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A Review of Political Satire in the Iranian Press During the 2000S

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A Review of Political Satire in the Iranian Press During the 2000S Political Satire, the Barometer of Press Freedom: A Review of Political Satire in the Iranian Press during the 2000s Seyed Mahmood Farjami* Abstract: Political satire has played a prominent part in the social and political sphere of journalism in Iran from the first appearance of the independent press at the beginning of the twentieth century. This paper examines its problems and achievements in the Iranian press during the first decade of the twenty-first century, including their historical context over the past one hundred years. Legal and other important issues issues (e.g. Press Laws) affecting the Iranian press are reviewed in addition to non-political forms of the genre of satire, which significantly have often been used for political ends by authorities in Iran. Keywords: Political satire, Political humour, Iranian satirists, Cartooning, Editorial cartoons, Iranian Press in 2000s, Persian satire, Freedom of the press, Censorship ______________________________________________________________ 1 * S. M. Farjami is an Iranian satirist and journalist, and a PhD candidate in the School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia.Political Satire in the Iranian Press, the Roots The appearance of political satire in the Iranian press came fast on the heels of Iranians becoming familiar with the modern concepts of “politics” and “the press’’ itself. Only three years after the Office of Censorship (Edareye Sansour) was established by Etemad Al-Dowleh by the order of Nasereddin Shah in February, 1885, to maintain tight control over all the presses publishing inside the country as well as publications delivered from outside, the first newspaper wholly devoted to satiric content was registered with the government. Shahsavan, a Persian magazine, was published overseas in 1888 and sent to subscribers in Iran by private post.1 In fact political satire had officially appeared in the Iranian press during Mozaffareddin Shah’s reign (1896-1907) when the first non-state papers were permitted to publish. However, as Aryanpour points out, effective political satires in the Iranian press were only published from the beginning of the 20th century, particularly under the influence of Molla Nasreddin, a satiric political and social weekly which was written in Azeri Turkish, published from 1906 until 1917 in Tblisi, in 1921 in Tabriz, and from 1922 to 1931 in Baku.2 By then, although political satire had been a very modern phenomenon along with the whole idea of “politics”, political satirists had played an important role in creating political awareness and promoting the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1907. Some of the most prominent and effective journalists and activists of that era, like Seyed Ali Akbar Dehkhoda, Seyed Ashrafeddin Gilani (also known as Ghazvini), Adib-ol Mamalek-e Farahani (Amiri), Mirza Agha Khan Kermani, and Mirza Malkom Khan, chose satire to convey their political messages to audiences, in prose and in verse. Furthermore, by this time, there were several Persian newspapers with wholly satiric content (both text and caricature) such as Tolue Mosavvar, Azarbayjan, 1 Edward G. Browne, The Press and Poetry of Modern Persia, (Cambridge, 1983). 2 Yahya Aryanpour, Az Saba Ta Nima2 [From Saba to Nima2] (Tehran, 2008) 39 -105. Kasravi also points out how Molla Naṣreddin, was particularly influential, for in it editorial opinion was cloaked in verse and easily understood humorous anecdotes (Ahmad Kasravi, Mashrouteh3, (Tehran, 2007) 194). 2 Shabnameh, Hasharat-ol Arz, Estebdad, Bohloul, Jangal-e Mowla, Jarchi-e Mellat, Sheida, and Nasim-e Shomal which critiqued political and social issues.3 Judging by its print runs, Ṣour-e Esrafil, a serious newspaper that included some satiric content was one of the most popular, perhaps the most popular, newspaper of the time. Its success was due chiefly to Dehḵhoda’s caustic and satirical column “Charand-o Parand” (Balderdash). Without indulging in the invective and personal attacks characteristic of some other columnists, Dehkhoda was able to deflate the Court and the conservative clergy with his lively wit. Of the purely satiric newspapers Nisme-e Shomal (Breeze of the North) was one of the most influential, publishing political satiric verses almost always written by its own publisher, Seyed Ashrafeddin Ghazvini. Both Dehkhoda and Ghazvini were particularly influenced by Jalil Mohammad Gholizadeh and Ali Akbar Saber, two prominent satirists writing for Molla Nasreddin.4 Most of these newspapers, except Nasim-e Shomal, disappeared before the beginning of the First World War (1914). From this time until beginning of the reign of Reza Shah in 1925, political satire persisted in the press, though the quantity of satirical newspapers was not like earlier. After the coup in 1921 that elevated Reza Khan first to the position of Sardar Sepah (Minister of War) and then as Prime Minister, criticism became increasingly difficult and dangerous, although some of the most influential political critiques were still published in the form of satire. The most controversial subject was the Reza Khan’s idea for changing the system of monarchy to a republic, which had both strong advocates and strong opponents. Two of the best-known pieces of punditry battling this via satire were Nasim- e Saba by Kouhi-e Kermani supporting the monarchy and Nahid by Mirza Ebrahim Nahid, supporting the republic. Some believe the piece that fostered the most negative public opinion about Reza Kahn’s “republic” was a satiric long-form poem, Jonhouri Nameh (Letter of the Republic), published under the name of a well-known liberal poet, Mirzadeh Eshghi, in 3 Hassan Javadi, Satire in Persian Literature, Toronto: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1988. 4 See Yahya Aryanpour, Az Saba Ta Nima2 [From Saba to Nima2] (Tehran, 2008) 39 -105 for a comparison between some Turkish prose and verse in Molla Nasreddin and similar prose and verses in Persian in Sur-e Esrafil and Nasim-e Shomal that show the deep influence of Molla Nasreddin on Iranian newspapers. 3 the spring of 1924, few months after Reza Khan had discarded the idea of the republic.5 Eshghi harshly satirized him and the republic in prose, verse and caricature in his newspaper, Gharn-e Bistom (Twentieth Century), and a few days later, on July 3, 1924, he was found murdered. Thereafter, political satire or criticism was rarely published in the Iranian press during the reign of Reza Shah (1925-1941), and the few publications remaining in print -- like Arjang, Nasim-e Shomal, Gol-e Zard and Nahid -- avoided opposition political journalism.6 With the occupation of Iran by the Allies in the summer of 1941, Reza Shah fell and his young son became the next Shah. In the political turmoil of the young king’s rule, freedom of the press flourished and continued in differing degrees for more than a decade. Elwell-Sutton’s study of the Iranian press in the years after the occupation (1941- 1947) shows that the number of press outlets suddenly rose from around 50 to 464 and that 9 of these were fully or partly satiric.7 Among them were new publications like Hardanbil, Baba Shemel, Ghalandar and Yoyo while others published previously continued with interruptions. In addition, Chelengar, Haji Baba, Louti, Shab Charagh, Noushkhand and Dad o Bidad were published from 1948-1953. Chelengar, established by Mohammad Ali Afrashteh in 1949, was the most prominent political journal of the era. Banned in June 1953, it published 11 issues under other names. Iran’s press freedom was severely curtailed after the coup against Prime Minister Masaddeq in August 1953, and did not recover until the end of the Shah’s reign at the start of 1979. Despite this, political satire still maintained a presence in the Iranian press and with even better quality, especially in the Towfigh newspaper. Published from the spring of 1959 in a new incarnation by members of the founder’s family known as the Towfigh Brothers (Hassan, Hossein, and Abbas), the newspaper soon became popular again and attracted a roster of the best and brightest satirists and cartoonists including Abolghasem Halat, Abbas Forat, Iraj Pezeshkzad, Parviz Khatibi, and young writers who 5 See: Mohammad Ghaed, Eshghi: Simaye Najib-e Yek Anarchist [Eshghi: The Portrait of A Decent Anarchist] (Tehran, 2001). Ghaed believes this prominent poem cannot have been written by Eshghi alone, and that probably Mohammad Taqi-e Bahar, the then well-known poet and MP, helped him or maybe wrote the whole of Jomhouri Nameh, but had it published under the name of Eshghi with his agreement. 6 Satire in Persian Literature, P. 199 7 L.P. Elwell-Sutton, “The Iranian Press, 1941-1947”, Iran 6 (1968) 65-104. 4 later became famous like Manouchehr Mahjoubi, Hadi Khorsandi, Omran Salahi, Manouchehr Ehterami, and Kiumars Saberi Foumani, as well as cartoonists Derambakhsh and Naser Pakshir (along with Hassan Towfigh who drew most of the cartoons for Towfigh). In 1971, when Towfigh was banned without trial - most probably by the order of Prime Minister Amir Abbas Hoveyda, who was the most common target of Towfigh’s political satires - Towfigh was certainly the most famous and important satiric newspaper in Iran. Its few competitors, like Kashkiyat (satiric attachment of newspaper Tehran Mosvvar) and Caricature, could never attain its circulation and popularity. Following the victorious 1979 Revolution in Iran, a rare but brief opportunity for freedom of the press was born, namely the Bahar-e Azadi (Spring of Freedom) in which the satiric press also flourished. Roya Sadr lists more than 30 satiric journals beginning publication between March and September of 1979, when the first wave of press closures occurred.8 Among them were reinvigorated journals from the past, such as Haji Baba, Bohloul and Chelengar, now being published again. Chelengar (renamed Ahangar after few issues9), became the most famous satiric magazine of the era, reaching a circulation of 150,000 copies.10 Individual satirical columns in serious newspapers were also popular, particularly Hadi Khorsandi’s in Kayhan newspaper which was also the first post-victory column to appear on March 10, 1979, less than one month after the Revolution.
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