCB, 2019). Students make up 40 000 which makes them the major socio-economic group of Lund. This impacts the way services are available and how revenue is generated in the city. Therefore, the university is a large center of attention both internationally and nationally. The built environment of Lund is shaped through a public strive for consuming via shopping, leisure, tourism, subset of university, and interconnectivity with outer villages. The university was built in 12th century and since then the city has been growing as a place for knowledge and scientific research. In 1964 a university for technology (LTH) was founded in Lund by the royal institute of technology. This led to Lund being a center of Illustration 1: Major areas within the border of Lund municipality (Lund geoportal, 2020) technological innovation and global companies 22

like Sony mobile, Alfa Laval, Ericsson modems, Tetra Pak, moved to Lund (Wickström, 2016). One of the main areas of industry for Lund is the scientific and technological industry even though old half-timbered houses characterize the city of Lund. Hence, the labor force in a service-based economy saves space as production is marginalized to outer regions of Lund municipality such as Veberöd, Södra Sandby, Genarp, Dalby, etc.

Illustration 2: The tramway transit starting from Lund C and with end station at Science Village / ESS (Lund municipality, 2016)

Brunnshög in north-east of Lund is a developing area whereas significant research facilities “MAX IV” and “ESS” were recently established. MAX IV is the world-leading synchrotron radiation laboratory and is one of the world’s most powerful neutron source (Hallonsten 2011). These buildings invite and attracts researchers and visitors to a relatively newly developed area. Thus, the university and technology organizations are major actors for employment and growth for Lund. The socio-economic structure of Lund very much affects the built environment and how Lund is perceived. New buildings, laboratories, offices, etc. connected to the university keeps are planned in the city and huge complex of student apartments are established in the city. This evidently show that the urban economy of Lund is partly based on production, exchange, and consumption of

services of one sort or another. The labor force in a service-based economy saves space as production is no longer necessary.

Scania is unique in the way that the region has a large number of railways – some active, some inactive. This makes Scania highly interconnected with rural areas and thus – have highly developed mobile urban areas. These clusters of societies such as Dalby, Veberöd and Genarp is typically populated by rural commuters and families of three or more (Nilsson, 2014). Lund is a quaint city that historically rarely undergo any major changes to the built environment and a tramway would deliberately and decisively reshape this medieval city. A tramway has long been discussed as a means of transportation in Lund. In fact, for the last 26 years, the tramway has been a topic of discussion, but the process has been in a constant state of uncertainty (Technical department, 2018).

4.2 Global policy development

This section will explain contemporary issues that most cities face in terms of traffic, networks, capacity, and sustainability. It will provide general information as to why governments attempt to shift a car-based city to a public transport-based sustainable city.

Due to the urbanization, cities of today are challenged by large forces of mobility. People make several trips a day to make a living. Transportation of goods and deliveries add to the number of vehicles on the streets. Car dominance and the urbanization is a growing problem for cities which contributes to congestion, pollution, health issues, affecting the overall attractiveness of the city. The key point is that car-dominated cities have become increasingly seen as unsustainable from a climate and environmental perspective, making cars an unwelcome presence in urban areas. This helps explain why western cities have shifted from a prime car-based planning narrative to a strive for the sustainable walkable city (Kickert, 2020). However, there are other reasons for why cities strive to decrease the dependence on cars. It is imperative to understand the reason why there is a shift in urban planning, and why investment in public transport infrastructure is more common today.

Transport infrastructure in cities is often understood to be integral to economic growth, as international research suggests a strong link between transport investment and a better general economy (Brooks, Donaghy, Knaap, Reynolds‐Feighan, & Vickerman, 2011). It is also pivotal for different aspects of urban development, because transport infrastructure determines communication systems in a city and generally influences the well-being of a population (Donaghy, 2012). Infrastructure undoubtedly add to mobility in economic, social and environmental aspects. It is the quality of urban infrastructure that is used to measure the quality

of urban living conditions (Donaghy, 2012). Cities should therefore strive to develop sustainable public transport and other public infrastructure (Fabre, 2016). Both in the sense of being sustained over time, but also that it is equitable for the city. Adding more connectivity in a region opens the labor market on a national level. This means that in terms of mobility, roads of different types are generally good for urban development. However, there are different types of mobility whereby the car was particularly prioritized during the 20h century.

The car is a powerful means of transport, which is why many cities have centralized cars in their planning tradition. The car opened new means of transportation, which in turn offers a skilled division of labor force and greater opportunities for communication. Additionally, the car in terms of mobility, arguably economically benefits local citizens within a city, due to interconnections elsewhere (Bridge & Watson, 2010, p. 99). This is proposedly, among other things why transport infrastructure was centralized, and this marked the rise of the car-dominated city as it was a great catalyst for economic growth. Nonetheless, the construction of freeways and railroads has had heterogenous impacts on urban living conditions, and economic prosperity (Bridge & Watson, 2010). Infrastructure, mobility, connectivity, transit, urban economics, public transport, policies, and global capital are all concepts that contribute to how societies are understood as modern. Even though increased mobility has improved living conditions, some problems follow, for example congestion. Congestion is a challenge that many large cities face today and is one of the reasons why so many urban planners attempt to de-emphasize the car and strive for the sustainable walkable city, as this would partly solve the problem.

“A well-developed system of infrastructure also underlines that the provision of public goods is a local political priority. Investments in infrastructure for transport and communication are crucial to a city’s well- being and progress, and it should, therefore, be in the best interests of cities to develop sustainable public transport and other public infrastructure” (Fabre, 2016, p. 19).

This quote explains why traffic problems are often met with the solution to invest in public transport. The solution becomes to invest in infrastructure that supports public transport. As Kieran P. Donaghy writes in his work Managing Change in Urban Infrastructure Systems, it is the quality of urban infrastructure that is used to measure the quality of urban living conditions. Urban infrastructure systems, or interurban as he calls it, are critical to the continuation and improvement of social and economic life the world over (2012). More specifically, Donaghy emphasizes the importance of urban infrastructure as a tool for growth, and the importance to reconstruct the infrastructure systems in order to prevent decay (2012, p. 82). What Donaghy addresses in his work is how urban infrastructure should be managed and how functional or non-functional infrastructure can be identified and what decision making should be based on when managing (Donaghy 2012, p. 83). It is also clear that in postmodern times the amenity of an area is subject 25

to decay if congestion keeps piling up. Resulting in a potential loss of economic prosperity by having longer travel times, and therefore having increased commuting costs. American economist Richard Solow (1972) was one of the first to introduce congestion costs in urban economic models by implementing a monocentric model. Proving that there is a relation between congestion/commuting costs and land rents. There is also the generalized travel time cost equation ‘In Vehicle Travel Time’ (IVTT) to calculate costs. Which in turn gives an understanding for the significance of congestion issues. In relation to this, Donaghy (2012, p. 82) has identified the importance of urban infrastructure as a tool for growth, and the importance to reconstruct infrastructure systems in order to prevent decay. This then reflects yet again to the vision of the public transport city. Which may explain why there is a shift in urban planning, from the car-based to the walkable city.

4.3 The emergence of tramway discussions in Lund

The early discussions of a tramway are traceable all the way back to 1896 where it was first mentioned by G. M. Frick and Bertil Sederholm (Andersson, 2018). However, the traffic planning tradition in Lund has up until recently always been heavily favored to the car as primary mode of transport. Therefore, the tramway discussions were temporarily pushed to the side for a time as a result of SCAFT 68 being established as a policy document for the municipality (Melchert, 2011). The policy document that was appropriated by the municipality underlined safety and availability with the car as central planning object. Issues related to car dominance such as noise and emissions were foreseen to be resolved by technological solutions in the future. SCAFT 68 was policies built on ideas to distinctly separate different transport modes which inspired planners in Lund to propose Genombrottet (breakthrough) (Wahl, 2005). The breakthrough proposal had the intention to build a highway from east to west through the center of Lund. Thoughts of east western highway connection already existed in 1915, also with ideas to convert to a tramway (Nathell, 2018). The SCAFT 68 planning tradition has been heavily criticized in contemporary times by scholars claiming that it contributed to criminal activity and isolated urban areas. Later, in 1969, city council dropped the plans for the highway link and appointed a traffic and environment committee which would change the course of traffic planning in Lund. In a vote 29th of May 1969, party representatives stopped “the breakthrough” in votes by 24 to 20. Stopping the breakthrough shifted the powerful car and access-oriented planning direction that had been predominant up until that point. Since then the appointed committee has been slowly implementing strategies that aims to reduce the use of cars.

The early discussions of tramway faded into the background until the start of 1992 where trams were mentioned in a comprehensive plan of Lund. The plans were to build tracks that would go from Lund C through the university hospital and out to Dalby. Three years later, a significant bus 26

line “Lundalänken” was discussed that would take passengers from the center to the northeastern parts of Lund. The bus line was planned to be 6 kilometers and have priority tracks and fast driving lanes. During the planning phase of Lundalänken, the future vision was to convert the route to a modern tram system that would eventually be embedded in a larger track-network throughout the southwest region of Skåne. Hence, the plans were to eventually connect Lundalänken to other cities in Skåne (City planning office, 2003).

In 1998 the first LundaMaTs policy document was released which aimed to convert transport system in Lund to sustainable modes of transport. This document states that Lundalänken was significant for the work towards sustainable transport in Lund (Eriksson, 2008). Thus, the project was granted 15MSEK in funding from the state (Kuprijanko, 2017). In 1999, Region Skåne (county of Scania) and Lund municipality decides to build Lundalänken and 2003, the project is finished. The number of commuters in this route doubles in just a few years and the project is deemed to be a success (Andersson, 2018). Up until 2007, the possibilities of a tramway in Skåne has piqued multiple actors’ interest and in particular the collaboration “SSSV” (Samverkan Skåne Sydväst). This collaboration starts an investigation and points out five projects that are particularly interesting to further investigate: Lund – Dalby, Lund C – Brunnshög, Helsingborg – Höganäs and local rails in Malmö and Helsingborg. Because roads and rails generally give the possibility to commute from outer villages into the city of Lund whereby a network of labor is created. An integrated public transport opens the opportunity for the people to live, work, and go to school in different places of Scania. In the end of October 2010, Lund published another comprehensive plan where trams were yet again mentioned, however more concrete and with intent to implement within 20 years. The tram line is planned to reach Brunnshög, Dalby, and Staffanstorp and the idea of trams in Lund had yet again become more concretized. The same year 2010, a collaboration between cities with plans of tramway was formed called “Spis” (Spårvagnar i Skåne), consisting of Lund, Malmö, Helsingborg and Region Skåne. In 2011, Spis receives EU-funds from the program “Elena” and a pilot study of a tramway between Lund C and Brunnshög finished. In the end of 2013, city council adopts the detailed comprehensive plan of Brunnshög where a tramway was greatly detailed and elaborated. Up until this point, political parties have all been positive towards the tramway plans, but in 2014 FNL (FörNyaLund) was formed to oppose the project, and on their side, they had the Swedish democrats and Fi (Feminist initiative). Around 2014, the plans for tramway was met with heated questions and debates on a local and regional level (Wagerfors, 2019). The general positivity towards the tramway plans were not overwhelming. Instead, the result various surveys showed that only 39% was spontaneously positive towards the tramway plans (Nilsson, 2014). Furthermore, it was mostly younger people that was spontaneously positive. Concerned citizens questioned whether the plans were legitimized and if it would be the most appropriate decision to make.

The same year, city council appoints six detailed plans for the tramway, however this was appealed by multiple instances before the plans were able to become final (Building committee Lund, 2015§220). As a result, the municipal executive board instruct an impartial expert group to re- analyze and re-examine the tramway plans yet again. The expert group deemed the tramway plans necessary to achieve the sustainability and growth goals set by the municipality, however urged that the budget was underestimated by 100-200MSEK. The detailed plans were in legal matters from 2014-12-18 to 2015-11-11 when it eventually became legal force (Byggnadsnämnden Lund, 2015§220-225). This means that the tramway plans were in legal validity and that construction of tramway was possible. In 2016 “Skanska” were tasked as entrepreneurs to build the tramway and 18th of January 2017, the project enters phase two – the construction phase (Kuprijanko, 2017).

4.4 The controversial tramway

Firstly, it is important to quickly note that the tramway project in Lund was greatly contested by the majority of citizens. Reports and surveys conducted from 2013 and 2014 show that 94% of the respondents in Lund knew about the planned tramway and 39% were positive towards its development (Nilsson, 2014). In addition, 65% of the respondents thought the municipality was investing in a tramway for a better built environment, and 37% thought it was to increase the capacity of the public transport system along Lundalänken. The opposition to the tramway would rather see different transport alternatives such as electrical inner-city buses or something similar (árdeo, 2013). The single-issue party FNL (FörNyaLund) was the tramway project’s most zealous opponent with the people’s support in its back. The party advocated for electrical buses as a more cost-efficient solution (Hjort, 2018). Also, the opposition to the tramway argued that the investigations made by the municipality to build a tramway were unfairly conducted.

The controversial tramway project quickly caught the attention of the media which led to a lively debate about the cost, funding and other transport alternatives (Norling, 2020). With newspaper titles such as: “Expensive tramway construction in Lund, not worth completing”, or “Our tax money should be used for something other than a tramway” (see reference list) enticed the academic domain to investigate the tramway project. Multiple researchers decided to conduct studies on the matter. Some of them concluded that, on one hand, a tramway is not necessary for the expected capacity problem as portrayed by the municipality. On the other hand, a tramway is required to enable a high percentage of exploitation in Brunnshög and to retain its attractiveness (Huynh, 2018).

Some studies highlighted problems with democracy, a lack of citizen dialogue, or the refusal to recognize the opposition to the tramway and pointed out that the communication about the

tramway was usually one-way. Also, that the communication was directed to a specific group that was already satisfied. Also, the lack of citizen dialogue and public hearings for the project may have led to distrust, which in turn undermined the legitimacy of the political processes for the future (Hjalmar & Jakobsen, 2017).

Other papers focused on the legitimacy of the tramway being portrayed as an absolute necessity for modernity, sustainability, and economic growth, that anyone opposing the tramway is opponents of growth, sustainability, and urban development. In this sense, some studies concluded that the tramway is being framed as the only viable solution for long term sustainability and growth. Thus, the tramway is used as a political intent for urban growth, rather than a physical transit solution (Reinholdsson, 2013).

4.5 Policy documents in Lund

It is imperative to gain an insight of the contemporary policy development in Lund to understand how the implementation of a tramway decision in Lund was highlighted as a transport solution. The policy documents act as supportive documents when forming and concretizing a decision to implement for either infrastructure or other policy development. The document also helps explain how underlying strategic and political decisions in Lund could be formed as part of a global policy movement. Policy documents: Pre-study tramway Lund C to ESS, LundaMaTs, Comprehensive plan

4.5.1 Pre-study: tramway Lund C to ESS

The aim of the pre-study was to investigate whether a tramway was in line with the municipality’s vision and goal for growth, sustainability, employment, and economy. The evaluation of establishing a tramway from Lund C to ESS was filled with investigations of multiple officials and consultants. The purpose of the pre-study was to investigate circumstances, alternative solutions, consequences, and costs and whether the project should proceed to the next stage in the planning process or not. Policy documents such as LundaMaTs is mentioned on multiple occasions as a framework for how Lundalänken should develop. The path along the planned tramway is also mentioned as a corridor of importance for employment, research, and development. Some of the key activities such as businesses, hospital, and the university is located along Lundalänken. Moreover, it is also mentioned that the already existing busway was built with the possibility of converting into a tramway. The conversion of the busway to tramway is supported by goals and

statements in policy documents. In terms of capacity, the number of trips per day in 2008 was 6000 along Lundalänken, this was predicted by the municipality to increase to 12 000 – 15 000 per day in 2020 (Lund municipality, 2011).

Achieving attractive public transport and urban environment is framed as a possibility only via a tramway. Furthermore, a tramway fulfils political goals on a national and regional level (Lund municipality, 2011). For the urban dwellers, the tramway is communicated as a modern public transport strong in capacity and with possibility to contribute to urban development with low environmental impact. Simrishamnsbanan is an inactive regional rail network which is often mentioned as a pivotal network for growth, however, in need of renewal to be functional again.

Illustration 3: Rail network illustrating the development in different stages (Lund municipality, 2014)

The pre-study informs that previous conducted investigations already points to a tramway, in combination with additional buses, is the most appropriate public transport solution to Lundalänken in the long run. A 12-meter bus has 24 seats, whilst a 30-meter tram has approximately 70 seats (Lund municipality, 2011, p. 10). Therefore, a tramway is being further investigated with the comparison to an alternative where no investments to infrastructure has been made, called zero alternative. In the zero alternative Lund NE / Brunnshögs is described as an area that is being developed, which is why bus traffic in this alternative must be increased. Over the course of 40-years the area is expected to have been expanded by 50,000 residents and employed. The majority, 70% or 35,000 persons, are counted to be active in the area. Normally, 30-40% of those travel to work in the rush hour, that being over 10,000 people. If public transport is to account for a third of the trips to the area, then the goal for public transport must be to be able to handle over 3000 trips in one hour in the maximum direction (taking into account also that some of the public journeys to the area do not take place via the Lundalänken). This means around 50 trips per hour and direction (if the local line is busy with articulated buses). This corresponds to almost one

bus per minute and direction (Lund municipality, 2011, p. 26). In the zero alternative, no proposed investment in infrastructure has been made.

4.5.2 LundaMaTs

LundaMaTs is a strategic policy document that has been guiding transport system decisions for Lund since 2006. The work of these policy documents is renowned both nationally and internationally and has on multiple occasions received honor and awards from its ability to reduce harmful greenhouse emission from public transport. The first version of the policy document was released 1999 and has since then been reworked on two occasions. The current (2020) operational document is LundaMaTs III that was released in 2014.

LundaMaTs is the result of a long history of environmental visions and strategies to achieve sustainability in the transport sector. It acts as a foundation of decision making for politicians and public officials and has been incorporated in many of the municipality’s decisions. Historically, actors involved in creating LundaMaTs later in the 1990s, were one of the actors responsible for stopping the “Breakthrough” in 1969, which shifted the car-orientated urban planning trend to a somewhat more sustainability focused planning. The “Breakthrough” consisted of plans for having a highway going through the city center of Lund which was stopped. LundaMaTs I was released 1999 consisting of mixed strategies such as traditional supported by soft measures in the form of Mobility Management (MM), a new concept of that time. Primarily, LundaMaTs envisions future directions of development and addresses challenges such as CO2 emissions, long-term sustainable social development, expansion, and the transition to a more sustainable transport system. MaTs originates from several actor’s knowledge and research: Banverket, Bilindustriföreningen, Boverket, KFB, Luftfartsverket, Naturvårdsverket, NUTEK, Sjöfartsverket, SIKA, Svenska Petroleum Institutet (SPI) and Vägverket. Between 1994 and 1996 they discussed different transport solutions and how to create a demand for sustainable transport concepts. Later, Lund adopted the result and with the help of Trivector, a private consultant group, they developed LundaMaTs. The sustained work has resulted with LundaMaTs being implemented in many of Lund’s official policies. It is also of importance to engage and involve politicians in the development of LundaMaTs.

The policy document is often celebrated by officials and politicians, for example:

”We have engaged the politicians in our investigations. I think that is why LundaMaTs is not questioned by the politicians today. LundaMaTs is almost partly divine. I see a great demand for innovation in the future, amongst those is electrifying vehicles” (Johansson, 2016, authors translation). 31

As part of Lund’s planning policies, LundaMaTs consists of sustainable transport solutions and acts as guidance and decision basis for politicians and planners in Lund. LundaMaTs is renowned and extensively used by politicians and it has therefore influenced what decisions are made in terms of transport infrastructure and has since long advocated for trams as a sustainable transport method. The tramway was mentioned in LundaMaTs I as a goal to extend the municipality’s reach for sustainable transports. Summarizing, LundaMats III works with strategies and policies connected to sustainable transport and social integrity (LundaMats III 2014). Enforcing minimization for CO2 emissions through various strategies whereas one is reducing car use.

“Lund is experiencing sustainable development with balanced growth. We are known for our efficient transport system and our economizing on energy and resources. Lund offers a good quality of life in terms of health, well-being and freedom. Lund City Centre is vibrant, attractive and easily accessible for everyone. The city and its surroundings contribute to each other’s development.” (LundaMaTs III, 2014, p. 10)

This citation states future goals for LundaMats and hopes to achieve a more sustainable transport system in Lund. Enforcing not only soft measures but also caving the path for decisions of physical infrastructure systems. Lund municipality works with an ideology that underlines the importance of reducing car transportation use. Lund municipality believes that by reducing the need for motorized transport, Lund will become more environmentally sustainable. The strategy for achieving this goal is by working with a model where efforts are linked to ongoing planning and development processes (Lockby et al 2007).

4.5.3 Lund comprehensive plan

Firstly, a comprehensive plan is a strategic document that Swedish municipalities must create as a guideline for decisions to be based upon. It is a plan that generally show suggestions as to where development intends to happen in the municipality. How the municipality intends to grow in the sense of how land and water areas should be used. In more specific terms, how the built environment should be used, developed, and preserved (Boverket, 2020). This is also supported by the plan- and building act (2010) that it must contain the direction of development for the built environment. The purpose of the plan is for everyone to look at and more specifically some parties such as officials, politicians, organizations, companies, and citizens to see and gain an understanding where the municipality intents for development to happen. Secondly, a comprehensive plan generally makes the work with detailed development plans much easier as it guides the work with certain values and regulations.

Lund’s comprehensive plan of 2010 was declared actualized again in 2014 by sitting party, and it contains certain elements that are worth mentioning. For instance, some key words mentioned in comprehensive plans is environmental actions such as reduce emissions by 85% by 2050, as set by national and international directives. Moreover, it mentions that previous goals set by comprehensive plan 1998 regarding the public transport is still in effect in 2010 and that the intended direction of development is towards east, along Simrishamnsbanan. An example of a major change in the comprehensive plan of 2010 is that Brunnshög in northeast Lund was given a new focus to have a dense and mixed land use. In particular an interest for the location of two new research facilities, MAX IV and ESS. Densifying the city has also far exceeded the assessments in the former comprehensive plan and the development of the Öresund region and the regional context has increased in importance. In line with the two new research facilities, an exceptional increase to growth is to be expected from increased demand for housing. According to the comprehensive plan, an increase with 500 houses and 7000m2 office space a year till 2040. It is also stated that an increase to commuters by 4-5 percent from public transport is to be expected (Lund municipality, 2010). Heavy emphasis is on Lund being a center of higher education and knowledge nationally and internationally. Also, that the municipality must take the needs of the university into consideration when planning the city. The tramway development in Lund is important as a link from Lund city to Dalby, a regional urban area. Simrishamnsbanan is described as pivotal to the success of a well-integrated and developed Scania. Strategies of development for the municipality includes exploitation of urban areas and to avoid the best fertile agricultural lands. Housing development is primarily to happen around stations along the light- or regional rail.

5. Analysis

Building on collected empirical data, this analysis further elaborates on the emergence of tramway discussions in Lund in relation to three themes for analysis. The first chapter circulates how the municipality assessed the availability of a tramway. The second chapter incapsulates the tramway as a tool for urban development in relation to local policy documents. The last chapter uncovers linkages from the decision to build a tramway to local isomorphism development.

5.1 How the municipality assessed the availability of a tramway

The process of tramway in Lund took more than 26 years to be decided and it is being justified as a transport solution. Studies conducted by the municipality predict that commuters utilizing Lundalänken will heavily increase during the next 20 years in relation to the developing north-east area of Lund. Therefore, Lund municipality has identified that the capacity in the current transport system must be upgraded to match the predicted increase. This relates to the early plans in 1992 of converting Lundalänken to a tramway. Moreover, Lund municipality is justifying the tramway as a transportation solution for the rising problem associated with the completion of ESS and MAX IV and the new area of Brunnshög.

The decision to build a tramway was contested by the public but was minimalized in an authoritarian manner. This suggests that a sort of power was in place where the specific mode for transport is more important than the actual effect it will have. An overwhelming authority tend to make external actors agree to proposed solution when an organization in power states that one solution is better than the other. Therefore, the decision to have a tramway in Lund originates from a place of power and may not have been questioned as such internally in every aspect. In which an external reality is shaped, and insufficient empirical surveys form a one-sided truth, instead of providing empirical evidence to support the tramway. A similar showing of power as justification is that the budget for the tramway project fluctuated from 746 million SEK in which 50% was supposed to be funded by the state from Trafikverket, but instead only 40% was received from Trafikverket (Kuprijanko, 2015). The tramway was approved anyway, with the motivation that the 34

municipality had already received 300 million SEK. The reason why Lund does not receive more than 298 million SEK is because Trafikverket calculated the that the municipality had already previously received 30 million SEK. Of the remaining sum, SEK 746 million, the tramway project receives 40 percent. Only the projects that can be implemented in the next year will receive 50 percent, whilst those using a longer timeframe will receive 40 percent (Kuprijanko, 2015). Nevertheless, severely opposed and objected by a large number of citizens in Lund, the tramway received funding and started its construction phase in 2018.

The study Pre-study: tramway Lund C to ESS immediately assess that a tramway system is necessary to fulfil the goals set by the municipality for an attractive urban environment and public transport system. Pointing to previous studies before the pre-study of a tramway in Lund. Meaning that in early stages of the planning process, it was promptly concluded from investigations by the municipality that the most fitting transport mode for Lundalänken would be a tramway system.

“Previous studies have indicated that rail, in combination with supplementary bus traffic, is the most suitable public transport solution for Lundalänken in the long term.” (Lund municipality, 2011, p. 10, authors translation)

This statement strongly suggests that it was already decided that a tramway system is the most appropriate solution to the given context in Lund before the pre-study was conducted. The conclusive argument to have a tramway in Lund is then referenced to and supported by multiple policy documents, such as LundaMats, LundaEko, comprehensive plan and previous studies made by external consultants, which reinforces this vision.

“With the goals expressed in municipal policy documents such as LundaEko and LundaMaTs, as well as the vision for Lund NE/Brunnshög as an attractive and sustainable urban area, public transport needs to be multiplied.” (Lund municipality. 2011, p. 3, authors translation).

The vision for Lund NE/Brunnshög conceptualizes policy development in multiple forms by relating to a global trend of investing in the notion of sustainable public transport. This typically leans towards mimetic learning typology where cities need to align themselves with global movements, such as the need for sustainable solutions. It is also a way for leaders to prove themselves in a short period of time. To show that they are capable of generating economic growth without failure. Decision-makers with their careers in mind tend to promote short-term construction projects imitated from other regions without considering their own local context. The municipality considers a tramway to generate an attractive urban environment (Lund municipality, 2011, p. 3). This statement further adds to the claim that local policy development in Lund is influenced global policy development. The decision is also motivated by stating that a tramway system in combination with city busses is the best long-term solution to solve the capacity problem 35

(Ahlfrid, Eriksson, & Hallén, 2011). Private consultant group Trivector assessed in previous investigations that Lundalänken as a busway should be converted into a tramway eventually. The investigation from Trivector was based on three traffic types that were possible to connect the railway station with Ideon via the hospital and the university. The three selected types of transportation modes were bus, tram, and automatic lane (driverless system separated by level from other traffic through beams in the air). Early on, railway and subway were sorted out as impossible to construct in the corridor. Automatic track was removed from further studies partly based on the high costs and partly on the fact that it could not be part of the regional public transport network. The tramway option would provide opportunities to link Lundalänken to a regional high- speed rail system with high capacity in the future. The underlying reason for a tramway was its high capacity possibility and good circumstances for integration in the urban environment.

Another contributing factor to why a tramway is being framed as the only viable transport solution is because the tramway is being compared to an alternative where no investment has been made. Forming a sort of singular truth because it is, empirically, the only appropriately investigated alternative. The investigations are comparing a tramway with a large investment budget to an alternative where no investments have been done to the built environment. The proposed zero alternative explores a suggested situation where the area of Lund NE / Brunnshög have expanded by 50,000 residents and employed over the course of 40 years (Lund municipality, 2011). This anticipated future is filled with uncertainties and poses a row of questions. For instance, the investigations are based on a belief, that an area will expand by a huge margin, establishing a truth that in reality does not exist. Another pivotal aspect of the framework is that the municipality uses a concept called rail factor to further motivate the decision to build a tramway in Lund.

The investigation uses a rail factor to measure soft values that are supposed to generate more commuters. The rail factor is allegedly another method to express the higher comfort that trams offer for travel. Previous changes from bus to track indicate that the rail factor corresponds to a travel increase of around 20 percent. Arguing that added effects such as shorter travel time and other general improvements to the travel standard (Lund municipality, 2011). Additionally, investigations made in 1996 is evaluated to still be relevant today. Stating that a railway cannot be integrated to existing built environment without major overhauls and effects of barriers. The pre- study also investigates a bus rapid transit, however, promptly assesses that it does not comply with a very high ‘urban environment ambition’. All other alternatives are rejected and the only solution that seems viable is that of the tramway. The case of tramway in Lund is further motivated by an investigation System analysis for local public transport in Malmö (2012. My translation) where empirical data is laid out as a justification. The system analysis is made in the context of Malmö municipality which is used to present a positive case for the tramway in Lund. Using an investigation made for one situation may not be applicable for another and may present the wrong picture. Problems may be interpreted and based on arbitrary parameters which is then linked to a 36

local context. The contributing factor is then how alternatives were evaluated till the point where the investment decision was made.

5.2 The tramway constructed through policies

According to Region Scania, the number of trips in Scania year 2018 was approximately 2 million per day and rising (Region Skåne, 2018). This means that the stations, housing areas, roads & rails, needs to be developed to be able to endure an exponential increase in travelers and commuters. Numerous projects have been put in motion because some stations in cities needs to be upgraded and reinforced (e.g. Lund central station, Helsingborg Knutpunkten, Stockholm central station). The steadily increasing sprawl movement of commuters has been identified as an important factor for the development of Lund. Lund NE/Brunnshög is explained as an already highly developing area, in need of an attractive public transport system with higher capacity. This area is then revealed as a particular area of development, and the first establishment to incite this development was that of MAX IV and ESS that was completed in 2016. These buildings invite and attracts researchers and visitors to a relatively empty area. Hence, the buildings are of importance to Lund and acts catalysts for development to happen in the area (Qvist, 2017). Therefore, this suggests that the tramway is justified as a supportive transport system to an already developing area, rather than a catalyst or tool for development.

“Trams have significantly higher capacity than bus traffic“ (Lund municipality, 2015, authors translation).

The main argument to build a tramway in Lund originate from the claim that trams have higher capacity than busses. Therefore, the project is communicated as a transport solution to a growing and expected capacity problem. Nevertheless, not entirely true, and unfortunately the concept of capacity is where heavy emphasis on research on alternatives are conducted. Findings then show that in fact, a tramway is not necessarily the most appropriate cost to capacity efficient. Instead, the tramway project would gain from being communicated as a tool for urban development to Lund NE/Brunnshög. In terms of capacity, research from multiple sources clarify that a tramway is not pivotal to the increasing number of commuters (Martinelli, 1996; Huynh, 2018). Instead, the underlying strong trait with a tramway is allegedly its attractiveness and opportunity for exploitation and urban development. However, the tramway is primarily being communicated as a transport solution to an increasing problem, when its rather a catalyst for economic prosperity and growth in an area that the municipality wants to develop and is already developing.

As explained earlier in the empirical data, SCAFT-68 is a model for urban planning that was strongly implemented in Sweden during the 1960s. The planning tradition of centralizing cars was 37

partly changed with the implementation of LundaMaTs in Lund. Since the first implementation of LundaMaTs in 1999, many strategic development decisions have been towards that of decentralization of cars. The focus has been on soft measures as a concept (LundaMats III, 2014). LundaMaTs have been focusing on sustainable transport systems, and more specifically on converting existing public transport to sustainable public transport. A great amount of trust is put in LundaMaTs by politicians and stakeholders, and decision makers as supported by multiple statements from officials and politicians within the municipality of Lund.

Hall (2006) argues that urban infrastructure projects may be used to incite development to happen. Some actors may indulge in innovative policy development to stay competitive and to attune to and attract successful global companies. The establishment of renowned global companies may be one of the driving factors for having a tramway in Lund. While the capacity argument from the municipality is masked by an intent to attract successful companies and stakeholders. Bridge & Watson (1984, p. 159) makes a valid point about the importance of flow in labor, trade and investments and the spread of information technology. Because the tramway will generate an increased land value and be attractive for new companies to establish themselves connected to the tramway. A permanent tramway is a safer investment for companies to establish themselves along than a bus line that can be removed whenever. The tramway is further motivated by improving the relation between congestion costs and land rents. Also, the importance of urban infrastructure as a tool for growth, and the importance to reconstruct infrastructure systems in order to prevent decay. However, Park & Burgess (1984) argues it is through means of communication that a society can be maintained. Because the attraction of multinational corporations to establish themselves along the tramway would mean potential investors and possibly economic prosperity. Mayer (2006, p. 91) claims that cities today face a competitive global arena which results in local governments taking to place-marketing, enterprise zones, tax abatements, and public-private partnerships, in order to stay competitive. The global competitiveness external pressure is partly explained by Chien (2008) as coercive pressure typology, organizations are in this sense, forced to drastic and/or innovative measures to stay competitive in a global arena. The strategy to construct, sport arenas, hotels, business centers, museums, international landmark events and other constructions with high investment cost can be argued to be influenced by coercive pressure typology. Because the goal of large projects is partly to attract and retain mobile capital, and tourism and to promote urban and regional growth (Hall, 2006). In other words, these large projects often serve as a catalyst for change to happen, and acts as a justification for additional funding (Hall, 2006). These large projects are often pressed by specific set dates, this commonly means that the large project given priority over issues of welfare or areas in decay. In addition, supporting infrastructure is often a necessity for these large projects and is often seen as essential for economic development. Large projects also provide opportunities for politicians to prove what they are doing in a global competition setting - citing Erik Swyngedouw: “These projects, while being decidedly local,

capture global trends, express new forms of national and local policies, and incorporate them in a particular localized setting” (2002, p. 543).

In the process of searching for alternatives to solve the problem, investment opportunities may present themselves that may not solve the core of the problem, instead the investment is justified by attempting to solve the problem. As such, the problem operates as a window of opportunity for other investments to happen (Magnusson, 2013). Hence, it can be explained as an opportunity for the municipality to make an investment to develop an area attempting to achieve high property and land value. On one hand, international research imply that tramway transport infrastructure generally has positive economic impact, improve accessibility, increase land and property values. However, on the other hand, research also imply that location and context is important (Knowles & Ferbrache 2016). Additionally, large scale projects of this nature often mean that costs, benefits, and risks are overlooked. The promotion of the area Lund NE/Brunnshög indicates five areas of policy development as supported by Chien (2008, p. 274). These policy innovations can be found firstly by new space for production (export processing zones and development zones). As explained earlier in the empirical data chapter, typical for Lund NE/Brunnshög is newly developed scientific research facility MAX IV and complementary buildings. The primary production value is then research and knowledge with close ties to the renowned university. Secondly, new methods or facilities for production (internet access and skilled labor). MAX IV and ESS are significant research facilities which grants access to and opens up the labor market to a unique labor force due to the fact that only a few of these research facilities exists in the world. Thirdly, new markets for consumption (gentrification or cultural activities). The area of Lund NE/Brunnshög is in a sense being gentrified because it is being focused as a developing area with large amount of investment and construction. Fourthly, new sources of development financing. Since Lund NE/Brunnshög is a developing area, as such a window of opportunity for investment and stakeholders opens. By promoting the tramway as a necessity to the success of the area, attracting new sources of financing becomes easier. As such, the state paying half the costs and companies establishing themselves along the tramway will finance it. Lastly, new roles cities (Brussels as the European capital). The last tendency for policy development adding to the claim that the tramway is primarily used as a catalyst for growth happen is the new role that Lund NE/Brunnshög will become. As a center for knowledge and scientific research, Brunnshög will become a global competitor for international research.

5.3 How isomorphism helps explain the decision to build a tramway in Lund

To recapitulate, Chien (2008) argue that ‘mimetic learning’ occurs when an organization has development goals that are unclear or when macro environments create unpredicted risks. Organizations tend to mimic other organizations that are perceived as successful when faced with such an insecure situation. The municipality of Lund may or may not be pushing the decision to build a tramway partly based on the concept of isomorphism by engaging and adopting in innovative policy development from an external consultancy group. As explained in the theoretical framework, organizations tend to turn to mimetic measures to look for a solution in times of uncertainty when a problem arises whereby the result is filled with uncertainty (Powell & DiMaggio, 1991).

The various investigations ordered by the municipality to examine transport alternatives was made by multiple consultant companies such as pwc, Trivector, Skånetrafiken. It can be argued that these companies and organizations are in many ways intertwined with the municipality of Lund. For instance, LundaMaTs is made by Trivector and is an extensive policy document that the municipality and politicians have been following biblically. Furthermore, LundaMaTs is referenced to as one of the reasons for the decision to build a tramway in Lund. It is also Trivector that originally was responsible for constructing Lundalänken as a busway, with the intent to convert to a tramway later. The strong connection to Trivector, a private consultant company, suggests that the policy development for Lund municipality is influenced by consultancy involvement (NI1) per definition of Chien (2008). Therefore, I argue that policy development in Lund is influenced by external pressures such as consultancy involvement. Chien (p. 287) explains that regions adopt similar if not identical, development strategies when receiving help from professional consultancy companies. Trivector, as a consultant company is specifically focusing on environmentally friendly traffic solutions and has offered their help to multiple municipalities. Involvement of private actors delivering a product may present a potential problem. On one hand, as Chien (2008) points out, NI1 consultancy involvement is always prudent to potentially harmful situations, and thus, private actors are possibly given too much power and influences the outcome of developing Lund. On the other hand, consultancy involvement may prove to offer successful strategies to overcome problems. The tramway project is also undoubtedly reinforced by consultancy involvement by adopting strategies that are perceived as successful to eliminate risks. Resulting in municipalities forming similar, if not identical solutions to potential problems. Inclusion of private actors will therefore reinforce the tendency of imitation phenomena outlining the future for municipalities.

Further elaborated in the strategy document “Ramprogram Lund C” (Ramprogram, 2015) or framework Lund C, Lundalänken is communicated primarily as a transport solution, and secondly as a sustainable transport system for urban development. The framework that was put together acts as a program for detailed development work in the area of Brunnshög. Framework Lund C is an extensive policy document filled with different pivotal parameters that supports the work with detailed development plans. Strategies for the framework include concepts such as organize and prioritize, optimize, connect, improve, densify, and attract (Ramprogram, 2015). These policy concepts are typically found in a global scene where the effects of urbanization in dense cities are increasingly becoming a problem. The pushes for removal of car use in cities sometimes takes form in concepts such as mentioned in the framework for Brunnshög as a global policy development move. Furthermore, adding to the notion that a tramway, in a sense, is a sustainable transport system. By investing in a tramway, the municipality of Lund hope to abide to national and international policy pressures of reducing harmful gas emissions. Adding a certain level of immobile/mobile recourses (CP2) by pursuing funding from the government (Trafikverket). Pushing this type of sustainable public transport development is argued to increase the chances of receiving funds. The municipality validates national policies by dedicating and persuading a tramway that is supposedly more sustainable than other alternatives. For instance, Agenda 2030 is an international policy document for sustainable development goals. Agenda 2030 an international policy document that governments in Sweden embrace when funding projects. Therefore, abiding to such goals by investing in a tramway, does not only increase the chance of receiving funds from the government, but also puts Lund on the map by building a completely new modern tramway. These policies typically lean towards coercive pressure typology because they guides what projects receive funding, and therefore influences development in municipalities in Sweden.

In terms of policy development, the comprehensive plan is potentially greatly influenced by key values from other non-legal but essential policy documents that showcase a certain political intent in a municipality. Be it the reduction of car use or more green space in the city, or more ecological fair-trade products in the city. Now, it is interesting to look at the non-legal document that acts as a guide for other pivotal legal documents in the municipality. Who are the parties that put these documents together, what are the interests of these private companies and consultants? Private companies usually have an entirely different business-model than a municipality and its officials. How are planning tendencies influencing society on a macro and micro level and how are they outlining a sort of exceptionality in policy development? Also, that this investment is reinforced and justified through means of previous established policy documents. This spirals down to policy documents being intertwined in complex forms and structures and the original sense of purpose or justification may have been lost along the way.

Multiple similar successful projects are referenced to in terms of mimetic learning typology: Bybanen - in Norwegian Bergen is used as an example of inclusive design by trams. It is referenced 41

as an award-winning solution for innovation and universal design and increased accessibility. The motivation was as follows: "With a strong passenger focus, Bybanen in Bergen sets a new standard for traveling by public transport". Stockholm is also used as an example where a bus line has been converted to tramway number 7. The tramway presented as an example of good implementation and described as “superior” to buses (Lund municipality (2020). France is also used as an example of one of the countries that in recent years has invested heavily in tram traffic. Since the 1980s, about thirty modern tram lines have been built and more are planned. French tramway systems are described to have a clear connection to urban development and to be an inspiration for many investments elsewhere in the world - for example, Bergen in Norway, or the tramway in Lund. Barcelona, Odense, and Århus is lightly referenced as inspiration to the tramway in Lund. It seems that the situation that requires a new transit lane from Lund C to Brunnshög is partly left to the uncertain notion of imitation. By relating to sustainability, tramway is argued to be less harmful to the environment and therefore justified. The municipality also shows global awareness to congestion issues. By relating to capacity issues, tramway is argued to have greater capacity and therefore justified. Although, tramway in Lundalänken is argued to achieve environmentally friendly goals, empirical data show that the tramway was discussed even before Lund had car- reduction planning policies. Then, it can be argued that the justification of the tramway happened to fit contemporary global strategies/trends in order to pursue funding and then appropriated as a strategic direction. To summarize, competitiveness, environmental, and exploitation pressures tie the mechanics of isomorphism together which in turn influenced the decision to build a tramway in Lund.

6. Conclusion

The main purpose of this thesis has been to explore what role policies play in urban infrastructure investment decisions. Also, if the decision to build a tramway in Lund was influenced by local development isomorphism. The research questions this thesis aimed to answer was:

1. What role does policies play in decisions of urban infrastructure investments?

2. What influenced the decision to build a tramway in Lund?

Coercive pressure typology is typically concealed in policies that play a big role in deciding urban infrastructure investments. Global policy development clearly shows an intent to reduce harmful environmental gases and increase in environmentally friendly initiatives such as bicycle lanes or pedestrian programs. The tramway decision in Lund are constantly referenced to policies as a basis for decision-making. The pre-study, LundaMaTs and the comprehensive plan are documents that constitute the foundation for a tramway in Lund. This is because thoughts and ideas eventually became definite after a 26-year long process where plans for a tramway was mentioned in a comprehensive plan from 1992. The intent for tramway specifically took form with the development of a new area – Lund NE/Brunnshög. This meant an investment opportunity opened up which then was used to justify a tramway as means of solving an anticipated capacity problem. The main argument to build a tramway was its good capacity rate. Commuters were anticipated to increase based on an envisioned situation where the area of Lund NE / Brunnshög had expanded by 50,000 residents and employed over the course of 40 years. The pushes for removal of car use in cities took form in concepts such as mentioned in the framework for Brunnshög as a global policy development move. By investing in a tramway, the municipality of Lund hope to abide to national and international policy pressures of investing in environmentally friendly transport solutions. Adding a certain level of immobile/mobile recourses (CP2) by pursuing funding from the government (Trafikverket). Pushing this type of sustainable public transport development is argued to increase the chances of receiving funds. The municipality validates national policies by dedicating and persuading a tramway that is supposedly more sustainable than other alternatives. Concluding that by reforming and indulging in innovative policy development Lund increased the chances of receiving funds for a project that aligned itself with national and international coercive pressures. Coercive pressure typology is also used as a method to attract stakeholders and investors to partly finance the tramway and hopefully increase the land value. It is also to market Lund as a centra of innovation, sustainability, and science to stay competitive and aware on a global level. The external pressure from global competitiveness forces organizations to indulge in innovative policy development to stay competitive.

Mimetic learning typology can not only be seen as the sincerest form of flattery – but also its sincerest form of learning. Multiple successful projects are referenced to The tramway is also used as a tool of urban development to create an attractive built environment and draw people and businesses to grow Lund NE/Brunnshög. The tramway is framed as the only possible public transport system to generate an attractive built environment in line with the municipality’s strategic goals. The intent for the tramway in Lund is to attract and retain mobile capital, and to promote urban and regional growth. Thoughts of a tramway in Lund contextualized from external pressures from stakeholders over several years that allegedly had heavy emphasis on urban development and sustainability. The tramway decision displays an inclination to innovative and sustainable transport solutions by promoting a sort of exceptionality in policy development. This was done by restructuring and changing social and economic priorities by contesting the municipality’s own local policies. Suggesting a political and ideological shift towards engaging in innovative policy development and therefore that of isomorphism tendencies, specifically mimetic pressure typology (CP). This thesis claims that the municipality’s decision to build a tramway in Lund is partly because of indulging in policy innovation to fulfill external pressures of sustainability and to pursue funding. This phenomenon links the tramway investment to a global phenomenon of external pressures of structures in society growing more alike. It can then be argued that organizations and institutions are being managed and structured in a similar fashion by converging on a global level.

Findings in empirical data show inspiration to multiple similar successful projects. This reveals a certain level of mimetic learning typology: Bybanen - in Norwegian Bergen is used as an example of inclusive design by trams. Stockholm is also used as an example where a bus line has been converted to tramway number 7. The tramway presented as an example of good implementation and described as “superior” to buses (Lund municipality (2020). France is also used as an example of one of the countries that in recent years has successfully invested heavily in tram traffic. French tramway systems are described to have a clear connection to urban development and to be an inspiration for many investments elsewhere in the world. Barcelona, Odense, and Århus is also referenced to as inspiration to the tramway in Lund. Furthermore, directly translating studies made for tramway in Malmö in the context of Lund also reveal a level of mimetic learning typology. A contributing factor to why a tramway is being framed as the only viable transport solution is because the tramway is being compared to an alternative where no investment has been made. Forming a sort of singular truth because it is, empirically, the only appropriately investigated alternative.

Normative involvement is prominent from involvement of private consultancy groups in several essential policy documents. The policy documents were the basis for the decision to build a tramway in Lund. The apparent involvement of consultancy in these policies may raise questions regarding private interests and intents. Involvement of these consultancy may imply that regions 44

formulate similar, if not identical development strategies based on associations or consultancy companies. Policy documents that were key factors in supporting the decision to develop a tramway were outlined by involvement of consultancy groups. Reinforced by consultancy involvement by adopting strategies that are perceived as successful to eliminate risks. Resulting in municipalities forming similar, if not identical solutions to potential problems. Inclusion of private actors will therefore reinforce the tendency of imitation phenomena outlining the future for municipalities. This thesis therefore argue that the development of Lund may be subject to potential risks of private interests.

Whether or not the decision to build a tramway was decided in times of uncertainty is difficult to evaluate. It has undeniably been an intent for the municipality to build a tramway since plans for light rail was introduced in a comprehensive plan in 1998. However, evoked at this particular time when major scientific facilities MAX IV and ESS were established in an empty area of Lund NE/Brunnshög is difficult to see as coincidental. On one hand, the decision being based on an anticipated problem of increase in commuters, to an area that the municipality hope to develop, and not based on an actual problem today, informs this thesis that the decision was not decided in times of uncertainty. On the other hand, the decision may have been unfair based on the lack of empirical evaluation of alternatives to a tramway. Therefore, this thesis concludes that the development of a tramway in Lund was partly constructed through policy development.

The decision to build a tramway in Lund seems to be influenced by the three mechanics of isomorphism. A certain level of local development isomorphism was found in the empirical data by pursuing external funding from external pressures, by referencing to similar projects and by the involvement of professional consultancy groups. Further access to working and unofficial material of the tramway could possibly expose more linkages. Therefore, a conclusion that the decision to build a tramway in Lund was influenced by the three mechanics of isomorphism can be made.

7. Discussion

The intended development towards Brunnshög, ESS was already mentioned in the comprehensive plan in 2010. Meaning that even though the tramway construction may have come as a surprise to many of Lund’s citizens, it was part of the plan to develop a new area in Lund municipality. However, the project was fundamentally communicated as a transportation solution, and not as a catalyst for growth to happen. It is worth discussing whether this was due to certain planning traditions or if it is because that the exploitation and land value increase processes were deemed too complex to explain or communicate. Additionally, as stated by the municipality, an expected growth of commuters by public transport and commuters by train is expected to double. However, it can be argued that if the municipality expand and build more infrastructure for rail-based public transport, it is going to force people to use what is available in terms of public transport. Hence, an increase in rail-based public transport. Of course, the number of commuters in Lundalänken doubles in just a few years compared to a situation where there was no communication. This points towards a narrative of forced communication systems. Also, on the notion of success being false since there is nothing to compare to. The push for removal of car use in Lund municipality becomes evident in this type of investment for infrastructure. Adding to the claim that global policy development is present within the vicinity of the municipality of Lund. What is interesting perhaps is that one might imagine neoliberalism to be antithetical to large transport infrastructure investments but perhaps the point is that market actors are key in delivery.

Like stated before in political policies in Lund, the municipality wants to reduce car use, they work with different strategies to achieve that goal. It can be argued that the tramway project contradicts Lund’s policies for sustainable transportation of various reasons, one being that the project will only cover a small route in Lund city. Secondly, producing and building the infrastructure for the trams will require a large investment and recourses. On one hand, major infrastructure projects affect relatively many lives directly or indirectly and determine the networks and flows of the city. On the other hand, every urban dweller may not benefit or utilize a particular infrastructure project, although they should partly pay for it. The municipality is not only Lund city but also Dalby, Veberöd, Genarp, Södra Sandby, Revinge, etc which relies on car transportation and a small-scale public transportation. Realizing Simrishamnsbanan would connect Lund municipality outer inhabitants in Veberöd, Dalby, etc to Lund city and Malmö in a sustainable public transportation. Simrishamnsbanan is a railway that is inactive for the moment because it needs to be refurbished. To integrate Lund municipalities outer villages to the region, this would make much more sense to fund instead of the Tramway Lund C-ESS. Commuters from Veberöd will not see actual change from Tramway Lund C-ESS. The choices that planners, politicians and other experts make affects life, convenience and comfort of the people and social groups living in the municipality. The railway – Simrishamnsbanan would make commuting from outer Lund to Malmö and Lund faster 46

and comfortable. This would also integrate the villages into the Öresund region which would lead to more attractive housing market and much more. Simrishamnsbanan would answer to the policies of Lund politics, regional commuting, reduction of car use, development of villages, business transport, and a growing Lund. This study has made it clear that the decision to invest in a tramway somewhat contradicts the long-term sustainability strategies that the comprehensive plan mentions on several occasions. Developing Simrishamnsbanan can be argued to be more in line with what the comprehensive plan of Lund aims to achieve. Opening multiple regions by connecting them to a rail network would integrate outer villages, become more environmentally sustainable, and reduce car use. Current debate on whether a tramway as infrastructure for public transport improves the general well-being of a population is yet to see in the case of Lund. Although, it can be confirmed already that the set budget for the tramway has already been exceeded. Supporting the debate that large infrastructure projects generally exceed its budget and are therefore subject to uncertainties and risk.

Research on how involvement of private consultancy groups has outlined strategic infrastructure decisions for municipalities in Sweden would incapsulate potential problems. Also, how external pressures from regulatory instances has affected the development of municipalities in Sweden would provide rich material for a platform for discussion. Further research on how the three mechanics of isomorphism has affected development in Lund on a macro and micro scale is needed.

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Fabre, E. (2016), Nordic Urban Ways – Local Leadership, Governance, and Management for Sustainable Development. ISBN 978-91-88331-06-9 Flyvbjerg, B. (1998). Rationality and power: Democracy in practice. University of Chicago press. Flyvbjerg, B., Skamris-Holm, M. K., & Buhl, S. L. (2003). How common and how large are cost overruns in transport infrastructure projects? Transport Reviews, 23(1), 71–88. doi:10.1080/01441640309904 Flyvbjerg, B. (2014). What you Should Know about Megaprojects and Why: An Overview. Project Management Journal, 45(2), 6–19. doi:10.1002/pmj.21409 Frey, B. (2018). The SAGE encyclopedia of educational research, measurement, and evaluation (1- 4). Thousand Oaks,, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: 10.4135/9781506326139 Giroux, H. A. (2018). Terror of Neoliberalism: Authoritarianism and the Eclipse of Democracy. UK: Routledge. Hall, C. M. (2006). Urban Entrepreneurship, Corporate Interests and Sports Mega-Events: The Thin Policies of Competitiveness within the Hard Outcomes of Neoliberalism. The Sociological Review, 54(2_suppl), 59–70. doi:10.1111/j.1467-954x.2006.00653.x Hansson, J. (2012). Alternativa utformningar av kollketivtrafiksystemet mellan Lund C och ESS. Retireved 2020-05-12 from http://sparvaglund.se/globalassets/sparvag/dokument/detaljplaner/clemenstorget---bredgatan/bn- underrattelse_lagakraft-2015-11-23-detaljplan-for-sparvag-clemenstorget-bredgatan-i-lund- lunds-kommun.pdf Hjalmar, M., & Jakobsen, G. (2017). Gropen i gatan – Spårväg Lund C – ESS, ett projekt i motvind. Retrieved 2020-08-06 from http://lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers/record/8931163 Huynh, T. (2018). Brunnshög utan spårväg. Lund, Lunds universitet, LTH, Institutionen för Teknik och samhälle. Trafik och väg 2018. Thesis 321 Johansson, K. (2016). LundaMaTs – hållbarhetsstategin som håller. Retrieved 2020-05-15 from https://www.trivector.se/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/2038_varsommaren2016__lundamats_- _hallbarhetsstrategin_som_haller.pdf Khadaroo, J., & Seetanah, B. (2008). The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism development: A gravity model approach. Tourism Management, 29(5), 831–840. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2007.09.005 Kickert, C. (2020). Walkable city rules: 101 steps to making better places, by Jeff Speck. Journal of Urban Affairs, 1–3. doi:10.1080/07352166.2019.1703421 Knowles, R. D., & Ferbrache, F. (2016). Evaluation of wider economic impacts of light rail investment on cities. Journal of Transport Geography, 54, 430–439. doi: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2015.09.002 Kuprijanko, A. (2017). Så här gick det till när Lund fick spårväg. Retrieved 2018-03-19 from https://www.sydsvenskan.se/2017-02-15/sa-har-gick-det-till-nar-lund-fick-sparvag Lockby, H., Hellström, Å., Rydén, C. (2007). Handbok i bilsnål samhällsplanering. Retrieved 2020-05-15 from https://www.lund.se/globalassets/lund.se/bygg_bo/klimat-miljo-och- hallbarhet/miljosmartkommun/handbok-i-bilsnal-planering-kort-sbk.pdf 49

Magnusson, H. (2013). Att planera det nödvändiga projektet: En urbanteoretisk analys av spårvägsprojektet i Lund. (Master’s thesis, Statsvetenskapliga institutionen, Lund). Retrieved 2018-03-23 from http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=3798641&fileOId=380634 Martinelli, D. R. (1996). A systematic review of busways. Journal of transportation engineering, 122(3), 192-199. Mayer, M. (2006). Contesting the neoliberalization of urban governance. Contesting neoliberalism: Urban frontiers, 90-115. Melchert, D. (2011). Här bor man! Bostadsområden i Lunds kommun 1945-2005. Retrieved 2020- 03-31 from https://www.lund.se/globalassets/lund.se/bygg_bo/bygga-nytt-andra- eller/bygglov/kulturmiljoprogram/har_bor_man_sbk_170511.pdf Narayanan, V., & Adams, C. A. (2016). Transformative change towards sustainability: the interaction between organisational discourses and organisational practices. Accounting and Business Research, 47(3), 344–368. doi:10.1080/00014788.2016.1257930 Nathell, I. (2013) Genombrottet. Retireved 2018-03-28 from https://kulturportallund.se/genombrottet/ O’Brien, P., Pike, A., & Tomaney, J. (2019). Governing the “ungovernable”? Financialisation and the governance of transport infrastructure in the London “global city-region.” Progress in Planning, 132, 100422. doi:10.1016/j.progress.2018.02.001 Park, R. E. & Burgess, E. W. (1984). The City. Suggestions for Investigations of Human Behavior in the Urban Environment. University of Chicago Press: Chicago. Phillips, N., & Hardy, C. (2002). Discourse Analysis. doi:10.4135/9781412983921 Qvist, L. (2017). MAX IV governance. Retreived 2018-03-15 from https://www.maxiv.lu.se/about- us/governance/ Reinholdsson, O. (2013). Att planera det nödvändiga projektet – En urbanteoretisk analys av spårvägsprojektet i Lund. Retrieved 2020-08-06 from http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=3798641&fileOId=3806341 Short, M., & Le, T. (2009). Critical Discourse Analysis : An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Swyngedouw, E., Moulaert, F., & Rodriguez, A. (2002). Neoliberal Urbanization in Europe: Large-Scale Urban Development Projects and the New Urban Policy. Antipode, 34(3), 542–577. doi:10.1111/1467-8330.00254 Wahl, C. (2005). Trafiken i Lund: från Genombrottet till LundaMaTs. (Master’s thesis, Institutionen för Teknik och Samhälle, Lund). Retrieved 2018-03-24 from https://lup.lub.lu.se/student- papers/search/publication/1368636 Wang, L., Xue, X., Zhao, Z., & Wang, Z. (2018). The Impacts of Transportation Infrastructure on Sustainable Development: Emerging Trends and Challenges. International journal of environmental research and public health, 15(6), 1172. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061172 Wickström, M. (2016). Lunds historia. Retrieved 2018-02-10 from http://www.pege.nu/Lund/spv- planer-1.htm 50

Wirth, L. (1938). Urbanism as a Way of Life. American Journal of Sociology, 44(1), 1-24. Retrieved 2020-05-15 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2768119

8.1 Pictures Figure 1: Sage research methods. (2020). Methods map. Retrieved 2020-02-25 from http://methods.sagepub.com/methods-map/discourse-analysis Illustration 1: Lund geoportal. (2020). Geoportal.lund. Retrieved 2020-03-25 from https://geoportal.lund.se/portal/home/index.html Illustration 2: Lund municipality. (2016). Visionary map. Retrieved 2020-03-27 from http://www.mynewsdesk.com/se/lund/images/visionskarta-spaarvaeg-lund-c-ess-522599 Illustration 3: Lund municipality. (2014). Spårväg Lund C till ESS – ett starkare kunskapsstråk med spår på Lundalänken. Retrieved 2020-04-29 from https://sparvaglund.se/globalassets/sparvag/dokument/utredningar-och-stoddokument/110502- forstudie-spar-lund-c-till-ess_lagupplost.pdf

8.2 Newspapers / magazines Anna Norling. (2020). Snart rullar spårvagnarna i Lund – men bygget upprör. Retrieved 2020-08- 06 from https://tidningenelektrikern.se/2020/02/24/snart-rullar-sparvagnarna-i-lund-men-bygget- uppror/ Kuprijanko, A. (2015). Historiskt beslut – spårvägen är klubbad. Retrieved 2020-05-12 from https://www.sydsvenskan.se/2015-12-17/historiskt-beslut--sparvagen-ar-klubbad Nilsson, P. (2014). Spårvagnar i Skåne – 2014. Retrieved 2020-03-27 from https://sparvaglund.se/globalassets/sparvag/dokument/utredningar-och-stoddokument/gfk--- rapport-sparvagnar-i-skane-2014.pdf Wagerfors, M. (17 april, 2019). Våra skattepengar bör användas till annat än spårväg. Retrieved 2020-03-27 from https://www.kristianstadsbladet.se/debatt/vara-skattepengar-bor-anvandas-till- annat-an-sparvag/ Hjort, C. (2018). Fördyrat spårvägsbygge i Lund inte värt att fullfölja. Retrieved 2020-08-07 from http://fornyalund.se/fordyrat-sparvagsbygge-i-lund-inte-vart-att-fullfolja/

8.3 Public material árdeo. (2013) Spårvagnar i skåne. Retrieved 2020-08-05 from https://sparvaglund.se/globalassets/sparvag/dokument/utredningar-och-stoddokument/2000- intervjuer-sparvagnar-i-skane---ettmatning-2013-uppdaterad.pdf Building committee Lund. (2015). Detaljplan för Spårväg Clemenstorget – Bredgatan i Lund, Lunds kommun. Retrieved 2020-05-15 from https://sparvaglund.se/globalassets/sparvag/dokument/detaljplaner/clemenstorget--- bredgatan/aktbilaga-148---planbeskrivning.pdf City planning office, technical department. (2003). Lundalänken – en genväg för kollektivtrafiken i Lund. Retrieved 2018-03-19 from

http://www.exempelbanken.se/system/documents/980191463/original/3100_folder_8_sidor_for_ webben.pdf City council, Lund. (2014 § 220) Detaljplan för Spårväg Clemenstorget-Bredgatan i Lunds kommun, antagande. Retrieved 2018-03-21 from https://www.lund.se/globalassets/protokoll- och-foredragningslistor/kommunfullmaktige/tidigare-ar/2014/2014-12-18/2014-12-18-protokoll- kommunfullmaktige.pdf Lund municipality. (2011). Spårväg Lund C till ESS – ett starkare kunskapsstråk med spår på Lundalänken. Retrieved 2020-03-31 from https://sparvaglund.se/globalassets/sparvag/dokument/utredningar-och-stoddokument/110502- forstudie-spar-lund-c-till-ess_lagupplost.pdf Lund municipality. (2015). Ramprogram för lund C. Retrieved 2020-05-14 from https://www.lund.se/globalassets/lund.se/traf_infra/byggprojekt/lund-c/ramprogram-lund-c--- beslutat-2015-11-19.pdf Lund municipality. (2010). Översiktsplan för Lunds kommun 2010. Retrieved 2020-04-07 from https://www.lund.se/globalassets/lund.se/traf_infra/oversiktsplan/op2010/op-2010- antagandehandl-1-sbk.pdf LundaMats III. (2014). Strategy for a sustainable transport system in Lund Municipality. Retrieved 2018-02-21 from https://www.lund.se/globalassets/lund.se/traf_infra/lundamats/lundamats_iii_eng.pdf Malmö kommun. (2012). Systemanalys för lokal kollektivtrafik i Malmö. Retrieved 2020-05-13 from https://sparvaglund.se/globalassets/sparvag/dokument/utredningar-och- stoddokument/rapport-systemanalysen-120528.pdf Nilsson, P. (2014). Spårvagnar i skåne – 2014. Retrieved 2020-05-03 from https://sparvaglund.se/globalassets/sparvag/dokument/utredningar-och-stoddokument/gfk--- rapport-sparvagnar-i-skane-2014.pdf Region Skåne. (2018). Så reser vi i Skåne. Retrieved 2020-05-15 from https://utveckling.skane.se/siteassets/publikationer_dokument/resvaneundersokning_2018.pdf Lund municipality (2020) Spårväglund Lund C – ESS. Retrieved 2020-08-10 from https://sparvaglund.se/ Technical department. (2018). Bakgrund. Retrieved 2020-05-15 from https://sparvaglund.se/om- projektet/bakgrund/