DOCSLIB.ORG

THE BLACK DEATH* ITS SOCIAL and ECONOMIC RESULTS by HERMAN B

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
THE BLACK DEATH* ITS SOCIAL and ECONOMIC RESULTS by HERMAN B THE BLACK DEATH* ITS SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RESULTS By HERMAN B. ALLYN, M.D. PHILADELPHIA, PA. THE spectacle of a pestilence march­ After they had suffered seven months of ing steadily on from East to West, pestilence they were advised to send the claiming thousands of victims, ark back with a trespass offering of five unchecked by anything that man golden tumors and five golden mice, can do, inspires horror, and in proportion “images of your tumors and images of to the degree of ignorance and helplessness your mice that mar the land.” The emerods that prevails, an angry resentment, with (tumors) were evidently swellings that the demand that something be done, even to might easily have been buboes. After the the extent of human sacrifice. If in the story Philistines had sent the ark back the pesti­ of the spread of the plague in the Middle lence abated among them, but seems to Ages, with its processions, its futile worship have attacked the Israelites, ostensibly of this god or its vain offerings at that because some of them profaned the ark shrine, its torture and wholesale slaughter of by looking into it. It is certainly suspicious Jews, its burnings of suspected poisoners, of bubonic plague that those who were we are appalled at the ignorant brutishness attacked died very quickly: if they survived of mankind, let us remember that they long enough to develop tumors recovery were only just a little removed from pagan­ was possible. ism, and that even we have not yet, in our As we shall see later the pneumonic and day, acquired in full measure the conviction septicemic forms are extremely fatal in that all men are brothers. Moreover, it is from one to three days; if the victim lives only within the memory of some of us that four to seven days buboes develop. It is we have learned the causes and prevention quite probable that bubonic plague existed of typhoid, of cholera, of typhus, of malarial sporadically for many centuries. We know fevers, of yellow fever and of plague. that there are endemic centers today in Since more has been accomplished in the Yunnan, southern China; in Kurdistan; past fifty years by medical men in the in southwestern Arabia; in central Africa discovery of the causes of disease and in (Uganda) and doubtless also in India, their prevention than in all the previous in central Asia and in Siberia. It is charac­ centuries, it may be interesting historically teristic of all great epidemic diseases that to review the progress and consequences they come in waves and then recede; that of the Black Death, which swept over when they attack a virgin population the Europe like a hurricane, causing many mortality is very great (for example, measles more deaths than the World War. We shall in the Faroe Islands); the same extreme at least be the more thankful for living in fatality is noted when the disease recurs the twentieth century. after an absence long enough to enable a Whether or not the plague that affected new generation of susceptibles to be born the Philistines after they had captured the and grow up. Ark of the Covenant was bubonic plague Whatever opinion may be held as to the affords a chance for an interesting discus­ antiquity of the disease, W. Bulloch and sion. You will recall that the men that Capt. S. R. Douglas are probably right in did not die were smitten with the tumors. saying: * Read before the Section of Medical History of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, May, The first historical notice of a disease like 1925. bubonic plague records its occurrence in Libya in the third century before Christ, or earlier; inclined to cast it in the phrases of Thucy­ but this notice is only contained in a fragment dides. There is some excuse for this, inasmuch from the writings of a much later physician, as the disastrous effects upon a com­ Rufus of Ephesus [about ioo a.d.], who also munity of any great pestilence are much the speaks of its occurrence in his own time in same: fear, paralyzing effort and abolishing Libya, Egypt and Syria. Whether it was clearly reason, justice, mercy and morality; heaps known to the classical Greek writers on medi­ of dead with too few living to bury them; cine is doubtful, but Aretaeus speaks of the survivors thinking only of their own pestilential buboes. The plague of Athens pleasure and profit: “Eat, drink and be described by Thucydides was apparently not this disease; nor was the destructive pestilence merry, for tomorrow' we die” being their in the reign of Marcus Aurelius alluded to by motto. Thucydides says: Galen. We meet with bubonic plague again, however, in the great plague of Justinian, The season was admitted to have been w’hich started from Egypt, 542 a.d., and spread remarkably free from ordinary sickness; and if over a large part of Europe; it was described anybody was already ill of any other disease, it in Gaul as lues inguinaria. Epidemics succeeded was absorbed in this. Many who were in perfect one another in this and the succeeding century. health, all in a moment, and without any At the end of the seventh century bubonic apparent reason, were seized with violent heats plague prevailed in Italy and is unmistakably in the head and with redness and inflammation recorded by Bede in England. But after that of the eyes. Internally the throat and the tongue time it is difficult to follow the track of plague. were quickly suffused with blood, and the Many European pestilences are spoken of in breath became unnatural and fetid. There mediaeval histories, which may or may not have followed sneezing and hoarseness; in a short been bubonic plague, though no sufficiently time the disorder, accompanied by a violent clear record remains.1 cough, reached the chest; then fastening lower Classical and medical literature is full down, it would move the stomach and bring on all the vomits of bile to which physicians of references to the plague. The word have ever given names; and they were very signifies a stroke or blow, an allusion both distressing. An ineffectual retching producing to the suddenness as well as to the severity of violent straining attacked most of the sufferers; the attack, particularly when the disease some as soon as the previous symptoms had assumes epidemic form. While gradually abated, others not until long afterwards. the word plague has come to be limited The body externally was not so very hot to the specifically to bubonic plague, due to the touch, nor yet pale; it was of a livid colour bacillus pestis, in earlier times it was inclining to red, and breaking out in pustules applied loosely to a number of different and ulcers. But the internal fever was intense: diseases with the common characteristics The sufferers could not bear to have on them of widespread distribution and great mortal­ even the finest linen garment. They insisted on ity. The best description of a plague in being naked, and there was nothing which they longed for more eagerly than to throw early times is that recorded by Thucydides, themselves into cold water. And many of those who writes of the plague in Athens in 430 who had no one to look after them actually b.c. Thucydides was himself attacked and plunged into cisterns, for they were tormented he witnessed the sufferings of others. So by unceasing thirst, which was not in the least vivid was the description given by this assuaged whether they drank little or much. classic writer that it has influenced unduly They could not sleep: a restlessness which was the writings of many others, notably Boccac­ intolerable never left them. While the disease cio, who have not been content to describe was at its height the body, instead of wasting objectively what they saw, but have been away, held out amid these sufferings in a marvel­ 1 Bullock, W., and Douglas, Capt. S. R. In lous manner, and either they died on the seventh Allbutt, Sir C. System of Medicine, Lond., 1912, or ninth day, not of weakness, for their strength ix, Part n, 358. was not exhausted, but of internal fever, which was the end of most; or, if they survived, angry or neglected gods. In the Middle then the disease descended into the bowels and Ages religious hatred added fury to igno­ there produced violent ulceration; severe diar­ rance. Crawfurd describes the persecution rhoea at the same time set in, and at a later of the Jews in the following language: stage caused exhaustion, which finally with few exceptions carried them off. For the disorder Amid all the panic of the Black Death, perse­ which had originally settled in the head passed cution of the Jews broke out with even greater gradually through the whole body, and, if a ferocity than during the Crusades in the twelfth person got over the worst, would often seize the century. Some victim was needed to appease the extremities and leave its mark, attacking the maddened populace: so the Jews were accused of privy parts and the fingers and the toes; and poisoning the wells, and even of infecting the some escaped with the loss of these, some with air. Circumstantial accounts were circulated the loss of their eyes. Some again had no sooner throughout Europe of secret operations directed recovered than they were seized with a forget­ from Toledo. The concoction of poisons from fulness of all things and knew neither themselves spiders, owls, and other supposed venomous nor their friends.2 animals was described, and its mode of distribu­ tion made known.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Black Death and Early Modern Witch-Hunts
    Plague and Persecution: The Black Death and Early Modern Witch-Hunts History 480: Major Seminar II Helen Christian Professor Laura Beers April 27, 2011 2 Abstract The century or so from approximately 1550 to 1650 is a period during which witch-hunts reached unprecedented frequency and intensity. The circumstances that fomented the witch- hunts—persistent warfare, religious conflict, and harvest failures—had occurred before, but witch-hunts had never been so ubiquitous or severe. This paper argues that the intensity of the Early Modern witch-hunts can be traced back to the plague of 1348, and argues that the plague was a factor in three ways. First, the plague’s devastation and the particularly unpleasant nature of the disease traumatized the European psyche, meaning that any potential recurrence of plague was a motivation to search for scapegoats. Second, the population depletion set off a chain of events that destabilized Europe. Finally, witch-hunters looked to the example set by the interrogators of suspected “plague-spreaders” and copied many of their interrogation and trial procedures. 3 Table of Contents Introduction 4 Historiography 7 The Plague and “Plague-Spreaders” 9 The Otherwise Calamitous Fourteenth Century 15 The Reformation 18 The Witch-Hunting Craze 22 The Plague in the Early Modern Period 25 Medieval Persecution in the Witch-Hunts 29 Conclusion 35 4 Introduction The Black Death of 1348 had tremendous political, social, economic, and psychological impact on Europe and the trajectory of European history. By various estimates, the plague wiped out between one-third and one-half of the population in only a few years.
    [Show full text]
  • Plague (Yersinia Pestis)
    Division of Disease Control What Do I Need To Know? Plague (Yersinia pestis) What is plague? Plague is an infectious disease of animals and humans caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Y. pestis is found in rodents and their fleas in many areas around the world. There are three types of plague: bubonic plague, septicemic plague and pneumonic plague. Who is at risk for plague? All ages may be at risk for plague. People usually get plague from being bitten by infected rodent fleas or by handling the tissue of infected animals. What are the symptoms of plague? Bubonic plague: Sudden onset of fever, headache, chills, and weakness and one or more swollen and painful lymph nodes (called buboes) typically at the site where the bacteria entered the body. This form usually results from the bite of an infected flea. Septicemic plague: Fever, chills, extreme weakness, abdominal pain, shock, and possibly bleeding into the skin and other organs. Skin and other tissues, especially on fingers, toes, and the nose, may turn black and die. This form usually results from the bites of infected fleas or from handling an infected animal. Pneumonic plague: Fever, headache, weakness, and a rapidly developing pneumonia with shortness of breath, chest pain, cough, and sometimes bloody or watery mucous. Pneumonic plague may develop from inhaling infectious droplets or may develop from untreated bubonic or septicemic plague after the bacteria spread to the lungs. How soon do symptoms appear? Symptoms of bubonic plague usually occur two to eight days after exposure, while symptoms for pneumonic plague can occur one to six days following exposure.
    [Show full text]
  • CASE REPORT the PATIENT 33-Year-Old Woman
    CASE REPORT THE PATIENT 33-year-old woman SIGNS & SYMPTOMS – 6-day history of fever Katherine Lazet, DO; – Groin pain and swelling Stephanie Rutterbush, MD – Recent hiking trip in St. Vincent Ascension Colorado Health, Evansville, Ind (Dr. Lazet); Munson Healthcare Ostego Memorial Hospital, Lewiston, Mich (Dr. Rutterbush) [email protected] The authors reported no potential conflict of interest THE CASE relevant to this article. A 33-year-old Caucasian woman presented to the emergency department with a 6-day his- tory of fever (103°-104°F) and right groin pain and swelling. Associated symptoms included headache, diarrhea, malaise, weakness, nausea, cough, and anorexia. Upon presentation, she admitted to a recent hike on a bubonic plague–endemic trail in Colorado. Her vital signs were unremarkable, and the physical examination demonstrated normal findings except for tender, erythematous, nonfluctuant right inguinal lymphadenopathy. The patient was admitted for intractable pain and fever and started on intravenous cefoxitin 2 g IV every 8 hours and oral doxycycline 100 mg every 12 hours for pelvic inflammatory disease vs tick- or flea-borne illness. Due to the patient’s recent trip to a plague-infested area, our suspicion for Yersinia pestis infection was high. The patient’s work-up included a nega- tive pregnancy test and urinalysis. A com- FIGURE 1 plete blood count demonstrated a white CT scan from admission blood cell count of 8.6 (4.3-10.5) × 103/UL was revealing with a 3+ left shift and a platelet count of 112 (180-500) × 103/UL. A complete metabolic panel showed hypokalemia and hyponatremia (potassium 2.8 [3.5-5.1] mmol/L and sodium 134 [137-145] mmol/L).
    [Show full text]
  • Plague Information for Veterinarians
    PLAGUE in NEW MEXICO: INFORMATION FOR VETERINARIANS General Information Plague is caused by Yersinia pestis, a gram-negative bacterium that is endemic to most of the western United States. Epizootics of plague occur in wild rodents (rock squirrels, prairie dogs, ground squirrels, chipmunks, woodrats, and others) and most people acquire plague by the bite of an infectious rodent flea. However, about one-fifth of all human cases result from direct contact with infected animals. Cats are particularly susceptible to plague and can play a role in transmission to humans by a variety of mechanisms including transporting infected fleas or rodent/rabbit carcasses into the residential environment, direct contact contamination with exudates or respiratory droplets, and by bites or scratches. Cat-associated human cases were first reported in 1977. In a study by Gage (2000), 23 human plague cases were associated with exposure to infected cats, including 5 cases among veterinarians and veterinary assistants. Dogs are frequently infected with Y. pestis, develop antibodies to the organism, and occasionally exhibit clinical signs. However, dogs have not been shown to be direct sources of human infection. Dogs can transport infected fleas or rodent/rabbit carcasses into the residential environment, leading to plague transmission to people. Plague-infected ungulates have rarely been identified. Plague in Cats and Dogs Clinical features In enzootic areas, plague should be considered in the differential diagnosis of fever of unknown origin in cats and dogs. In a study of plague in cats by Eidson (1991), 53% of cats had bubonic plague, 8% were septicemic, and 10% had plague pneumonia.
    [Show full text]
  • The Plague of Thebes, a Historical Epidemic in Sophocles' Oedipus
    Oedipus Rex) is placed in the fi rst half of the decade 430– The Plague 420 BC. The play has been labeled an analytical tragedy, meaning that the crucial events which dominate the play of Thebes, a have happened in the past (2,3). Oedipus Rex, apart from the undeniable literary and Historical Epidemic historic value, also presents signifi cant medical interest because the play mentions a plague, an epidemic, which in Sophocles’ was devastating Thebes, the town of Oedipus’ hegemony. Oedipus Rex Several sections, primarily in the fi rst third of the play, refer to the aforementioned plague; the epidemic, however, Antonis A. Kousoulis, is not the primary topic of the tragedy. The epidemic, in Konstantinos P. Economopoulos, fact, is mostly a matter that serves the theatrical economy Effi e Poulakou-Rebelakou, George Androutsos, by forming a background for the evolution of the plot. and Sotirios Tsiodras Given the potential medical interest of Oedipus Rex, we decided to adopt a critical perspective by analyzing the Sophocles, one of the most noted playwrights of the literary descriptions of the plague, unraveling its clinical ancient world, wrote the tragedy Oedipus Rex in the fi rst features, defi ning the underlying cause, and discussing half of the decade 430–420 BC. A lethal plague is described in this drama. We adopted a critical approach to Oedipus possible therapeutic options. The ultimate goals of our Rex in analyzing the literary description of the disease, study were to clarify whether the plague described in unraveling its clinical features, and defi ning a possible Oedipus Rex could refl ect an actual historical event, underlying cause.
    [Show full text]
  • A Welsh Classical Dictionary
    A WELSH CLASSICAL DICTIONARY DACHUN, saint of Bodmin. See s.n. Credan. He has been wrongly identified with an Irish saint Dagan in LBS II.281, 285. G.H.Doble seems to have been misled in the same way (The Saints of Cornwall, IV. 156). DAGAN or DANOG, abbot of Llancarfan. He appears as Danoc in one of the ‘Llancarfan Charters’ appended to the Life of St.Cadog (§62 in VSB p.130). Here he is a clerical witness with Sulien (presumably abbot) and king Morgan [ab Athrwys]. He appears as abbot of Llancarfan in five charters in the Book of Llandaf, where he is called Danoc abbas Carbani Uallis (BLD 179c), and Dagan(us) abbas Carbani Uallis (BLD 158, 175, 186b, 195). In these five charters he is contemporary with bishop Berthwyn and Ithel ap Morgan, king of Glywysing. He succeeded Sulien as abbot and was succeeded by Paul. See Trans.Cym., 1948 pp.291-2, (but ignore the dates), and compare Wendy Davies, LlCh p.55 where Danog and Dagan are distinguished. Wendy Davies dates the BLD charters c.A.D.722 to 740 (ibid., pp.102 - 114). DALLDAF ail CUNIN COF. (Legendary). He is included in the tale of ‘Culhwch and Olwen’ as one of the warriors of Arthur's Court: Dalldaf eil Kimin Cof (WM 460, RM 106). In a triad (TYP no.73) he is called Dalldaf eil Cunyn Cof, one of the ‘Three Peers’ of Arthur's Court. In another triad (TYP no.41) we are told that Fferlas (Grey Fetlock), the horse of Dalldaf eil Cunin Cof, was one of the ‘Three Lovers' Horses’ (or perhaps ‘Beloved Horses’).
    [Show full text]
  • PART I PAPER 8 BRITISH ECONOMIC and SOCIAL HISTORY, 1050-C. 1500 2020-21 READING LIST for STUDENTS & SUPERVISORS
    PART I PAPER 8 BRITISH ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL HISTORY, 1050-c. 1500 2020-21 READING LIST FOR STUDENTS & SUPERVISORS Man’s head, fourteenth century, a carving in Prior Crauden’s chapel (1320s), Ely cathedral 1 Part I Paper 8 2020-21 The period covered by this paper was one of dramatic change in British economic and social life. The twelfth and thirteenth centuries were a time of marked economic development and creativity, and saw the expansion of agricultural output, towns, trade and industry. Famine and plague followed in the fourteenth century, leading to a very different era of stagnation and social upheaval in the later middle ages. Overall, it is now generally agreed that the period studied in this course laid essential foundations for Britain’s exceptional economic trajectory in later centuries. This course aims to provide students with a sense of the broader trends of the period 1050-1500, as well as the chance to look in depth at important problems and debates. By the end of the course students will also be able to reflect on the exciting challenges involved in studying the society and economy of an era before censuses, government statistics, and printing. Paper 8 is made up of 24 topics, such as ‘The Black Death’, ‘Town life’, and ‘War and society’. Students, in consultation with their supervisors, can choose which of these topics they wish to study for weekly supervisions. The 24 topics represent a mix of economic and social history. Across Michaelmas and Lent terms, there will be two series of introductory lectures, followed by lectures on each of the 24 topics.
    [Show full text]
  • Weekly Bulletin EW 13 2021
    Week ending April 03, 2021 Epidemiological Week 13 WEEKLY EPIDEMIOLOGY BULLETIN NATIONAL EPIDEMIOLOGY UNIT, MINISTRY OF HEALTH & WELLNESS, JAMAICA EPI WEEK 13 Biological Weapons: Series 7 of 10: Plague SYNDROMES Overview: Plague is an infectious disease caused by Yersinia pestis bacteria, usually found in small PAGE 2 mammals and their fleas. The disease is transmitted between animals via their fleas and, as it is a zoonotic bacterium, it can also transmit from animals to humans. Humans can be contaminated by the bite of infected fleas, through direct contact with infected materials, or by inhalation. Plague can be a very severe disease in people, particularly in its septicaemic and pneumonic forms, with a case- CLASS 1 DISEASES fatality ratio of 30% - 100% if left untreated. Although plague has been responsible for widespread pandemics throughout history, including the so-called Black Death that caused over 50 million deaths in Europe during the fourteenth century, today it can be easily treated with antibiotics and the use of PAGE 4 standard preventative measures. Plague is found on all continents except Oceania but most human cases since the 1990s have occurred in Africa. Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar and Peru are the three most endemic countries. Symptoms: People infected with plague usually develop influenza-like symptoms after an incubation period of 3–7 days. Symptoms include fever, chills, aches, weakness, vomiting and nausea. There are 3 main forms of plague. 1. Bubonic plague is the most common and is caused by the bite of an infected INFLUENZA flea. The plague bacillus, Y. pestis, enters at the bite and travels to the nearest lymph node to replicate.
    [Show full text]
  • Development of Diagnostic Assays for Melioidosis, Tularemia, Plague And
    University of Nevada, Reno Development of Diagnostic Assays for Melioidosis, Tularemia, Plague and COVID19 A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Cellular and Molecular Biology By Derrick Hau Dr. David P. AuCoin / Dissertation Advisor December 2020 THE GRADUATE• SCHOOL We recommend that the dissertation prepared under our supervision by entitled be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Advisor Committee Member Committee Member Committee Member Graduate School Representative David W. Zeh, Ph.D., Dean Graduate School December 2020 i Abstract Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic organisms which can be spread throughout communities by direct and indirect contact. Burkholderia pseudomallei, Francisella tularenisis, and Yersinia pestis are the causative agents of melioidosis, tularemia and plague, respectively. These bacteria pertain to the United States of America Federal Select Agent Program as they are associated with high mortality rates, lack of medical interventions and are potential agents of bioterrorism. The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has resulted in a global pandemic due to the highly infectious nature and elevated virulence of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Proper diagnosis of these infections is warranted to administer appropriate medical care and minimize further spreading. Current practices of diagnosing melioidosis, tularemia, plague and COVID-19 are inadequate due to limited resources and the untimely nature of the techniques. Commonly, diagnosing an infectious disease is by the direct detection of the causative agent. Isolation by bacterial culture is the gold standard for melioidosis, tularemia and plague infections; detection of SAR-CoV-2 nucleic acid by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the gold standard for diagnosing COVID-19.
    [Show full text]
  • From the Athens's Plague to the Pink Plague: the History of Pandemics Before COVID-19
    ISSN online 1688-4221 Ciencias Psicológicas January-June 2021; 15(1): e-2555 doi: https://doi.org/10.22235/cp.v15i1.2555 __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ From the Athens's plague to the pink plague: the history of pandemics before COVID-19 Las pandemias precedentes a la COVID-19: de la peste de Atenas a la peste rosa As pandemias anteriores à COVID-19: da peste de Atenas à peste rosa Marcelo Rodríguez Ceberio, ORCID 0000-0002-4671-440X Universidad de Flores. Escuela Sistémica Argentina Abstract: In world history, great epidemics not only caused thousands of deaths, but also emotional, psychosocial and even economical crises. But in the end, resilience gained territory, causing great learning and increased capacity for adaptation and survival. This article is the first of two, which categorize the great epidemics that hit the world during various periods of history. Its symptoms and its etiology are described within the historical context. Epidemics and pandemics are the result of variables such as poverty, lack of hygiene and a serious tendency to individualism, among others; in addition to stress factors that are the result of an accelerated rhythm of life, all of which survive to this day. Keywords: COVID-19; pandemic; plagues; epidemics; context Resumen: Las grandes epidemias de la historia no solo ocasionaron muertes, sino crisis emocionales, psicosociales y económicas. Pero al final de cuentas la resiliencia ganó terreno, generando un gran aprendizaje y el incremento de la capacidad de adaptación y supervivencia. El presente artículo es el primero de dos, que categorizan a las grandes epidemias que azotaron al mundo en diversos períodos de la historia.
    [Show full text]
  • Circulatory and Lymphatic System Infections 1105
    Chapter 25 | Circulatory and Lymphatic System Infections 1105 Chapter 25 Circulatory and Lymphatic System Infections Figure 25.1 Yellow fever is a viral hemorrhagic disease that can cause liver damage, resulting in jaundice (left) as well as serious and sometimes fatal complications. The virus that causes yellow fever is transmitted through the bite of a biological vector, the Aedes aegypti mosquito (right). (credit left: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit right: modification of work by James Gathany, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) Chapter Outline 25.1 Anatomy of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems 25.2 Bacterial Infections of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems 25.3 Viral Infections of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems 25.4 Parasitic Infections of the Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems Introduction Yellow fever was once common in the southeastern US, with annual outbreaks of more than 25,000 infections in New Orleans in the mid-1800s.[1] In the early 20th century, efforts to eradicate the virus that causes yellow fever were successful thanks to vaccination programs and effective control (mainly through the insecticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane [DDT]) of Aedes aegypti, the mosquito that serves as a vector. Today, the virus has been largely eradicated in North America. Elsewhere, efforts to contain yellow fever have been less successful. Despite mass vaccination campaigns in some regions, the risk for yellow fever epidemics is rising in dense urban cities in Africa and South America.[2] In an increasingly globalized society, yellow fever could easily make a comeback in North America, where A. aegypti is still present.
    [Show full text]
  • The Black Death: a Problem of Population-Wide Infection
    THE BLACK DEATH: A PROBLEM OF POPULATION-WIDE INFECTION Graham Twigg Graham Twigg is a zoologist whose research field is the biology of rodents, with particular reference to their role as pests and carriers of disease. Introduction The Black Death of 1347–1350, a pandemic generally believed to be bubonic plague, spread rapidly and resulted in a death rate across Europe that far exceeded that produced in the region by any known disease organism in a single episode, yet nineteenth and twentieth century bubonic plague in more favourable environments failed to raise death rates above those of locally endemic organisms. This anomaly, though already known has received little attention;1 neither Ziegler nor Gottfried, writing in 1969 and 1983 respectively, questioned the bubonic plague assumption.2 Shrewsbury’s detailed history of bubonic plague in the British Isles in 1971 did little to explore the problems of plague in a cold temperate climate.3 Indeed, so fixed was he upon the rat-flea plague model that he discarded some material which could not be fitted to it. His arguments were further weakened by his views of rodent ecology. Morris was critical of Shrewsbury, especially his refusal to give greater weight to the part played by pneumonic plague, preferring typhus instead, but neither author gave adequate attention to the factors that limit the diffusion of that form of plague.4 It was clear that a comparison of the medieval and modern pandemics was needed, which was undertaken by the present writer and published in 1984.5 The radical conclusion
    [Show full text]