A Chronology of the (1347–1363)

1347 comes to the Black Sea region, Constantinople, Asia Minor, , Marseille on the southeastern coast of France, and perhaps the Greek archipelago and Egypt. 1348 Plague comes to all of Italy, most of France, the eastern half of Spain, southern , Switzerland, Austria, the Balkans and Greece, Egypt and North Africa, Palestine and Syria, and perhaps Denmark. The flagellant movement begins in Austria or Hungary. Jewish occur in Languedoc and Catalonia, and the first trials of Jews accused of well poisoning take place in Savoy. 1349 Plague comes to western Spain and Portugal, central and north- ern England, Wales, Ireland, southern , the Low Coun- tries (Belgium and Holland), western and southern Germany, Hungary, Denmark, and Norway. The flagellants progress through Germany and Flanders before they are suppressed by order of Pope Clement VI. Burning of Jews on charges of well poisoning occurs in many German-speaking towns, including Strasbourg, Stuttgart, Con- stance, Basel, Zurich, Cologne, Mainz, and Speyer; in response, Pope Clement issues a bull to protect Jews. Some city-states in Italy and the king’s council in England pass labor legislation to control wages and ensure a supply of agricul- tural workers in the wake of plague mortality. 1350 Plague comes to eastern Germany and Prussia, northern Scot- land, and all of Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, Sweden). King Philip VI of France orders the suppression of the flagellants in Flanders. The córtes, or representative assembly, of Aragon passes labor legislation.

179 180 CHRONOLOGY

1351– 1352 Plague comes to Russia, Lithuania, and perhaps Poland. The córtes of Castile, the parliament of England, and King John II of France pass labor legislation, but the córtes of Aragon re- vokes it. 1354 King John II of France passes labor legislation. The Jews of Catalonia and Valencia draw up a takkanoth, or accord, with King Pedro IV of Aragon in order to obtain a bull of protection from Pope Innocent VI. 1358 Rise of the Jacquerie, a peasants’ revolt, in France. 1361– 1363 Plague breaks out again in Europe. Questions for Consideration

1. Where did the Black Death originate? How was it first communicated to Europeans? 2. If you were a doctor making a diagnosis, how would you characterize the symptoms of the Black Death, based on the chroniclers’ accounts? Is it possible to detect the true presence of bubonic or ? 3. What advice given by medieval physicians to ward off or cure the Black Death seems to you to have been most beneficial? What was least effective, or even harmful? 4. To what extent did doctors rely on empirical observation in response to the challenges posed by the Black Death? To what extent did they rely on tradition or authority? 5. Which aspects of the social or psychological response to the Black Death seem similar to our own response to modern “plagues,” such as the AIDS epidemic? Which aspects are different? 6. Compare the supposedly eyewitness testimony of Giovanni Boccaccio (Document 16) with the later, fifteenth-century reflections of al-Maqrı¯zı¯ (Document 19). Which is a more accurate reflection of the new social and economic realities created by the plague? What are the advan- tages and disadvantages of each kind of source? 7. Who, precisely, enacted the economic legislation of various European countries in response to the Black Death, and why? How else might landlords have responded to the economic challenges posed by the plague? Based on the evidence from England (Document 22), how did laborers respond to this legislation, and how effective was it? 8. Chroniclers commenting on the social and religious context of the Black Death report that the disease was both caused by and resulted in a moral decline in society. Which, if any, is true, and why? 9. Did medieval people lose their faith in God as a result of the Black Death? Defend your answer. Did their religious response have any practical effect? How well did the Church and its priesthood respond to this crisis (Documents 25 and 26)?

181 182 QUESTIONS FOR CONSIDERATION

10. What was uppermost in the mind of Libertus of Monte Feche (Docu- ment 27) as he lay dying from the plague? 11. Compare the Christian and Muslim responses to the Black Death (Documents 23, 24, 28, 29, and 30). How were they similar and differ- ent? What tensions did each community experience during the plague? Would they respond in the same way to an apocalyptic crisis today? 12. What kind of emotion vis-à-vis the Black Death did the flagellants inspire in onlookers and in themselves? Was it elation, relief, fear, ter- ror? Based on the chroniclers’ accounts, why did Pope Clement VI suppress the flagellants on October 20, 1349? 13. Why were Jews targeted as scapegoats during the Black Death? How did medieval Jews and some Christians refute the accusation of well poisoning (Documents 36, 39, and 40)? How closely, if at all, do the pogroms of 1348–51 resemble of the 1940s? 14. Compare Documents 35 and 38 with respect to the Jewish pogroms in Spain. What does this tell us about how historians should approach original sources? Consider the origins, credentials, and general relia- bility of each document and of its respective author. 15. Why is the Dance of Death considered such a suitable artistic expres- sion of the Black Death? What connection do you think the Dance of Death has to the actual epidemic of the plague? 16. Look at the pictures of the tombs of François de la Sarra and of Arch- bishop Henry Chichele (Documents 44 and 45). Are the worms enter- ing or leaving François’s corpse? Should one “read” downwards or upwards on Chichele’s double-decker monument? Why do you think Chichele had his cadaver image made and erected in a public place nearly twenty years before his death (in 1443)? How does the poem A Disputacioun betwyx the Body and Wormes (Document 46), act as a commentary on Chichele’s tomb? 17. Consider the totality of Europeans’ response to the Black Death, including medical, social, economic, religious, and artistic responses. Was it characteristic of a “medieval” or “Renaissance” outlook? Should it be taken as evidence of a decline or rebirth of culture and society? Selected Bibliography

GENERAL WORKS Aberth, John. From the Brink of the Apocalypse: Confronting Famine, War, Plague, and Death in the Later Middle Ages. New : Routledge, 2000. Biraben, Jean Noël. Les hommes et la Peste en France et dans les pays européens et méditerranéens. 2 vols. Paris: Mouton, 1975–1976. Bowsky, William M., ed. The Black Death: A Turning Point in History? New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971. Cantor, Norman F. In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World It Made. New York: Free Press, 2001. Cohn Jr., Samuel K. “The Black Death: End of a Paradigm.” The American Historical Review, 107 (2002): 703–38. ———. The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe. and New York: Arnold and Oxford Univer- sity Press, 2002. Dols, Michael W. The Black Death in the Middle East. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977. Gottfried, Robert S. The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval Europe. New York: Free Press, 1983. Herlihy, David. The Black Death and the Transformation of the West. Edited by Samuel K. Cohn Jr. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997. McNeill, William H. Plagues and Peoples. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press/ Doubleday, 1976. Ormrod, W. Mark, and Phillip G. Lindley, eds. The Black Death in England. Stamford, Lincolnshire.: Watkins, 1996. Platt, Colin. King Death: The Black Death and Its Aftermath in Late- Medieval England. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996. Williman, Daniel, ed. The Black Death: The Impact of the Fourteenth-Century Plague. Binghamton, N.Y.: Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, 1982. Ziegler, Philip. The Black Death. New York: Harper and Row, 1969.

183 184 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

PLAGUE DEMOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY Aberth, John. “The Black Death in the Diocese of Ely: The Evidence of the Bishop’s Register.” Journal of Medieval History, 21 (1995): 275–87. Carpentier, Élisabeth. “Autour de la Peste Noire: famines et épidémies dans l’histoire du XIVe siècle.” Annales: economies, sociétés, civilisation, 17 (1962): 1062–92. Davies, Richmond A. “The Effect of the Black Death on the Parish Priests of the Medieval Diocese of Coventry and Lichfield.” Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 62 (1989): 85–90. Derbes, Vincent. “De Mussis and the Great Plague of 1348: A Forgotten Episode of Bacteriological Warfare.” Journal of the American Medical Association, 196 (1966): 59–62. Emery, R. W. “The Black Death of 1348 in Perpignan.” Speculum, 42 (1967): 611–23. Gottfried, Robert S. Epidemic Disease in Fifteenth-Century England: The Medical Response and the Demographic Consequences. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1978. Gyug, Richard. “The Effects and Extent of the Black Death of 1348: New Evidence for Clerical Mortality in Barcelona.” Mediaeval Studies, 45 (1983): 385–98. Hatcher, John. “Mortality in the Fifteenth Century: Some New Evidence.” Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 39 (1986): 19–38. Herlihy, David. “Population, Plague, and Social Change in Rural Pistoia, 1201–1430.” Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 18 (1965): 225–44. Norris, John. “East or West? The Geographic Origin of the Black Death.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 51 (1977): 1–24. With replies by Michael Dols and John Norris in idem, 52 (1978): 112–20.

BIOLOGICAL AND MEDICAL ASPECTS Arrizabalaga, Jon. “Facing the Black Death: Perceptions and Reactions of University Medical Practitioners.” In Practical Medicine from Salerno to the Black Death. Edited by L. García-Ballester, R. French, J. Arriza- balaga, and A. Cunningham. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Benedictow, Ole J. Plague in the Late Medieval Nordic Countries: Epidemi- ological Studies. Oslo: Middelalderforlaget, 1992. Campbell, Anna Montgomery. The Black Death and Men of Learning. New York: Columbia University Press, 1931. Carmichael, Ann G. Plague and the Poor in Renaissance Florence. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. ———. “: The Black Death.” In Plague, Pox, and Pestilence. Edited by Kenneth F. Kiple. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997. Conrad, Lawrence I., Michael Neue, Vivian Nutton, Roy Porter, and An- drew Wear. The Western Medical Tradition, 800 B.C. to A.D. 1800. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 185

Crisciani, Chiara, and Michela Pereira. “Black Death and Golden Reme- dies: Some Remarks on Alchemy and the Plague.” In The Regulation of Evil: Social and Cultural Attitudes to Epidemics in the Late Middle Ages. Edited by Agostino Paravicini Bagliani and Francesco Santi. Sismel: Edizioni del Galluzzo, 1998. Drancourt, Michel, Gérard Aboudharam, Michel Signoli, Olivier Dutour, and Didier Raoult. “Detection of 400-Year-Old DNA in Human Dental Pulp: An Approach to the Diagnosis of Ancient Sep- ticemia.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 95 (1998): 12637–40. ———. “Molecular Identification of ‘Suicide PCR’ of Yersinia pestis as the Agent of the Medieval Black Death.” Proceedings of the National Acad- emy of Science, 97 (2000): 12800–803. Ell, Stephen R. “Interhuman Transmission of Medieval Plague.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 54 (1980): 497–510. Grmek, Mirko D., ed. Western Medical Thought from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998. Henderson, John. “The Black Death in Florence: Medical and Communal Responses.” In Death in Towns: Urban Responses to the Dying and the Dead, 100–1600. Edited by Steven Bassett. London and New York: Leicester University Press, 1992. Hirst, L. Fabian. The Conquest of Plague: A Study of the Evolution of Epi- demiology. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953. Lenski, Richard E. “Evolution of Plague Virulence.” Nature, 334 (1988): 473–74. See also the companion article by R. Rosqvist, M. Skurnik, and H. Wolf-Watz, “Increased Virulence of Yersinia Pseudotuberculosis,” idem: 522–25. Scott, Susan, and Christopher J. Duncan. Biology of Plagues: Evidence from Historical Populations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Shrewsbury, J. F. D. A History of Bubonic Plague in the British Isles. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970. Siraisi, Nancy G. Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduc- tion to Knowledge and Practice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. Twigg, Graham. The Black Death: A Biological Reappraisal. New York: Schocken Books, 1984.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS Bean, J. M. W. “The Black Death: The Crisis and its Social and Economic Consequences.” In The Black Death: The Impact of the Fourteenth-Cen- tury Plague. Edited by Daniel Williman. Binghamton, N.Y.: Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, 1982. Blockmans, W. P. “The Social and Economic Effects of Plague in the Low Countries, 1349–1500.” Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, 58 (1980): 833–63. 186 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bolton, Jim. “ ‘The World Upside Down’: Plague as an Agent of Economic and Social Change.” In The Black Death in England. Edited by W. M. Ormrod and Phillip G. Lindley. Stamford, Lincolnshire: Watkins, 1996. Bowsky, William. “The Impact of the Black Death upon Sienese Govern- ment and Society.” Speculum, 39 (1964): 1–34. Campbell, Bruce M. S. Before the Black Death: Studies in the ‘Crisis’ of the Early Fourteenth Century. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991. Fryde, E. B. Peasants and Landlords in Later Medieval England. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996. Goldberg, P. J. P. Women, Work, and Life Cycle in a Medieval Economy: Women in York and Yorkshire, c. 1300–1520. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Hatcher, John. Plague, Population and the English Economy, 1348–1530. London: Macmillan, 1977. ———. “England in the Aftermath of the Black Death.” Past and Present, 144 (1994): 3–35. Herlihy, David. “Deaths, Marriages, Births, and the Tuscan Economy (ca. 1300–1550).” In Population Patterns in the Past. Edited by Ronald Demos Lee. New York: Academic Press, 1977. Herlihy, David, and Christiane Klapisch-Zuber. Tuscans and Their Fami- lies: A Study of the Florentine Catasto of 1427. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985. Kircher, Timothy. “Anxiety and Freedom in Boccaccio’s History of the Plague of 1348.” Letteratura Italiana antica, 3 (2002): 319–57. Klapisch-Zuber, Christiane. “Plague and Family Life.” In The New Cam- bridge Medieval History. Volume 6: c. 1300–c. 1415. Edited by Michael Jones. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Mate, Mavis E. Daughters, Wives, and Widows after the Black Death: Women in Sussex, 1350–1535. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell and Brewer, 1998. Penn, S. A. C., and Christopher Dyer. “Wages and Earnings in Late Medieval England: Evidence from the Enforcement of the Labour Laws.” Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 43 (1990): 356–76. Putnam, Bertha Haven. The Enforcement of the Statutes of Labourers dur- ing the First Decade after the Black Death, 1349–1359. New York: Columbia University Press, 1908. Thompson, James Westfall. “The Aftermath of the Black Death and the Aftermath of the Great War.” American Journal of Sociology, 26 (1920– 21): 565–72.

RELIGIOUS MENTALITIES Cohn Jr., Samuel K. The Cult of Remembrance and the Black Death: Six Renaissance Cities in Central Italy. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Uni- versity Press, 1992. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 187

———. “The Place of the Dead in Flanders and Tuscany: Towards a Com- parative History of the Black Death.” In The Place of the Dead: Death and Remembrance in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Edited by Bruce Gordon and Peter Marshall. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 2000. Delumeau, Jean. Sin and Fear: The Emergence of a Western Guilt Culture, 13th–18th Centuries. Translated by E. Nicholson. New York: St. Mar- tin’s Press, 1990. Dohar, William J. The Black Death and Pastoral Leadership: The Diocese of Hereford in the Fourteenth Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl- vania Press, 1995. Dols, Michael W. “The Comparative Communal Responses to the Black Death in Muslim and Christian Societies.” Viator, 5 (1974): 269–87. Harper-Bill, Christopher. “The English Church and English Religion after the Black Death.” In The Black Death in England. Edited by W. Mark Ormrod and Phillip G. Lindley. Stamford, Lincolnshire: Watkins, 1996. Lerner, Robert E. “The Black Death and Western European Eschatologi- cal Mentalities.” In The Black Death: The Impact of the Fourteenth- Century Plague. Edited by Daniel Williman. Binghamton, N.Y.: Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, 1982. Smoller, Laura A. “Plague and the Investigation of the Apocalypse.” In Last Things: Death and the Apocalypse in the Middle Ages. Edited by Caroline Walker Bynum and Paul Freedman. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000.

FLAGELLANTS Colville, A. “Documents sur les Flagellants.” Histoire litteraire de la France, 37 (1938): 390–411. Dickson, Gary. “The Flagellants of 1260 and the Crusades.” Journal of Medieval History, 15 (189): 227–67. Graus, Frantisek. Pest, Geissler, Judenmorde: Das 14 Jahrhundert als Krisenzeit. Göttingen: Vandenhoek and Ruprecht, 1987. Henderson, John. “The Flagellant Movement and Flagellant Confraterni- ties in Central Italy, 1260–1400.” In Religious Motivation: Biographical and Sociological Problems for the Church Historian. Edited by Derek Baker. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978. Kieckhefer, Richard. “Radical Tendencies in the Flagellant Movement of the Mid-Fourteenth Century.” Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 4 (1974): 157–76.

JEWISH POGROMS Breuer, M. “The ‘Black Death’ and .” In Antisemitism through the Ages. Edited by S. Almog and translated by N. H. Reisner. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press, 1988. 188 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chazan, Robert. Medieval Stereotypes and Modern Antisemitism. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997. Cohen, J. The Friars and the Jews: The Evolution of Medieval Anti-Judaism. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982. Crémieux, A. “Les Juifs de Toulon au Moyen Age et le massacre du 13 Avril 1348.” Revue des études juives, 89–90 (1930–31): 33–72, 43–64. Foa, Anna. The Jews of Europe after the Black Death. Translated by Andrea Grover. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000. Graus, Frantisek. Pest, Geissler, Judenmorde: Das 14 Jahrhundert als Krisenzeit. Göttingen: Vandenhoek and Ruprecht, 1987. Guerchberg, Séraphine. “The Controversy over the Alleged Sowers of the Black Death in the Contemporary Treatises on Plague.” In Change in Medieval Society. Edited by Sylvia L. Thrupp. New York: Meredith Pub- lishing, 1964. Katz, Stephen T. The Holocaust in Historical Context. Volume 1: The Holo- caust and Mass Death before the Modern Age. New York: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1994. Langmuir, Gavin I. Toward a Definition of Antisemitism. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990. ———. History, Religion, and Antisemitism. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990. López de Meneses, Amada. “Una consecuencia de la Peste Negra en Cataluña: el de 1348.” Sefarad, 19 (1959): 92–131, 321–64. Nirenberg, David. Communities of Violence: Persecution of Minorities in the Middle Ages. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996. Stow, Kenneth R. Alienated Minority: The Jews of Medieval Latin Europe. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992.

ARTISTIC ASPECTS Ariès, Philippe. The Hour of Our Death. Translated by Helen Weaver. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Batany, J. “Les ‘Danses Macabres’: une image en negatif du fonctionnal- isme social.” In Dies Illa: Death in the Middle Ages. Edited by J. H. M. Taylor. Liverpool: F. Cairns, 1984. Binski, Paul. Medieval Death: Ritual and Representation. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cor- nell University Press, 1996. Boeckl, Christine M. Images of Plague and Pestilence: Iconography and Iconology. Kirksville, Mo.: Truman State University Press, 2000. Brossollet, J. “L’influence de la peste du Moyen-Age sur le theme de la Danse Macabre.” Pagine di storia della medicina, 13 (1969): 38–46. Clark, James Midgley. The Dance of Death in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Glasgow: Jackson, 1950. Cohen, Kathleen. Metamorphosis of a Death Symbol: The Transi Tomb in the Later Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 189

Huizinga, Johan. The Waning of the Middle Ages: A Study of the Forms of Life, Thought and Art in France and the Netherlands in the Dawn of the Renaissance. Translated by Frederik Jan Hopman. London: E. Arnold and Co., 1924. King, Pamela M. “The English Cadaver Tomb in the Late Fifteenth Cen- tury: Some Indications of a Lancastrian Connection.” In Dies Illa: Death in the Middle Ages. Edited by J. H. M. Taylor. Liverpool: F. Cairns, 1984. ————-. “The Cadaver Tomb in England: Novel Manifestations of an Old Idea.” Church Monuments: Journal of the Church Monuments Soci- ety, 5 (1990): 26–38. Kurtz, Leonard Paul. The Dance of Death and the Macabre Spirit in Euro- pean Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1934. Marshall, Louise. “Manipulating the Sacred: Image and Plague in Renais- sance Italy,” Renaissance Quarterly, 3 (1994): 485–532. Meiss, Millard. Painting in Florence and Siena after the Black Death: The Arts, Religion, and Society in the Mid-Fourteenth Century. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1951. Panofsky, Erwin. Tomb Sculpture: Four Lectures on its Changing Aspects from Ancient Egypt to Bernini. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1956. Polzer, Joseph. “Aspects of the Fourteenth-Century Iconography of Death and the Plague.” In The Black Death: The Impact of the Fourteenth- Century Plague. Edited by Daniel Williman. Binghamton, N.Y.: Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, 1982. Rosenfeld, Helmut. Der Mittelalterliche Totentanz: Entstehung, Entwick- lung, Bedeutung. Münster: Böhlau, 1954. Saugnieux, J. Les Danses Macabres de France et d’Espagne et leurs pro- longements littérraires. Paris: Belles Lettres, 1972. Tristram, Philippa. Figures of Life and Death in Medieval English Litera- ture. New York: New York University Press, 1976. Van Os, H. W. “The Black Death and Sienese Painting: A Problem of In- terpretation.” Art History, 4 (1981): 237–49. Acknowledgments Acknowledgments continued from page iv.

Document 1. Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine History, 1347–1349. Reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press. Document 2. Abu¯ Hafs cUmar Ibn al-Wardı¯, Essay on the Report of the Pestilence, ca. 1348. Reprinted by permission of the American Univer- sity of Beirut. Document 6. Giovanni Boccaccio, Introduction to The Decameron, 1348. From The Decameron by Boccaccio, translated by G. H. McWil- liam (Penguin Classics, 1972, Second Edition, 1995). © G. H. McWil- liam, 1972, 1995. Reprinted by permission of Penguin Books Ltd. Document 8. John VI Kantakouzenos, History, 1347–1348. Reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press. Document 12. Jacme d’Agramont, Regimen of Protection against Epi- demics, April 1348. © The Johns Hopkins University Press. Reprinted with permission of The Johns Hopkins University Press. Document 16. Giovanni Boccaccio, Introduction to The Decameron, 1348. From The Decameron by Boccaccio, translated by G. H. McWil- liam (Penguin Classics, 1972, Second Edition, 1995). © G. H. McWil- liam, 1972, 1995. Reprinted by permission of Penguin Books Ltd. Document 29. Abu¯ Hafs cUmar Ibn al-Wardı¯, Essay on the Report of the Pestilence, ca. 1348. Reprinted by permission of the American Uni- versity of Beirut.

190 Index

abscesses, 35–36 Aristotle, 41, 42, 64n Agatha, virgin, 101–2 Armenian bole, 50 Agramont, Jacme d’, 39, 42n, 46n, 139 armpit swelling, 31 “Regimen of Protection against Epi- art and artwork, vii–viii, 4, 160–78 demics,” 51–55 Dance of Death, 160–62, 164–66 agriculture depictions of corpses, 160 abandonment of, 82 memento mori (remembrance of death), consumers, 86 160 laborers, 69, 83n, 89–93 paintings on Dance of Death, 161 military and, 85–86 poetry, 161, 162, 165–66, 171, 174, neglect of, 80 176–78 prices, 69 portraiture, 96, 160 technology, 4, 70 Renaissance spirit, 160 wages, 69 snake imagery in, 170 air stained-glass panel, 167, 168f corruption of, 38, 43, 44, 46–47, 51–52 transi tombs, 169–71 fresh, disease prevention and, 56–57 worm imagery in, 170–71, 172, 173f, 174, Albert II of Hapsburg, duke of Austria, 154 176–78 aljamas (Jewish communities in Spain), arteries, bloodletting and, 62n 141, 142–43 artisans, prices charged by, 89–93 altitude, disease prevention and, 52 Asia, 11 Amedeo VI, count of Savoy, 145, 172–73 assize court role, 91–93 Andronikos, son of John VI Kantakouzenos, Assyut, 86 35 astrological conditions, plague origin and, Andronikos III, emperor, 15 40–41, 44, 45–46, 65 animals Augustus, emperor, 125n abandonment of, 80 autopsies, 24, 33, 47, 54–55 Black Death and, 15–16 Avenzoar (Ibn Zuhr), 48n, 55 bodies eaten by, 82 Avignon, 21 decomposition and, 44 killed by well poisoning, 157 baptism, of Jews, 141, 154 mortality of, 26, 32 Barcelona, Christian-Jewish relations in, Annalium Hiberniae Chronicon (Yearly 144–45 Chronicle of Ireland), 5 barley water, 57 anthrax, 27 bathing Antichrist, 94, 122, 133 dangers of, 54 antidotes, 49 guidelines for, 59 antraci (carbuncles), 30, 63, 65 Muslim vs. Christian views on, 59n Apocalypse, Fourth Rider of the, 161 Beckington, Thomas, 169 apocalypse, plague as, 4, 94, 162 beef, 48 apostemes (tumors), 63, 65 “Beginning and End, The: On History” (Ibn Aquinas, St. Thomas, 170 Kathı¯r), 110–12 Aragon, kingdom of, 89, 179–80 Berthold of Bücheck, bishop of Strasbourg, ardeb, 87 131, 151, 152

191 192 INDEX biblical language, 11 bread, 57 bitter herbs, 50 breath, communication of black blisters, 35 through, 81 Black Death. See also bubonic plague; buboes (lymph node swellings), 23, 24, 29 plague; pneumonic plague; sep- treatment of, 60–62 ticemic plague bubonic plague. See also Black Death; as apocalypse, 4 plague arrival in Europe, 1, 13, 29–30 characteristics of, 23–27, 33 artistic response to, vii–viii, 160–78 climate and, 25–26 biblical language used to describe, 11 death from, 23 chronology of, 179–80 lymphatic swelling in, 24 contagiousness of, 32, 63 neurological symptoms of, 161 Dance of Death and, 160–62 recovery in, 23 economic impacts of, 67–70, 87–93 symptoms, 23, 24, 29–30 first outbreak of, viii transmission of, 23, 26 as a “game of chess,” 161 Bukha¯rı¯, al-, 111 geographical origins of, vii, 11–14 burials, 67, 68f, 79. See also transi tombs as historical event, 2–3 directions in wills, 108–9 historical significance of, vii–viii, 3–4 Bury St. Edmunds, 165 history of, 98–100 , 13 individual responses to, 75–80 “Byzantine History” (Gregoras), 15–16 Jews and, 6 medical care, 27–66, 32, 35–36 Caffa, cadavers catapulted into, 13 mortality, viii Cairo, plague effects in, 84–87 Muslim views of, 96–97, 98–100 Canterbury Cathedral, tomb of Archbishop plague bacillus, 11, 13 Henry Chichele, 174, 175f as punishment for sins, 96, 97, 118 carbuncles, 24, 63 recurrences of, vii, 1 Carmelite convent, 82 religious views of, 96–97 Castile, labor legislation, 89–90, 180 remedies sought for, 6 Catania, arrival of Black Death in, 29–30 revisionist view of, 3 Cedar of Lebanon prophecy, 122n social impacts of, 67–87 Charles IV, emperor, 154 spread of, vii, 11–22, 12f Chauliac, Gui de, 5, 27, 37, 47, 158 survivors of, 4, 83 “Great Surgery,” 63–66 symptoms, 16, 23–24, 24–25, 35–36 chess imagery, 161, 167–68 technological innovation and, 4 Chichele, Henry, archbishop of Canterbury, terms used for, 1 169, 171 transmission of, 23–27, 32 tomb at Canterbury Cathedral, 174, 175f worm imagery and, 170–71 Chillon, trials of Jews in, 145–50 Black Death, The: A Turning Point in His- China, 2, 97 tory? 3 cholera (yellow bile), 39 black (Rattus rattus), 26. See also chorea, 161 bleeding. See bloodletting Christian-Jewish relations, 141 bloodletting, 38 Christians benefits of, 58 debts owed to Jews by, 143, 152, 154, buboes, 61–62 158 guidelines for, 53–54 fear of contagion by, 96 prior to disease taking root, 59–60 Jews accused of well poisoning by, blood spitting, 29, 30, 35, 64, 84 117–18, 120, 139, 151, 155, 179 treatment of, 62–63 response to Black Death by, 96–97 boards of health, 39 scapegoating of Jews by, 6, 96, 117 Boccaccio, Giovanni, vii–viii, 5, 26, 37, 67, tolerance of Jews, 117 71 views on bathing, 59n “Introduction to The Decameron,” 31–32, “Chronicle” (Closener), 126–31 75–80 “Chronicle” (Muisis), 132–37 Book of Epidemics (Galen), 64 “Chronicle” (Neuenburg), 151–54 “Book of Memorable Matters” (Heinrich of “Chronicle” (Piazza), 29–30, 100–103 Herford), 122–26 “Chronicle” (Venette), 82–83 bowel movements, 58 “Chronicle” (Villani), 19–20 Bradwardine, Thomas, archbishop of Can- cities, abandonment of, for countryside, 76 terbury, 104 City Council of Siena, “Ordinance,” 87–88 INDEX 193

Clement VI, pope, 21, 63, 65n, 96, 100, 118, depicted in the arts, 161–62 120, 125n, 137n, 138 medieval attitudes toward, 160 protection of Jews by, 141 death rates, 3, 16 “Sicut Judeis (Mandate to Protect the debate poetry, 176–78 Jews),” 158–59 Decameron, The (Boccaccio), 31–32, 75 clergy. See also priests decomposition, 44 criticism of, 94–95 “Description and Remedy for Escaping the climate Plague” (Ibn Kha¯tima), 55–63 bubonic plague and, 25–26 dirhams, 85, 87 disruption of, 43–44 disease origin theories Closener, Fritsche, 26, 118, 151, 153n, 154n astrological conditions, 40–41, 44, 45–46, “Chronicle,” 126–31 65 Clynn, John, 5 body’s predisposition, 44, 65 Colonna, Giovanni, cardinal, 21 as chastisement for sins, 51 Concerning the Causes of the Properties of corruption of air, 38, 43, 44, 46–47, the Elements (Aristotle), 42 51–52 Concerning the Causes of the Properties of corruption of food and water, 42–43, 46 the Elements (Magnus), 42 earthquakes, 38, 44, 46 “Concerning the Mortality in Germany” humors, 39 (Konrad of Megenberg), 155–58 infection, 56 confessions, to laymen, 94–95 intentional poisoning, 40, 46–47 Consilia (Foligno, Gentile da), 38–39, 47 prognostications, 43–44 Constantinople, 13, 34 University of Paris treatise on, 41–45 transmission of plague through, 15–16 “Disputacioun betwyx the Body and “Consultation” (Medical Faculty of the Uni- Wormes, A,” 171, 176–78, 177f versity of Paris), 41–45 doctors. See also medical care contagion attitudes toward, 37–38 Christian views on, 96, 97 ordered to treat the sick, 65n Muslim views on, 96, 97, 114–16 research by, 47 Coppo Stefani, Marchionne di, 26, 79n Dominicans, 122, 133 Córdoba, Alfonso de, 38, 40, 139 “double-decker” tombs, 169, 174 “Letter and Regimen concerning the drinking, guidelines for, 52–53, 57 Pestilence,” 45–47 corpses earthquakes, as cause of plague, 38, 44, 46 artistic and poetic depictions of, 160 economic impacts, 67–70, 87–93 care of, 85, 87 “Effrenata (Unbridled)” (Islip), 104–6 depicted on transi tombs, 169–71 Egypt, 84–87 display of, 169 electuaries, 46, 65 omnipresence of, 76, 79 emotions worms imagery, 170–71 guidelines for, 59 corrupt air theory, 38, 43, 44, 46–47, 51–52 illness and, 54 Córtes of Aragon, “Ordinance,” 179–80 endemics, 2 Córtes of Castile, “Ordinance,” 89–90, 180 England countryside episcopal registers of deaths, 3 abandonment of cities for, 76 labor laws, 91–93 plague deaths in, 80 mortality of priests in, 95 Crannon, plague of, 48 Peasants’ Revolt (1381), 70 cruciferians, 123 transi tombs in, 169 crusades, 156n Epidemics (Hippocrates), 64n “cult of remembrance,” 4, 96 “Essay on the Report of the Pestilence” (Ibn al-Wardı¯), 16–18, 112–14 Damascus, 110–12 Euclid, 64n Dance of Death, 160–62, 164–66 Eulogium Historiarum (Eulogy of History), painting of, 161 83n poetry on, 161, 162, 165–66 Europe purpose of, 160–62, 164 arrival of Black Death in, 1, 13, 29–30 “Dance of Death, The” (Lydgate), 165–66 climate, 25–26 Dante, 71 population levels, 2, 3 death. See also mortality Everyman, 161–62 artistic depiction of, 169–71 evil vapors, 43 as a chess player, 161, 167–68, 167f excrement odors, 49 194 INDEX exercise, corrupt air and, 52, 57 fragrances, 49, 52, 57, 76 eyewitness accounts, 5 France, 82–83 friars family life, plague impacts on, 70 care of sick by, 94 faqir (Muslim holy man), 96 flagellants and, 137n fatwas (religious teachings), 97, 115–16 friendships, plague effects on, 72–74 Frau Welt (Lady of the World), 170 frog imagery, 170, 172, 173f Fayt, Jean de, 119–20 fruits, 53 fellahs (ploughman), 86 fumigation recipes, 39, 52 fertility rates, 70, 83 funerals, 79, 85 Févre, Jean le, 161 fires, beneficial effects of, 49, 52 Galen, 42n, 50n, 55, 57, 60 First Crusade, 156n Gallia muscata (French musk), 52 fish, 48, 53 garlic, curative powers of, 39, 49 flagellants, 119f gavòccioli, 31–32 attitudes toward, 118–19 Genoa, 22 chronology, 179 Gerard de Muro, 133 criticism of, 118–19, 124–26, 131 Gerhard of Cosvelde, 122 excommunication of members, 125 Germany, arrival of plague in, 179 in Flanders, 132–37 glandular swellings (glandule), 30 history of, 118–20, 122–26 God. See also religion hysteria and, 117 as cause of plague, 56, 97, 98–100 leadership of, 122–23 Christian views of, 96 penance for plague, 118, 123, 126, 127, disease prevention and, 59 129–30, 132–33 flagellants’ penance to, 118, 129, 135 pogroms against Jews and, 119–20 medical care and, 45 public response to, 130–31, 133, 134 Muslim views of, 96, 113–14 ritual, 123–24, 127–31, 132–37 questioning of, 94 in Strasbourg, 126–31 vengeance of, 67, 73–74, 94, 96, 97, 118 suppression of, 120, 125–26, 137n, goiters, 24 138–39 Grandisson, John, 95 flagellation (whipping) gravediggers, 85 as penance for plague, 118, 123, 126, 127, Great Chronicle of France, 160 129–30, 132–33 “Great Chronicle of France, The,” 164–65 as punishment for sinful behavior, 117 Great Famine, 27 self-inflicted, 117 “great mortality,” 1 Flanders, flagellants of, 132–37 “Great Surgery” (Chauliac), 63–66 flea-infested furs, 13 Gregoras, Nicephorus, 26 fleas. See also rat fleas “Byzantine History,” 15–16 in India, 25 groin swelling, 31, 34 Pulex irritans (human flea), 24 transmission of plague through, 13, 23 Harcigny, Guillaume de, 169 Florence heart, corruption of, 61 Black Death in, 31–32 Heinrich of Herford, 118, 120, 161, 167 social and psychological effects of Black “Book of Memorable Matters,” 122–26 Death in, 75–80 Henry V, king of England, 174 spread of Black Death through, 19–20 Hethe, Hamo, bishop of Rochester florin, 88 “Post-Plague Parish Poverty,” 106–7 Foligno, Francesco da, 48 Hippocrates, 30n, 43, 55, 64n Foligno, Gentile da, 37, 38–39, 42n Historia Byzantina (Gregoras), 15–16 consilia, 38–39, 47 “History” (John VI Kantakouzenos), death of, 47–48 34–36 “Short Casebook,” 47–50 “History of the Ayyubids and Mamluks, A” food (Ibn calı¯al-Maqrı¯zı¯), 84–87 corruption of, 42–43, 46 “History of the Plague” (Mussis), 98–100 fish, 48, 53 Horace, 125n fruits, 53 Hugo of Reutlingen, 119 guidelines for eating, 48, 52–53, 57 human body, predisposition toward plague, meat, 27, 48, 53 44, 65 Fourth Rider of the Apocalypse, 161 human flea (Pulex irritans), 24 fowl, eating of, 53 humanism, 67, 71 INDEX 195 human-to-human contagion, 38 Jews. See also pogroms against Jews humors accused of well poisoning, 64, 117–18, disease origin theory and, 39, 44, 65 120, 139, 151, 155–59, 179 putrefication of, 30 baptism of, 141, 154 hundred (territorial unit), 91 burning of, 140f, 154, 156, 179 hysteria, 117. See also flagellants; pogroms Christian regulations against, 117 against Jews Christian violence against, 117, 139–41 as “Christ killers,” 117 Ibn calı¯ al-Maqrı¯zı¯, Ahmad, 69, 111n Church tolerance for, 117, 158 “History of the Ayyubids and Mamluks, confessions of well poisoning by, 139–41, A, ” 84–87 146–50, 154 Ibn al-Khatı¯b, Lisa¯n al-Dı¯n, 97 deaths from plague, 157 “A Very Useful Inquiry into the Horrible debts owed to, 143, 152, 154, 158 Sickness,” 114–16 defended as not causing plague, 155–58, Ibn al-Wardı¯, Abu¯ Hafs cUmar, 11, 97 159 “Essay on the Report of the Pestilence,” disbursal of money of, 153 16–18, 112–14 execution of, 140–41, 150, 152, 154 Ibn Battu¯ta, 96 interrogation of, 145–50 Ibn Kathı¯r, cIma¯d al-Dı¯n Abu¯ ’l-Fida¯’ Isma¯c¯lı pogroms against, 40, 117–18, 119–20, b. cUmar, 97 139–41, 146–50, 151–54, 156–58 “Beginning and End, The: On History,” protection of, 141, 144–45, 151, 154, 110–12 158–59 Ibn Khaldu¯n, 84 scapegoating of, 6, 96, 117 Ibn Khatı¯ma, Abu¯Jacfar Ahmad, 24, 38, 40, self-burning by, 152, 154 114 as sources of tax revenue, 141 “Description and Remedy for Escaping throats of children slit by, 156–57 the Plague,” 55–63 jihad (holy war), 96 Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), 48n, 55 John of Reading, 83n imagination John the Baptist, saint, 133 death and, 54–55 John II, king of France, 180 India, 1, 2, 25 John III, duke, 120 Indian Plague Commission, 25 John V Paleologus, Byzantine emperor, 34 infection process, 56 John VI Kantakouzenos, Byzantine Innocent VI, pope, 63, 144 emperor, 34, 37 Inquisition, 140 “History,” 34–36 “Interrogation of the Jews of Savoy,” Julian of , 4 145–50 juniper, 52 Inter Solicitudines (Clement VI), 137n jury trials, records of, 91–93 “Introduction to The Decameron” (Boccac- cio), 31–32, 75–80 kiddush ha-Shem, 156n Islam. See also Muslims Kingsbridge hundred, 91–93 fatwas (religious teachings), 97, 115–16 Knighton, Henry, 69 plague origins according to, 56 Konrad of Megenberg, 38, 97, 158 Shari’a (Muslim law), 114, 116 “Concerning the Mortality in Germany,” views on bathing, 59n 155–58 views on Black Death, 96–97, 112–14 Koran, 59, 85, 111 Islip, Simon, archbishop of Canterbury, medical practice and, 97 95 “Effrenata (Unbridled),” 104–6 laborers isolation attempts to attract, 87–88 to avoid infection, 75, 115 work requirements, 89–90 of patients, 39 labor laws, 69, 87–88, 89–90 Italy chronology, 179 plague arrival in, 179 in England, 91–93 vernacular literature, 31–32 in Spain, 89–90 Lappe, Claus, 153n Jacob of Königshofen, 151 larch fungus, 48 Jacquerie, revolt of, 180 La Sarraz, Switzerland, tomb of François de Jean de la Grange, cardinal, monument of, la Sarra, 172, 173f 174 “Last Will and Testament” (Libertus of Jesus Christ, 117, 133n Monte Feche), 108–10 196 INDEX lavender, 52 mel rosarum, 58 lawlessness, 76 memento mori (remembrance of death), “leper’s plot,” 118 160, 162 Lérida, 52n merrymaking, as response to plague, “Letter” (Sanctus), 21–22, 33–34 75–86 “Letter and Regimen concerning the Pesti- Messina, arrival of Black Death in, 29–30 lence” (Córdoba), 45–47 minority groups. See also Jews “Letters on Familiar Matters” (Petrarch), scapegoating of, 117 71–74 Mongols and Mongolia, 2, 11, 13 lettuce, 48 monks, flagellants and, 137n Libertus of Monte Feche Montpellier, University of, 45 “Last Will and Testament,” 108–10 moral laxity, 67, 82–83 Lisle, Thomas de, bishop of Ely mortality, viii, 2–3, 27, 77–80. See also “Post-Plague Parish Poverty,” 106–7 death Little Ice Age, 26 of common people, 78–79 Loja, Spain, 114 dead bodies, 76, 79, 82, 85 Louis the Great, king of Hungary, 129n death rates, 3, 16 Lydgate, John, 161, 162 desertion of victims, 77 “Dance of Death, The,” 165–66 imagination and, 54–55 lymph node swellings (buboes), 23, 24 labor issues related to, 69 loss of friends and relations, 72–74 macabre representation, 160 new research on, 3 Machaut, Guillaume de, 83n of priests, 95 Magnus, Albertus, 42 as proof of God’s vengeance, 94 Malthus, Thomas, 3 in Siena, Italy, 80–82 Mamluk empire, Egypt, 84–87 suddenness of death, 32, 35, 81 “Mandate to Suppress the Flagellants” mourning practices, 77–78 (Philip VI), 138–39 muezzins, 85 manorial death records, 3 Muisis, Gilles li, 67, 96, 118, 119, 120, 141 manorial economy, 69, 70 “Chronicle,” 132–37 manufacturing technology, 4 municipal histories, 126 Maqrı¯zı¯, Ahmad Ibn cAli al-. See Ibn cAli Muslims. See also Islam al-Maqrı¯zı¯, Ahmad medical practice by, 97 marriage, plague impacts on, 70, 83 response to Black Death by, 96–97, Mathias of Neuenburg, 126, 130n 110–16 “Chronicle,” 151–54 views on contagion, 96, 97, 114–16 meat, 27, 48, 53 Mussis, Gabriele de, 13, 14, 16, 94, 97 medical care “History of the Plague,” 98–100 doctors, 37–38, 39, 47–48, 65n futility of, 32, 35–36, 37–38, 39, 46, 61, Nile River, 86 81 Noah, 73 God and, 45 Koran and, 97 oblations, 125n prevention, 48–50, 51–55, 56–59 Offord, John, archbishop of Canterbury, remedies and medicines, 6, 53 104 treatment methods, 38–40, 59–63, 65 “Ordinance” (Córtes of Aragon), 179–80 Medical Faculty of the University of Paris “Ordinance” (Córtes of Castile), 89–90, “Consultation,” 41–45 180 medical textbooks, 63 medical theory, on plague origins, Palestine, 16–18, 64 38–39 Palm Sunday, 133n medicines, 53 , 2 medieval society Paris, University of, 41–45 impacts of Black Death on, 4, 67–70, parish priests. See priests 87–93 Paul, Saint (apostle), 126, 133n moral laxity in, 67, 82–83 pax Romana, 125n medieval sources, 5–6 Peasants’ Revolt (1381), 70 eyewitness accounts, 5 Pedro I, king of Castile, 89, 152 scientific explanations, 6 Pedro IV, king of Aragon, 144–45, 180 supernatural explanations in, 5–6 “Response to Jewish Pogrom of Tárrega,” medieval wills, 95–96, 108–10 142–43 INDEX 197 penance, flagellation as, 118, 123, 126, 127, income of, 95, 104–7 129–30, 132–33 mortality of, 95 Penna, Giovanni della, 39 processions, religious, 94 “pestilence,” 1. See also Black Death prognostications, 43–44 pestilential pills, 46 Provence, pogroms against Jews in, 139 “pestilential worms,” 170 Prussia, arrival of plague in, 179 Petrarch, Francesco, 5, 21, 67, 94 Ptolemy, Claudius, 44 “Letters on Familiar Matters,” 71–74 Pulex irritans (human flea), 24 Philip VI, king of France, 41, 118, 179 purgatives, 48, 53, 65 “Mandate to Suppress the Flagellants,” pustules, 24 138–39 phlebotomies, 48, 65. See also bloodletting quarantine measures, 39 Piacenza, 98 Piazza, Michele da, 1, 24, 27, 94 Ramadan, 111 “Chronicle,” 29–30, 100–103 rat fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis) pigs, 32 disease spread and, 13, 20n, 25 plague. See also Black Death survival of, 13, 26 bubonic, 23–27, 29–30, 33, 161 Yersinia pestis and, 25 forms of, 23–29, 33 rats outbreaks of, 1 disease spread and, 15–16, 20n, 26 pneumonic, 23–27, 33 mortality of, 26 septicemic, 23–24, 33–34 rebirth symbolism, 162, 170–71 plague bacillus, 11, 13 red knights, 133 plague hospitals and wards, 39 “Regimen of Protection against Epidemics” plague saints, 160 (Agramont), 51–55 Pliny the Elder, 170 religion, 94–116. See also Christians; God; pneumonic plague. See also Black Death; Islam; Jews; Muslims; priests plague Christian views of Black Death, 96–97, characteristics of, 23–27, 33 100–103 death from, 23 cult of remembrance, 4, 96 transmission of, 23, 26, 27 in Damascus, 110–12 poetry loss of religious fervor, 95 on Dance of Death, 161, 162, 165–66 Muslim views of Black Death, 96–97, debate, 176–78 98–100, 110–16 depictions of corpses, 160 parish priests, 104–7 on transi tombs, 171, 176–78 priorities of the people, 108–10 worm imagery in, 174 shrines, 94, 100–103, 171 pogroms against Jews wills, 95–96 accusations of well poisoning and, Renaissance 117–18, 139–41, 156–58 art and artists, 4, 21, 160 Christian-Jewish relations and, 141 Black Death and, 4 chronology, 179–80 “Response to Jewish Pogrom of Tárrega” confessions by Jews and, 146–50 (Pedro IV), 142–43 economic motivation of, 158–59 rest, corrupt air and, 57 flagellant movement and, 119–20 Robert of Anjou, 31 in Spain, 142–43 rodents. See also rats in Strasbourg, 151–54 fleas carried by, 13 poison, found near wells, 148, 155–56 plague bacillus and, 11, 13 poisoning, intentional, 40, 46–47, 64. See Romania (Byzantine Empire), 13 also well poisoning rose water and vinegar, 57, 58 pork, 48 Russia, arrival of plague in, 180 porters, 85 portraiture, 96, 160 “sack-bearers” (vagabonds), 156 “Post-Plague Parish Poverty” (Hethe and Sahih (al-Bukha¯rı¯), 111n Lisle), 106–7 Saint-Denis, abbey of, 164 “potable gold,” 39 Sanctus, Louis, 6, 11, 24, 37, 72 prayers, 85, 94 “Letter,” 21–22, 33–34 prevention, 48–50, 51–55, 56–59, 76–77 sanitation measures, 39 priests, 94–95, 104–7 Santiago di Compostella, St. James, shrine criticism of, 94–95, 104–5 of, 171 criticism of flagellants by, 131 Sardo, Ranieri, 13 198 INDEX

Sarra, François de la, 169, 170 stained-glass panel, St. Andrews Church, “Tomb at La Sarraz, Switzerland,” 172, Norwich, 167, 168f 173f staio, 88 Savoy, pogroms against Jews in, 145–50 Strasbourg scallop shell imagery, 170, 172, 173f flagellant movement in, 126–31 scapegoating, 6, 96, 117. See also Jews Jewish pogrom in, 120, 151–54 scientific explanations, 6 Stratford, John, archbishop of Canterbury, seaports, disease spread through, 13–14, 104 22 Sunni Islam, 96 self-help remedies, 40 supernatural explanations, 5 semen, 58 survivors Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, 73 fertility of, 83 septicemic plague. See also Black Death; greed of, 83 plague negative effects on, 83 characteristics of, 23–24, 33–34 reinvigoration of culture by, 4 transmission of, 23–24 Swarber, Peter, lord mayor of Strasbourg, serfs, 69 151, 152–53 sexual intercourse, 54, 58 symptoms, 16, 23–24, 24–25, 31, 35, 63–64, Shari’a (Muslim law), 114, 116 84 “Short Casebook” (Foligno), 47–50 Shrewsbury, Ralph, 94 tainted meat, 27 shrines, 94, 100–103, 171 “Takkanoth (Accord) of Barcelona,” Sicut Judeis, 158 144–45 “Sicut Judeis (Mandate to Protect the takkanoth (accord), 139, 180 Jews)” (Clement V), 158–59 Tárrega, Spain, pogrom against Jews in, Siena, plague effects on, 80–82 142–43 “Sienese Chronicle” (Tura), 80–82 technological innovation, 4, 70 sight contagion, 64n, 81 teeth, in babies born after the plague, sins. See also flagellants; God 83 flagellation as punishment for, 117 theater, 161–62 plague as punishment for, 51, 99–100, theriacs, 49, 53 118 Thrace, 64 sleep, guidelines for, 53, 57–58 Thuringia, Germany, 118–19 snake imagery, 170 “Tomb at La Sarraz, Switzerland” (Sarra), snakeskin, 49n 172–73, 173f societal impacts tombs. See transi tombs economic issues, 67, 69, 70 trades, plague impacts on, 87 family life, 70 transi tombs, 169–71 labor legislation, 69, 89–93 as anti-tomb, 169 loss of friends and relations, 71–74 decaying corpses depicted on, 169–71 in Mamluk empire, Egypt, 84–87 “double-decker,” 169, 174 moral laxity, 67, 82–83 functions of, 169 responses to heavy loss of life, poetry on, 171, 176–78 81–82 tomb at La Sarraz, Switzerland, 172, social and psychological effects, 75–80 173f Spain tomb of Henry Chichele at Canterbury Christian-Jewish relations in, 144–45 Cathedral, 174, 175f labor legislation, 89–90 worm imagery, 170–71, 172, 173f, 174, mortality of priests in, 95 176 pogroms against Jews in, 141, 142–43, treatment methods, 38–40, 65 145–50 of disease, 60–63 St. Andrew’s Church, Norwich, England prevention, 59–60 stained-glass panel, 167, 168f Trillek, John, bishop of Hereford, 95 St. Giles, Tournai, monastery of, 132 tumors (apostemes), 63 St. James shrine, Santiago de Compostella, Tura, Agnolo di, 2, 37, 67 171 “Sienese Chronicle,” 80–82 St. Martin, Tournai, monastery of, 133 St. Thomas Cantilupe, Hereford, England, ulama (Muslim religio-legal community), shrine of, 94 97 St. Vitus’s Dance, 161 Ulrich of Heisenberg, 154 INDEX 199

Upper Egypt, 86 water Urban V, pope, 63 corruption of, 42–43, 46 guidelines for drinking, 57 Venette, Jean de, 67, 94 stagnant, 53 “Chronicle,” 82–83 well poisoning verjuice, 50 animals killed by, 157 “Very Useful Inquiry into the Horrible Jews accused of, 117–18, 120, 139, 151, Sickness, A” (Ibn al-Khatı¯b), 114–16 155, 179 Viard, Jules, 164 Jews’ confessions to, 139–41, 146–50, victims 154 abandonment of, 77, 81 wills, 95–96 dependence on others, 77–78 religious priorities and, 108–10 Villani, Giovanni, 11, 26, 71, 126 “Wiltshire, England, Assize Roll of Labor “Chronicle,” 19–20 Offenders,” 91–93 Villani, Matteo, 37, 38, 96 winds, corrupted, 43 vinegar, 50, 57, 58 wine, 48, 50, 53 Virgin Agatha of Catania, shrine, 94, wolves, 82 100–102 women Virgin Mary of Santa Maria della Scala, mourning practices and, 77–78 shrine of, 100–103 working opportunities for, 4 viziers, 85 worm imagery, 170–71, 172, 173f, 174 vomiting, 58, 84 in poetry, 174 on transi tombs, 176 wages, 69, 89–93 labor laws and, 87–88 Xenopsylla cheopis (rat fleas), 25 Wardı¯, Abu¯ Hafs cUmar Ibn al-. See Ibn al-Wardı¯ Yersinia pestis (plague bacterium), 23, 25, War of the Roses, 169 27