UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO
Infrastructure, state formation, and social change in Bolivia at the start of the twentieth century.
A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree
Doctor of Philosophy
in
History by
Nancy Elizabeth Egan
Committee in charge:
Professor Christine Hunefeldt, Chair Professor Michael Monteon, Co-Chair Professor Everard Meade Professor Nancy Postero Professor Eric Van Young
2019
Copyright
Nancy Elizabeth Egan, 2019
All rights reserved.
SIGNATURE PAGE
The Dissertation of Nancy Elizabeth Egan is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically:
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Co-Chair
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Chair
University of California San Diego
2019
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SIGNATURE PAGE............................................................................................................ iii TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ vii LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................... ix LIST OF GRAPHS ................................................................................................................x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................. xi VITA .................................................................................................................................. xiv ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION .......................................................................... xvi INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................1
Tensions in Bolivian state formation from Independence:.................................................3 Questioning the reach and universality of the state:...........................................................8 Renewed liberal agendas and contradictions: ..................................................................13 Railroads, liberal states and societies:..............................................................................20 Layout of Dissertation:.....................................................................................................26
CHAPTER ONE: LIBERAL GEOGRAPHIES AND DEVELOPMENT DISCOURSES.29
Introduction: .....................................................................................................................29 Part One: Dreams of railroads..........................................................................................32 Interrupting geographies: .................................................................................................39 Frustrated national plans and the barriers to 19th projects:...............................................50 National sovereignty and borders:....................................................................................58 Part Two: New Liberals strategies for old plans. .............................................................62 The Speyer Contract:........................................................................................................67
CHAPTER TWO: BUILDING THE ARICA – LA PAZ RAILROAD. .............................87
Introduction: .....................................................................................................................87 Historical antecedents to the Arica – La Paz project: ......................................................88 The Arica – La Paz Railroad:...........................................................................................98 Building the train:...........................................................................................................108
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Labor recruitment for railroads: .....................................................................................112 A Liberal Mita:...............................................................................................................118 Building the Corocoro Branch: ......................................................................................124 Discussion: .....................................................................................................................136
CHAPTER THREE: REGIONAL COMMERCE, LOCAL POLITICS, AND LIBERAL PROJECTS.........................................................................................................................141
Introduction: ...................................................................................................................141 Problematic prophecies for the railroad: ........................................................................142
Commerce and infrastructure before the Train:..........................................................145
Consumption, contraband, and the railroad:...................................................................147 Merchants, the local state and taxation: .........................................................................160
New patterns in exports and imports: .........................................................................173 Emergence of new (old) commodities:.......................................................................183
Discussion: .....................................................................................................................193
CHAPTER FOUR: LIBERAL MARKETPLACES..........................................................196
Introduction: ...................................................................................................................196 Making markets, feeding people: ...................................................................................198 Power in the marketplace and the role of guilds: ...........................................................206 Indigenous niches in local markets: ...............................................................................211 Gender in the marketplace:.............................................................................................217 Railroads as creators of new conflicts:...........................................................................232 Discussion: .....................................................................................................................249
CHAPTER FIVE: MAKING WORKERS, REMAKING INDIANS: THE MINES IN COROCORO. ....................................................................................................................253
Introduction: ...................................................................................................................253 Regional mining practices:.............................................................................................254 The events of August 1st, 1908:......................................................................................259 Modernization of the mining sector in Corocoro:..........................................................266 Creating a disciplined workforce and town:...................................................................269 Contradictions of modernization: Fear of the Labor Problem. ......................................280
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Disciplining culture and workers: ..................................................................................284 Discussion: .....................................................................................................................291
CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................295
Colonial Liberals, Modern Colonialism:........................................................................298 Disputed state formation: ...............................................................................................303 Manipulation, evasion, and the re-utilization of the state and technology:....................307
Works Cited .......................................................................................................................314
Archives and Collections: ..............................................................................................314 Printed Primary Sources:................................................................................................315 Newspapers: ...................................................................................................................318 Published Secondary Sources:........................................................................................318 PhD Dissertations:..........................................................................................................330 Websites: ........................................................................................................................330
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Photo of pack animals transporting mineral in Potosí. ……………………….45 Figure 1.2: Photo cart transport of minerals from Huanchaca…………………………….48 Figure 1.3: Llama loaded with goods for transport………………………………………. 49 Figure 1.4: Map of major rail lines planned vs built in the 20th century…………………..82 Figure 2.1: Photo of Colonial Era Church in Pacajes……………………………………..90 Figure 2.2: Photo of abandoned alter in Colonial Era church page……………………….91 Figure 2.3: Photo of Colonial Era church with animal and walking paths………………..91 Figure 2.4: Map of border region and coastline………………………………………….. 95 Figure 2.5: Postcard depicting the train station in Arica…………………………………106 Figure 2.6: Photo depicting terraplaining work on the Tupiza – Villazón Railroad……..117 Figure 2.7: Photo of the large hacienda “Comanche” in Pacajes………………………...128 Figure 3.1: Photo of house in Corocoro………………………………………………….163 Figure 3.2: Photo of bridge over the Desaguadero River in Pacajes……………………..166 Figure 3.3: Photo of houses in Corocoro with storefront entrances……………………...173 Figure 3.4: Loading platform at the Calacoto Station covered with mineral…………….176 Figure 4.1: Map of indigenous communities identified as trading in Corocoro markets in 1904………………………………………………………………………………………201
Figure 4.2: Photo of campesino market on the outskirts of Oruro at the end of the nineteenth century………………………………………………………………………..210
Figure 4.3: Map of the organization of the market in the central plaza of Corocoro…….211 Figure 4.4: Women vendors selling alongside the railroad, early twentieth century…….222 Figure 4.5: Photo of Bolivian marketplace early twentieth century……………………..229 Figure 4.6: Photo (postcard) of indigenous residents of Corocoro in the early twentieth century……………………………………………………………………………………229
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Figure: 4.7: Photo of paths through an abandonded mineworker neighborhood on the outskirts of Corocoro……………………………………………………………………..247
Figure 5.1: Photo of woodworking shop and carpenters in Corocoro at the start of the twentieth century…………………………………………………………………………265
Figure 5.2: Photo of Corocoro from an abandonded mineworker neighborhood located to the north of the plaza……………………………………………………………………..275
Figure 5.3: Photo of preparations for carnival celebrations in the mines of Pulacayo in 1905………………………………………………………………………………………287
Figure 5.4: Photo of a mineworker from Pulacayo and Huanchaca at the start of the twentieth century…………………………………………………………………………288
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Years to completion for major RR lines……………………………………….52 Table 1.2: Fate of Lines outlined in the Speyer Contract and the Treaties with Chile and Brazil………………………………………………………………………………………81
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LIST OF GRAPHS
Graph 3.1: Percentage of Imports bound for Corocoro…………………………………..178 Graph 3.2: Forms of transport used for importation to Corocoro………………………..178 Graph 3.3: Use of Railroad in 1913……………………………………………………...179 Graph 3.4: Breakdown of imports from Arica by product……………………………….182
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research received funding from several institutions, including the History
Department, the Division of the Arts and Humanities, and the Institute for International, Comparative, and Area Studies at the University of California San Diego. The Beveridge Grant from the AHA facilitated short periods of archival research, as did the University of Buenos Aires through PRI and PAITI projects at the Instituto Interdisciplinario Tilcara.
I received a lot of help while working on this project. The list of individuals who need to be acknowledged has become very long over the years, and many should be recognized personally. I want to thank the faculty and staff of the History Department and the Center for Latin American and Iberian Studies at UCSD for providing me with the tools and support I needed to begin doing academic research. Eric Van Young’s classes always challenged and his good humor made them a joy. Everard Meade reminded me that this was fun, that I could do this, and that we are all lucky to have the opportunity to spend our time this way. Michael Monteon’s thoughtful commentary in classes and on papers improved my thinking and writing throughout my doctoral studies. He has been generous with his time, and his detailed corrections and observations of many of the chapters in this dissertation helped me finish. Thank you.
I am thankful for the generosity of Nancy Postero and Christine Hunefeldt; for their guidance, frankness, encouragement, and if I can go so far, their friendship. The hours they spent talking with me and their in-depth critiques and corrections of my work have been essential to my development throughout this program. I am grateful that I had the
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opportunity to be mentored by these two women. Both opened doors for me and gave me the advice I needed to do my work, and present or publish it. They have been wonderful role models both personally and professionally. Thank you.
In Bolivia, Carmen Rosa Mamani and Ronald Tarqui helped me locate some of the sources I use here. Hanne Cottyn was extremely generous, not only sharing her time but also primary sources from archives in Arica when I could not go there myself. I hope that I have done justice to all the sources she shared with me. I want to thank Nicole Pacino, Susan Ellison, Eugenia Bridikhina, and Danny Platt for many hours of great conversation in La Paz. Thank you Helene Risor, Pablo Quisbert, and Hernan Pruden for their friendship over the years. Pilar Mendieta and Rossana Barragan both took the time to speak with me and orient me in La Paz. I want to thank Rosalyn Bold for her company and friendship while doing fieldwork, and for making soup with me at 4000 meters above sea level. Carmen Soliz and her mother opened their home to me and helped me, on more than one occasion, to organize my thoughts. Robert Whitney was generous with his time and advice, even reading draft chapters of this dissertation during his travels and work in the Andes. Paula Saravia and Jorge Montesinos have been great friends and colleagues as we traveled, worked, and laughed in the United States, Chile, and Bolivia. Both have consistently given me reasons to stick around and keep doing this.
This research has also been supported by many people in Argentina, and I especially want to thank two researchers. Historian Ana Teruel and anthropologist Agustina Roca have been instrumental in helping me adjust to my new academic
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surroundings and both have consistently encouraged the research presented here. Thank you for all the mates, for your sage advice, and for sharing so much with this newcomer.
Megan Strom and I began our doctoral studies in the Latin American History field group at UCSD as two parts of a three-person group, and I wish all three of us were still here. Megan’s friendship made me feel part a real cohort in all senses of the word. I owe Megan Strom something I know I may never be able to reciprocate.
My family has been supportive of me throughout all these years of work, especially my parents. And, I wouldn’t have finished this without Pablo Cruz. He has listened to my ideas, doubts, fears, excitement, and been there with encouragement and coffee through all the ups and downs along the way. Without him, I would not be as curious about what comes next as I am.
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VITA Degrees
2019. Doctor of Philosophy, History, University of California San Diego. 2007. Master in Latin American Studies, University of California San Diego. 2004. Bachelor of Fine Arts, Emily Carr Institute of Art and Design, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
2001. Diploma of Fine Arts, Emily Carr Institute of Art and Design, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
Research and Teaching Appointments
2014 – 2019. Part-time Adjunct (Docente/investigador), Instituto Interdisciplinario Tilcara, Facultad de Filosofia y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Jujuy, Argentina.
2013. Instructor, Summer Session, Department of History, University of California San Diego.
2007 – 2010. Teaching Assistant and Reader, University of California San Diego. 2002 – 2006. Researcher and Organizer for the Service Employees International Union and the United Auto Workers, Local 2865.
Publications
Articles: 2017: P. Cruz, T. Winkel, M.P. Ledru, C. Bernard, N. Egan, R. Joffre, “Rain-fed agriculture thrived despite climate degradation in the pre-Hispanic arid Andes”. Science Advances, Vol 3:2, 2017.
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2016. Egan, Nancy. La Odisea de Santos. Revista Umbrales, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Posgrado en Ciencias de Desarrollo (UMSA – CIDES), Número 28, La Paz, Bolivia.
2010. Egan, Nancy. Exhibiting Indigenous Peoples: Bolivians at the Chicago Fair of 1893.
Studies in Latin American Popular Culture, Vol. 28, pp 6-24, University of Texas Press.
Austin, EEUU. Book Chapters: 2011. Egan, Nancy. Citizenship, Race and Criminalization. In: Ethnicity from Various Angles and through Various Lenses, Leon Zamosc y Christine Hunefeldt (Eds.), Chapter 6, Sussex Academic Press. Portland, OR.
Published Reviews:
Review. 2012. Egan Nancy. Mexico: Race and Society from Colonial to Modern Times,
Ben Vinson III y Matthew Restall (Editores), Bulletin of Latin American Research, Vol31, Is. 2: 238–239, SLAS, Liverpool, UK.
Newspaper and press outreach: 2011. Sara Shahriari, Indian Country Today, 8/30/2011. Human Zoos: For Centuries Indigenous People were displayed as novelties. En: http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2011/08/30/human-zoo-centuries-indigenous- peoples-were-displayed-novelties-48239.
Master’s Thesis:
2007: “Una lucha de razas, secular y honda”: The Proceso Mohoza, Bolivia, 1899-1905.
Fields of study for doctoral program
Major Field: Latin American History of the Republican Period. Supervisor: Christine Hunefeldt (UCSD).
Minor Field: Social and Cultural Anthropology. Supervisor: Nancy Postero (UCSD). Minor Field: Latin American History of the Colonial Period. Supervisor: Eric Van Young (UCSD).
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ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION
Infrastructure, state formation, and social change in Bolivia at the start of the twentieth century.
by
Nancy Elizabeth Egan
Doctor of Philosophy in History
University of California San Diego, 2019
Professor Christine Hunefeldt, Chair Professor Michael Monteon, Co-Chair
This dissertation examines the role of train development and construction in
Bolivian state formation and social change at the start of the twentieth century during the twenty years of Liberal Party governments. The study analyzes national planning for liberal development and studies the impact of one particular railroad, the Arica – La Paz line, in the province of Pacajes. Though development planning throughout this period was exclusively the realm of politicians and businessmen, their plans often depended on the participation of the same people and relationships that Liberal Party leadership wanted to change. This study shows how a wide range of groups within the border province of Pacajes responded, reacted, and developed alternative agendas to those pushed by liberals.
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Though Liberal Party leaders depicted the unimpeded advance of their plans to transform the nation into a liberal, modern, and centralized one, the details show a much more fragmented and varied result. That result often emerged from tensions and conflicts produced in those places and moments where the imagined project landed in a complex local reality, and came to reflect and produce many of the same contradictions that had been present for centuries. Because the Liberal Party’s approach to railroads understood modernization and development as a way to force other changes within the nation, including in social relations, power, and identity, this dissertation focuses on aspects of everyday life directly impacted by their development reforms: work, markets, food production and transport, taxes, and the financing of local governments. This study engages in a dialogue with research on the history of indigenous and worker movements, the development of liberalism, and citizenship in Bolivia, by examining the profound impact of expanding capitalism in the daily lives of residents of one region and its implications for belonging and exclusion in the nation. I suggest that the years of Liberal Party rule and their partially successful project to build trains and transform the economy shaped the emergence of new movements and politics that would dominate discussions of the nation’s future for many decades after.
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INTRODUCTION
This dissertation examines the first decades of the twentieth century in Bolivia through the lens of transport infrastructure reform, especially train building projects, in order to understand how this particular aspect of Liberal Party governance shaped the country. To do this, the study traces the development of a national project, and follows the plan through its implementation and impact on a local level – in the province of Pacajes and town of Corocoro during the construction of the Arica – La Paz railroad. Examining the connections between infrastructure projects during the Liberal Party governments and state formation, as well as the conflicts and changes in different sectors of society, reveals the processes that led to dramatic alterations in social relations and power in Bolivia at the start of the twentieth century.
Plans for railroad construction and national modernization were developed among a small group, principally comprised of national elites and international businessmen. However, because those projects required workers, funding, and local government cooperation, their success depended on the participation of some of the very same people and relationships that were to be the principal objects of liberal transformations. Taking top-down plans for modernization to the implementation stage produced conflicts that required a wide swath of strategies to navigate: negotiation, repression, manipulation, cooptation, improvisation and more. In this process, the national government was not the only group or population to employ those strategies. Despite the exclusive nature of the
