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Online Technologies and the Power Struggle in Iran ARASH ANGHAEI

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Cyber-Activists as Innovators: Online Technologies and the Power Struggle in Iran ARASH ANGHAEI A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of East London for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy July 2016 Abstract This thesis analyses key social and technical capabilities and functions in Iran through the lens of the National Innovation System (NIS) model, focusing on processes influencing the on-going online encounter between the regime and local and expatriate pro- democracy cyber-activists in the aftermath of the country's contested presidential elections in June 2009. Conceptually, it is located in Science and Technology Studies (STS), with an emphasis on constructivist theory including Social Shaping of Technology (SST) as its creative backbone. In the original Nordic conceptualisation of the NIS model, openness is considered a given. This prevents the model from adequately explaining the dynamics of innovation in repressive countries. In Iran, nationwide innovation processes are distorted by high level security officials' ideology-driven approach to the generation and diffusion of scientific knowledge and the influence of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC) over Iran's national economy. Bifurcated due to significant political differences, the Iranian NIS has become dysfunctional in the absence of an integrated, democratic structure, making the country highly dependent on foreign expertise. The overreliance of Iran on cross-border technological contributions is reflected in the state's internet surveillance apparatus. Currently, major European information and communications technology (ICT) companies aid the core of the censorship infrastructure employed by the Iranian regime, while a great majority of the anti-filtering software used by the cyber-activists is developed by North American universities, research centres and human rights NGOs. This, in turn, highlights a limitation in the EU export policy regimen, which fails to promote the development of pro-democracy online innovations and remains relatively weak in terms of its ability to regulate the overseas trade of telecommunications technologies. Laying emphasis on the social responsibility of large international telecommunications companies based on the outcome of a combination of weblog content analysis, semi- structured expert interviews and document reviews, the results of this project are expected to help improve Western policies on dual-use ICT exports to repressive countries. A focused attempt at the dynamisation of relevant legislation by the European Parliament (EP) can help more effectively foster egalitarian values in emerging economies through supporting legitimate, bottom-up dissent. The main body of data used by this research was collected through a longitudinal observation of 65 Persian activist weblogs evaluated against an inductively crafted checklist. The preliminary findings of the weblog content analysis were later on examined in relation to the scripts of direct discussions with 17 active scholars and practitioners sampled largely by snowballing, as well as to an extensive archive of legal and journalistic documents. i TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER i: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………..1 PREFACE………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1 INTELLECTUAL INSPIRATIONS……………………………………………………………………………. 1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES…………………………………………………………………………………… 2 HYPOTHESIS AND KEY RESEARCH QUESTIONS…………………………………………………………... 2 STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY…………………………………………………………………………….. 3 IRAN'S GREEN MOVEMENT: POLITICAL ACTIVISM AND THE DIGITALISATION OF A CONFLICT………..... 3 REVOLUTIONARY GUARDS GO DIGITAL: EXPLOITING ICTS TO CONFRONT POPULAR RESISTANCE…..... 5 TECHNOLOGICAL DIPLOMACY: WESTERN POLICIES, THE IRANIAN DIASPORA AND THE INNOVATION CYCLE IN REPRESSIVE COUNTRIES………………………………………………………………………. 6 CHAPTER ii: ONLINE TECHNOLOGIES, HUMAN CHOICES AND THE ONGOING E- STRUGGLE IN IRAN: SOCIAL SHAPING OF TECHNOLOGY MEETS NATIONAL INNOVATION SYSTEM…………………………………………………………………………………. 8 STS AS A NEW MAINSTREAM PARADIGM: HUMAN AGENCY, ARTEFACT TRAJECTORY AND THE COMPLEX NATURE OF INNOVATION………………………………………………………………………………… 8 TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM, SOCIAL BIAS AND THE HUMANITARIAN SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CONSTRUCTIVIST RESPONSE: AN IS PERSPECTIVE……………………………………………………… 9 CYBER-ACTIVISM, MODERN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS AND ADVANCED ICTS' PATTERNS OF CREATION AND USE IN REPRESSIVE CONTEXTS.………………………………………………………………………… 10 NATIONAL INNOVATION SYSTEM: THEORY AND PRACTICE……………………………………………... 12 NIS FUNCTIONALITY: FROM NORDICA'S ORDINARY CHOICE TO THE DEVELOPING WORLD'S ULTIMATE DREAM…………………………………………………………………………………………………... 15 NIS IN EMERGING ECONOMIES: THEORETICAL GAPS IN THE LITERATURE……………………………. 16 NIS VARIATIONS, INDIGENOUS TECHNOLOGY AND CROSS-BORDER DEPENDENCY: WHAT MAKES INNOVATIONS SOCIALLY SUSTAINABLE?................................................................................................... 18 IRAN'S NIS: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF A BIFURCATED STRUCTURE……………………………….... 19 NIS DYSFUNCTIONALITY IN IRAN AND THE COUNTRY'S INEVITABLE RELIANCE ON FOREIGN ICTS….. 28 CYBER-ACTIVISM: WHY FOCUS ON INNOVATION?.................................................................................... 36 CHAPTER iii: WEBLOG CONTENT ANALYSIS, EXPERT INTERVIEWS AND DOCUMENT REVIEW—A METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH DESIGNED FOR REPRESSIVE CONTEXTS . …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 38 METHODOLOGICAL DILEMMAS: COMPASSION, DETACHMENT AND SELF-REFLEXIVITY IN SOCIAL RESEARCH………………………………………………………………………………………………. 38 ACTIVIST RESEARCH SERVING SOCIAL SCIENCES: BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE IN STS…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 39 HINDSIGHT REFLECTIONS: DECONSTRUCTING THE RESEARCH DESIGN IN RETROSPECT…………….. 43 RESEARCH METHODS: AN OVERVIEW ………………………………………………………………….. 44 ii WEBLOG CONTENT ANALYSIS …………………………………………………………………………... 45 EXPERT INTERVIEWS……………………………………………………………………………………. 48 DOCUMENT REVIEW…………………………………………………………………………………….. 50 ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK……………………………………………………………………………… 50 ETHICAL CLEARANCE…………………………………………………………………………………… 51 CHAPTER iv: DEMOCRATIC STRUCTURE, BIMODALITY AND NIS—A TRIANGULATED ANALYSIS OF THE INNOVATION PATTERNS AND PROCESSES WITHIN IRAN'S ONLINE SPHERE ............. ………………………………………………………………………………………… 53 ACTIVISM IN IRAN: WHERE DO ICTS STAND?.......................................................................................... 53 ANTI-CENSORSHIP INNOVATIONS: HOW DO THEY EMERGE?.................................................................. 56 CYBER POLICE, ONLINE ACTIVISTS AND SELF-RELIANCE IN THE VIRTUAL POWER STRUGGLE IN IRAN……………………………………………………………………………………………………... 65 WESTERN ICTS VS. LOCAL POLITICS: EUROPEAN INNOVATIONS AND THE DYNAMICS OF ONLINE CENSORSHIP IN IRAN……………………………………………………………………………………. 71 IRGC, NATIONWIDE INNOVATION PROCESSES AND THE BREAKDOWN OF IRAN'S NIS………………… 75 CYBER-ACTIVISM, NETWORK LITERACY AND THE INNOVATION OF CHANGE…………………………... 87 MAPPING THE GEOGRAPHY OF CYBER-ACTIVISM IN IRAN: COUNTER-CENSORSHIP INNOVATIONS AND THE LOCAL/EXPATRIATE DIVIDE ....…………………………………………………………………….. 90 NETWORK ACCESS, COMPUTER LITERACY AND ONLINE INNOVATIONS: GENDER EQUALITY AS A CATALYST OF CHANGE………………………………………………………………………………...... 97 GENDER, DEMOCRATIC LEGITIMACY AND INNOVATION: A SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO CYBER- ACTIVISM IN IRAN……………………………………………………………………………………….. 97 LEGISLATIVE POWERS OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT: POLICY AS A PREVENTATIVE MEASURE..… 104 TELECOMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES, ETHICAL VALUES AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE POLICIES: TOWARDS A COMPREHENSIVE EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK………………………………………….. 107 CHAPTER v: UKRAINE, CHINA AND THE ARAB SPRING: CYBER-ACTIVISM AND THE TECHNO-UTOPIAN SEARCH FOR A UNIVERSALLY TRANSFERABLE MODEL OF DEMOCRATIC CHANGE……..………………………………………………………………………. 109 UKRAINE'S ORANGE MOVEMENT: LESSONS IN E-REVOLUTION………………………………………. 109 ARAB SPRING: DAWN OF A REVOLUTIONARY MODEL OR DUSK OF A TECHNO-UTOPIAN DREAM?........ 116 HI-TECH TELECOMMUNICATIONS, POLITICAL OPENNESS AND SECURITY INITIATIVES: THE CASE OF POST-REFORM CHINA…………………………………………………………………………... 119 CHAPTER vi: FOSTERING DEMOCRACY—WESTERN EXPORT CONTROL REGIMES, CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND THE TECHNOLOGY OF REPRESSION….. 122 TRADE REGULATION, WESTERN POLICIES AND POWER STRUGGLES IN REPRESSIVE STATES………… 122 CASE STUDY: NOKIA-SIEMENS NETWORKS AND THE IRANIAN MARKET……………………………..... 124 NSN AND POLICY LESSONS FOR THE FUTURE: AN ANALYSIS…………………………………………. 124 ANTI-CENSORSHIP TECHNOLOGY: FOSTERING DEMOCRACY IN A CONVERGING WORLD …………….. 128 HACKTIVISM AND INNOVATION: THE BLURRED LINES OF ONLINE DISSENT…………………………. 132 iii CHAPTER vii: CONCLUSIONS, PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS AND INSIGHTS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH……………………………………………………………………………………………... 136 OUTRIGHT BIMODALITY VS. LIMITED DIFFUSION: CAN A SINGLE NIS SERVE TWO DIFFERENT MASTERS? ............................................................................................................................................... 136 IRGC GENERALS AND THE MILITARISATION OF IRAN'S CIVIL INDUSTRIES: THE BIRTH OF A DYSFUNCTIONAL SYSTEM……………………………………………………………………………… 138 WHY DEMOCRACY MATTERS: THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF AN NIS AND ITS TECHNICAL POTENCY…. 139 IN SEARCH OF A CROSS-BORDER MODEL FOR DEMOCRATIC CHANGE: A UNIVERSALLY TRANSFERRABLE NIS?........................................................................................................................................................ 143 INNOVATION PROCESSES AND POLITICAL MOVEMENTS: IDEAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH…………… 146 REFERENCE
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