A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF THE BEAUTY ADVERTISEMNETS BY MAYBELLINE: THE 80’S AND THE PRESENT
Faranak Modaresi
a thesis submitted to the Faculty of Humanities
in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree
Master of Arts (MA)
in
General Linguistics
at
University of Amsterdam JUNE 2016
Supervisor: Ineke Vedder Co-Supervisor: Petra Sleeman
1
Acknowledgment
I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to all the people who helped me through my studies. Foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Ineke Vedder for her continuous assistance and guidance. I would also like to thank my mother and my brother for all their love and support.
2 Abstract
The research at hand employed a critical approach towards the discourse of advertising in order to ascertain the linguistic and visual features of the persuasive language in the beauty ads of the well-known cosmetics brand of Maybelline, during the 80’s and the time period of 2015-2016. The three-dimensional analytical model of Fairclough (1992) was used for the purpose of this research. The findings suggest that the beauty advertisements of both time periods employ different grammatical cohesive devices and lexical cohesive devices. However, there are a number of differences in the type of the features they employed in the advertisements. The advertising texts in the past were more cohesive with the use of a lot of lexical and grammatical cohesive devices. The sentences were longer and had a more complex structure in the past. The visual elements of the ads have also showed a slight change. In the past there were four main parts; the headline, the body copy, the image, and the signature line. However, nowadays the image of the celebrity or the picture of the product covers most of the page and the texts are rather brief and do not follow a certain order.
Keywords: Critical Discourse Analysis, CDA, Rhetoric, Advertisement
3 Table of Contents Abstract 3 Chapter 1 5 1.1. Introduction 6 1.2. Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis 7 1.3. Rhetoric and The Art of Persuasion 8 1.4. Multimodal Discourse Analysis 9 Chapter 2 12 2.1 Theoretical Background and Framework 13 2.2. Previous Studies 14 Chapter 3 18 3.1. Method and Research Questions 19 3.2. Data 20 3.3. Data Analysis Procedure 21 Chapter 4: Results and The Discussion of The Ads Published In The 80’s 23 4. The Ads From The 80’s 24 4.1. Textual Analysis: Linguistic Elements 24 4.1.1. Reference 26 4.1.2. Substitution and Ellipsis 29 4.1.3. Conjunction 31 4. 2. Textual Analysis: Visual Elements 41 Chapter 5: Results and The Discussion of The Ads Published In 2015-2016 45 5. The Results of The Ads From 2015-2016 46 5. 1. Textual Analysis: Linguistic Elements 47 5. 2. Textual Analysis: Visual Elements 56 Chapter 6: Comparison 59 6. Comparison 60 6.1. Similarities and Differences in Linguistic Elements 60 6.2. Similarities and Differences in Visual Elements 63 Chapter 7 65 7.1. Conclusion 66 References Appendix
4
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
5 1. Introduction The media and advertisement as a powerful source in forming the public thoughts and desires, provide an invaluable source for the research on language. Although the advertisement discourse is very brief, it is very complex in nature. The persuasive language of advertisements has become the focus of attention for many discourse analysis studies in recent years. Some researchers employ the traditional approach of looking at linguistic elements of advertisement language, while other scholars such as Fairclough (1995) employed a more critical approach and analyzed the procedures and the type of language that these adverts employ in order to persuade their audience to act. Cook (2001) looked at the interaction of the verbal and visual elements in the language of advertisement and studied how they relate to each other and contribute towards meaning; in his opinion advertising discourse is then a combination of language and images. As stated by Cook (2013) the Collins Concise Dictionary defines advertising as “the promotion of goods or services through sale through impersonal media” (p. 9). In his opinion language and symbols in advertisements work to persuade, inform, misinform, amuse or warn people. Therefore, advertisements change people’s mind and make them buy the products they do not want or need (Ayasuriya, 2015). According to Cook (2013) persuasive language of advertising is filled with connotations, ellipsis, conjunctions, collocations and frequent use of first and second person pronouns. Advertising as a creative field and a growing industry, has provided an enormous opportunity for discourse studies. Much research has been dedicated to the language of advertising from different theoretical points of view. Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis are two of the approaches mostly taken towards the advertising discourse; which is known to be persuasive and informative (Woods, 2006). To be able to define what is discourse analysis, it is crucial to describe what is discourse first. Discourse is anything that is beyond the level of a sentence; for example, two people in a conversation or two sentences that are connected is considered as discourse. On the other hand, discourse is language in use, how people put the language in use in different contexts and situations. . Weedon (1987) defines discourse as “…ways of constituting knowledge, together with the social practices, forms of subjectivity and power relations that inhere in such knowledge and relations between them. Discourses are more than ways of thinking and
6 producing meaning” (p, 108). What follows is an overview of Critical Discourse Analysis, the notion of Rhetoric, and Multimodal Discourse Analysis, which is of importance for the current research, since it helps us to find out the procedures and the type of language that adverts employ in order to persuade their prospects.
1.2. Critical Discourse Analysis For a long time the traditional approach of Discourse Analysis has been taken towards language with the aim of describing pieces of discourse and how they function, however in the 70’s a more critical view of discourse analysis emerged. Critical Discourse Analysis is concerned with the manifestation of social and political inequalities in discourse (Wooffitt, 2005). The main purpose of CDA is to examine how people are manipulated and persuaded by public discourse and how they undergo power. It is an interdisciplinary approach, which studies the abuse of power by texts. Fairclough (1989) defines Critical Discourse Analysis as a kind of social practice where power and ideology influence and interact with one another. Van Dijk (1996) suggests that Critical Discourse Analysis is a type of analytical discourse research that discusses social power abuse, dominance and inequality. Wodak (2006) states “CDA [is] fundamentally interested in analyzing opaque as well as transparent structural relationships of dominance, discrimination, power and control when these are manifested in language. In other words, CDA aims to investigate critically social inequality as it is expressed, constituted, and legitimized by language use” (p. 53). CDA at the starting point had more of a critical linguistics approach to text analysis but in later years incorporated more social, cognitive and rhetorical aspects of language and broadened its scope of analysis. Two groups of scholars in the late 70’s emerged who had a new approach towards discourse; Critical Linguistics (CL) and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). These two notions are often used interchangeably, however, CDA, which is the focus of this research, deals more with the interaction of language and power in addition to the effect of language on the society. Hodge and Kress (1993) along with Fowler and Kress (1972) were among the leading scholars who paved the way for investigating the language critically by analyzing ‘texts’. The type of discourse analysis they performed was based on the theoretical
7 foundation of Halliday’s metafunctional grammar and Systemic Functional Linguistics, which was based on the premise that language and society are inevitably connected. Nevertheless, there were limitations in CL as a system, some of which are the ones argued by Fairclough (2006) who states this type of discourse analysis considers text as a product rather than considering the production and interpretation of it. In 1989, Fairclough published the book Language and Power; a pioneer work in the field of Critical Discourse Analysis, in which he proposes a framework for examining the interaction of language and social practice. His main concern was the interactions of language and power. Fairclough’s ideological doctrine can be used in everyday practice; advertisement texts as well as political texts are subject to his analysis. One major development in the field has been achieved following a conference in 1991, at the University of Amsterdam, where a group of linguists gathered and discussed the theories of Discourse Analysis. Teun van Dijk, Norman Fairclough, Gunther Kress, Theo van Leeuwen and Ruth Wodak, discussed various approaches and their similarities and differences. The emergence of the term Critical Discourse Analysis traces back to the work of Fairclough Critical Language Awareness in 1992, in which the ‘critical approaches’ to discourse analysis was outlined and he used other terms such as Critical Language Awareness (CLA) and Critical Language Studies (CLS). Later in the edited version of his book Critical Language Awareness, Fairclough use the term ‘critical discourse analysis’ and categorized it as a form CLS. In 1995 the book named Critical Discourse Analysis was published and the term was confirmed (Billig, 2003).
1.3. Rhetoric and The Art of Persuasion Rhetoric is one of the various dimensions of discourse and therefore it is difficult to distinguish the principles of rhetorical analysis from those of discourse analysis. Rhetoric is concerned with the power of spoken and written language in persuading people in important public issues (Huckin et al., 2012). Burke (1969) defines rhetoric as “the use of words by human agents to form attitudes or to induce actions in other human agents” (p. 41). One of the areas of interest in discourse analysis and rhetoric is the language of advertisement, which usually aims at evoking a sense of persuasion, attraction or interest in the consumers for a product or a service. The language of
8 advertisements is known to be informative and persuasive. In the current study the focus is on the advertising discourse of beauty products. Beauty as an ideology is produced and presented through advertisements. Beauty products advertisements can manipulate people to an extent that they accept whatever said is true (Kaur et al., 2013). Harris (1952) defines an advertisement as a public notice that publishes information with the aim of promoting products and services. Advertisers use rhetorical devices to evoke the emotions of potential costumers. The famous Greek Philosopher Aristotle argues that persuasion could be brought about by the speaker’s use of three modes of “rhetoric”: Ethos, Pathos and Logos. Ethos is the demonstration of a communicator’s character and/or credentials. The persuasion lies in the authority and power of the speaker. Aristotle considered this as the most important attribute of any communication. The audience has to find the speaker’s character credible and trustworthy otherwise, the communication will not be persuasive. Pathos is an appeal based on emotion. The intent is to motivate people to take action. Logos, or appeal through reasoning refers to the internal consistency of the message, the clarity of the claim, the logic of its reasons, and the effectiveness of the supporting evidence that comes with it. Hermerén (1999) compares the language of commercial advertising to the process of persuasion which consists of four steps according to Sandell (1977); comprehension, acceptance, attitude change and retention of the message. Larsen (2015) argues that rhetoric deals with communicative situations and the aims and intentions of the communicators are important in relation to the text, therefore, “any kind of analysis that sets out to describe the ways in which a given discourse is determined or affected by its immediate communicative context could be said to be rhetorical in nature” (p. 650).
1.4. Multimodal Discourse Analysis A great number of researchers have previously focused on the verbal means of communication (Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1999; Fowler & Kress, 1979); however, lately CDA is applied also to non-verbal means of communication such as images and videos (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006). As stated in Labrador et al. (2014) persuasion in advertisement is not only achieved by linguistic means but also visuals elements contribute to the communicative and illocutionary function of advertising. Van Leeuwan
9 (2004) pointed out that the visual elements of images such as composition, typography and color are important since these elements, in relation to each other, contribute to the communication and production of the meaning. Each element has a ‘meaning potential’ or the ability to convey meaning, but the complete meaning is the sum of all the elements together. Multimodal Discourse Analysis attempts to understand the power and meaning of texts that are accompanied by visual or aural modes (Kress & Van Leeuwan, 2006), therefore, it is employed to analyze magazine covers, advertisements or movies. According to Dyer (1993) “a picture is used to lead the eye to the written copy in magazine ads and in commercials; language is used merely to reinforce a photograph or filmed sequence” (1993: 86). The language of persuasion seem to have had some changes over the years, while in the past advertisements tended to have longer texts and give more information about the product, nowadays they achieve their goals by brief and creative catch phrases, and using more visual elements, which leave a greater impact on the audience. The first objective of the present research is to extensively analyze the discourse of health and beauty products advertisements from the decade of the 80’s together with the period of 2015-2016 and identify the linguistic features which help them persuade their audience to buy a certain product or achieve their goals. The second aim of the research is to compare the linguistic and visual elements of the vintage ads and the new ones, in order to find out whether they have changed their strategies to keep persuading their potential costumers to act. The current research employs a critical discourse analysis approach towards the advertising texts and takes the three-dimensional analytical model of Fairclough (1989, 1992) in order to analyze both the linguistic and visual features of the texts and images. Fairclough’s model proposes three dimensions in analyzing discourse; the first dimension is concerned with discourse as ‘text’ and studies verbal, visual or verbal and visual texts. The second dimension is concerned with the production and consumption of the text in a certain context and the third dimension studies text as a social practice. This study deals only with the first dimension of this model, since the main aim of the study is to investigate the linguistic and visual elements of the advertising discourse. The beauty related adverts were chosen for the study since this is a growing industry and there are lots of new brands lunching at the time and the competitive market demands novelty and
10 creativity which makes the language of these ads an interesting area for discursive studies. Although many studies investigated advertising discourse (Labrador et al., 2013; Kaur et al., 2013; Chong, 2015; Lunyal, 2015), only few compared the language of advertising in different years (González, 2014). The following chapter presents a review of the literature that enabled me to conduct this research. First the theoretical background and the research framework are discussed and then a number of previous studies on advertising discourse are introduced. Chapter three explains the methodology, which is an overview of the research framework and design along with the research questions and the hypothesis. Then the data used in the study and the data analysis procedure is introduced. Chapter four presents the results and discussion on the analysis of the ads published in the 80’s in two parts; the linguistic analysis and the visual elements analysis. Chapter five present the results and the discussion on the ads published over the period of 2015-2016. This chapter is also in two parts; the linguistic and the visual element analysis. Chapter six establishes the similarities and the differences of the two time periods. Finally, chapter seven is the conclusion of the thesis.
11
CHAPTER TWO BACKGROUND
12 2.1. Theoretical Background and Framework Norman Fairclough was one of the leading scholars in the field of Critical Discourse Analysis who unlike other scholars instead of working through a linguistic approach in CDA, employed a sociological approach. His concept of discourse was of the ‘social practice’ kind and he was mainly interested in institutional discourse and power and he evaluated different areas such as linguistics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, conversation analysis, discourse analysis etc. and argued that these areas present limitations for critical perspective. In the book Language and Power (1989) Fairclough was one of the first linguists to talk about the relationship of language and power. He asserts that discourse is a social practice and the approach that he takes is critical in the sense that it is not only a description of discourse but it also explains and interprets how the discourse is shaped by power and ideologies. Starting in the eighties, Fairclough provided a schematic picture or a step-by-step model of how CDA works in a number of his studies (1992, 1995, 2000, 2006, 2008). The framework developed by Fairclough reveals the social practices of the advertising language, which is considered as a media discourse deeply connected to the society. The CDA framework investigates both lexical and grammatical relations of a text and social interactions of a certain discourse as a means of social change. The Three-dimensional model of Fairclough (1992) proposes three dimensions in the framework of CDA; the first dimension is concerned with discourse as ‘text’, and it is not limited to the linguistics units of sentences or clauses, but both verbal, visual or verbal and visual texts are included. It is related to the grammar, vocabulary, cohesion and organization of the text as well as the semiotic indications including: images, different colors, signs, sounds. (Vahid & Esmae’li, 2012). The second dimension which studies discourse as a ‘discursive practice’ is concerned with coherence and speech acts, and intertextuality. It examines the production and reception of the text in a certain context. There are two types of context; the situational context, which deals with time and place of production (e.g. certain magazine published in New York), or the intertextual context, which is concerned with the producers and receivers of the discourse (certain target group like women). This dimension deals with questions such as ‘who are the producers and what are their objectives?’. The third dimension, which studies text as a
13 social practice, is concerned with the ideological influences and the operation of discourse in hegemonic processes, i.e. how discourse is manipulated to control the way people think. It is the power functioning behind the entire process and deals with questions such as ‘what is the relation of the topic of investigation with the type of social practice or discourse?’ (Vahid & Esmae’li, 2012). As Chong (2015) states: “Fairclough’s three-dimensional model with its three phases of research procedure aims at exploring the links between language use and social practice” (p. 91). This framework constitutes the theoretical basis of the objectives of this study; to analyze the language of advertising and see which devices are used in this type of discourse. However, it is crucial to bear in mind that the research at hand is only concerned with the first dimension of the model, since it solely investigates the linguistic and visual features of the advertising discourse.
2.2. Previous Studies Numerous companies emerge each year to introduce new products and services with the aim of attracting more and more costumers, as a consequence, a huge number of ads are produced in order to promote products and services or keep the already established companies on top by selling their products. As a consequence of the competitive market, there is a trend towards employing promotional strategies in both television commercials and print ads. Content writers consistently face a challenge in choosing the ‘right’ language to persuade people. Hatim (1990) states ‘‘In text- typological terms, the advertisement seems to be better represented as a continuum of text functions fluctuating between ‘informing’ and ‘manipulating’’ (p. 117). Various researchers made an attempt to investigate the nature of rhetoric and the language of advertising discourse in order to ascertain persuasion strategies and detect the rhetorical devices employed in this genre of discourse. There are different approaches and methods applied in analyzing the persuasive language of advertisement. Many researchers combine the theories from the discourse analysis, critical discourse analysis and rhetorical analysis to attain the best results. Hermerén (1999) discussed the persuasive effect of commercial advertising based on what Sandell (1977) wrote in his book and compared the function of advertisements to the process of persuasion and pointed out that the persuasion procedure could be divided into four components: comprehension,
14 acceptance, attitude change and retention of the message. Cook (1992) discusses how the language of advertising contributes to the message to be transmitted by looking at the interaction of verbal and visual elements; he states that discourse of advertisements is a combination of language and images. Labrador et al. (2013) studied the rhetorical structure and persuasive language in the subgenre of online advertisements. They chose a corpus of two hundred Spanish and English online small electronic devices advertisements. Regarding the method used for their study, they tagged both corpora for rhetorical moves, identifying the rhetorical structure of their texts. The method was based on the Swales (1990) move–step rhetorical analysis (CARS model), which proposes a hierarchical classification for the organization of research articles involving moves and steps. The English corpus was used as the experimental data for analyzing the rhetorical and persuasive language while the Spanish corpus was used as a reference. Rhetorical labels were assigned to sections of each text for each advertisement. Then, the moves were identified ranging from words to paragraphs; this helped identifying the distributional pattern of rhetorical moves in each move or step. The second step for analyzing the text was to identify the lexical and grammatical features; by doing this, the lexical patterns of use for certain words that occur more often in one move were identified. The results of this study on rhetorical moves suggest two compulsory moves in the data; ‘identifying product and purpose’ and ‘describing the product’. The former consists of naming the company, naming the product, explaining the application and giving pictures. The latter includes the description characteristics and objective features like size or weight and positive evaluation of the product. In terms of lexical and grammatical features, the results indicated the use of informal style resembling the spoken language with the use of second person and imperatives, contractions, catchphrases, alliteration, clipping, subject omissions, emphatic enumeratives, multiple modifiers, quantifying expressions, non-finite clauses. The main conclusion of the study was that clear persuasive steps do not occur in any of the texts. In English there seem to be clearer boundaries between the different rhetorical sections of the texts, however the rhetorical structure of English and Spanish is very similar.
15 Kaur et al. (2013) examined the discourse of beauty product advertisements in two woman magazines, using the Critical Discourse Analysis approach and the three dimensional framework of Fairclough, in order to see how these advertisers use language to manipulate or influence their costumers. The results demonstrated how the ideology of beauty (the idea of what is considered as beautiful) is produced through ads published in these magazines and the fact that advertisers promote an idealized lifestyle and show that beauty products result in a better life. The study further suggests that advertisers use various linguistic devices such as direct address, positive vocabulary, headlines, and catch phrases in order to attract women. The focus of the research at hand is on the verbal and visual building blocks of persuasive language. It goes without saying that the visual elements contribute to the function of advertisements to a great extent. Some studies focus on visual rhetoric as well as the verbal rhetoric. Dyer (1993) states that in advertisement and commercials language is used to strengthen the visual elements and pictures are used to the lead the attention to the written discourse. Chong (2015) points out that the visual images convey social meanings beside their commercial and attractive function. Walker (2007) explored the nature of American advertising discourse, as well as, verbal and visual rhetorical elements integrated with it. The study discussed television, radio, and billboard in addition magazine advertisements. Walker identifies imagery, rhythm, symbolism and hyperbole and explains that the rhetorical devices used in advertising are also found in poetry. Lunyal (2015) examined the discourse of perfume advertisements with respect to their verbal and visual rhetoric devices. The study made use of the Fairclough’s model of critical discourse analysis (CDA) to analyze the verbal and visual content to reveal ideological underpinnings. It concluded, “advertisements emerge from social realities and reflect the ideology of the society in which they are created” (p. 129). Mzoughi and Abdelhak (2011) experimented the effect of visual and verbal rhetoric on emotions, as well as the attitude towards the advertisements and the brand. Their results suggest that using figures enhances the effect of print advertisements; verbal figures in particular led to a more favorable attitude toward the ad. Hillier (2004) compared the British television advertisement in the 1950’s and the 1990s-2000s, by using the Leech’s framework (1966). The findings of the study suggested that in the more recent years there
16 was a tendency towards using less direct address forms in advertising. Ellison (2014) conducted a research on a sample of anti-aging print advertisements collected from fourteen North American magazines and examined the discourse of anti-aging skin care advertisement, using the CDA approach through the use of semiotics and visual rhetoric, Semiotics was employed because it offers a systematic, comprehensive study of communications phenomena. The study was mainly interested in finding out the way anti-aging skin care advertisements present a certain ideal image to their viewers. Four views of agelessness were identified in the study: Agelessness as Scientific Purity, Agelessness as Genetic Impulse, Agelessness as Nature's Essence, and Agelessness as Myth. There have not been many studies focusing on the chronological aspects and development of advertising language during time. One of the studies which has considered the time frame as well was conducted by González (2014) who investigated the development of cosmetic advertising extensively; the adverts from the cosmetics brand of Max Factor, which were published from 1940 to 2000 were analyzed from a CDA point of view. The corpus consisted of print adverts of Max Factor, from different decades, which were all in English. The Fairclough’s analytical framework was employed to analyze the persuasive language used in these ads. This framework assigns three dimensions to every discursive event, which Fairclough (1993) describes as “instance of language use, analyzed as text, discursive practice, social practice” (p. 138). The result of the study indicated that all of the adverts consisted of four main parts: i) the headline, ii) the first reading (texts); ii) the body, the description of the product and its advantages; iii) the signature line, which is compounded by slogans, logos or the name of the brand; iv) the illustration, which comprises the pictures of the product and a celebrity. The author concludes that the results are against the initial hypothesis of the study, which was that Max Factor would have changed its linguistic strategies in order to remain a successful brand. It turned out instead, that Max Factor’s ads have not changed much, only the length of their text has shortened during time, along with some of their discursive devices. This research is in line with the present study, which focuses on another brand of beauty products, Maybelline.
17
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
18 3. Method and Research Questions A mentioned in chapter two, the analytical approach to study the advertising discourse in this research is that of Critical Discourse Analysis. This approach provides us with the tool that helps to achieve the purpose of this research, which is analyzing the advertising texts in relation to their social context. As already discussed in the introduction chapter, critical discourse analysis is concerned with revealing the social inequalities in texts and scholars often use it in order to analyze advertising discourse in order to see the way they persuade or manipulate people. The framework employed for analyzing the data in this study is the three- dimensional model of Fairclough, which has been discussed earlier in the Theoretical Background chapter (2). This model has been adopted and used by many researchers in the field of discourse analysis studies. It proposes three dimensions to language use in communication. The first dimension describes discourse as text and focuses on the linguistic features of the text as well as the visual features like images, colors, signs, etc. The second dimension examines discourse as discursive practice and it is concerned with the production, the perception and the distribution of text. The third dimension is concerned with discourse as social practice and the sociocultural situations related to the distribution and production. The study aims to answer the following questions:
1. What are the linguistic and visual devices that were employed in the beauty advertisements of the 80’s? 2. What are the linguistic and visual devices that were employed in the beauty advertisements over the years of 2015-2016? 3. Have the linguistic and visual devices used in the advertising discourse changed during time? What are the similarities and differences?
Accordingly, in order to answer these questions the first dimension of Fairclough’s framework will be employed to analyze the data. This dimension is concerned with the verbal as well as visual elements. The current investigation comprises a qualitative in-depth analysis of the adverts in terms of grammar, vocabulary, cohesion, cohesion and organization of the text and the visual and graphic indications including:
19 images, different colors, and signs. It is hypothesized that due to the natural development that language goes through and the competitive market of the health and beauty products both the linguistic and visual devices that these adverts employ have changed and adapted to the needs and interests of the society; as a consequence the persuasion strategies have changed during the decades. The focus of the advertisements is now more on visual elements and less on the linguistic features.
3.2. Data The materials selected for the study are health and beauty advertisements from the brand of Maybelline, which were published in women magazines and promote either beauty or health related products like cream foundations or moisturizers, for women. The sampling method was purposive and non-random, i.e. a kind of sampling method that some elements of the population have no chance of selection, or the probability of selection cannot be accurately determined. For example, certain ads that advertise mascara or creams were selected. The adverts were chosen based on their audience focus (the target group here is women). and the product they promote as well as their layout, which is in either one or two full-page format including pictures accompanied by texts. In order to create a homogeneous corpus, the vintage adverts also promote the same products as the new ones. The corpus is comprised of ten advertisements from the 80’s and ten advertisements from 2015-2016, which were selected for the purpose of this study from one of the pioneer brands of cosmetics, Maybelline. The advertisements published in the decade of 1980, were randomly collected through the Google search engine. The adverts that were published in 2015 and 2016 were collected through the electronic version of the beauty and fashion magazines such as Vogue, since these magazines are mainly dedicated to women and beauty and usually include advertisements mostly dedicated to beauty products. The advertisements chosen for this study were published in English speaking countries; as a result, the samples were all in English. In selecting the advertisement the following criteria were considered in order to have a homogeneous sample for the research; the purpose of the (advertisement) text, which is promoting beauty products here, the producer (Maybelline), the date of production (the 80’s and
20 2015-2016). The availability of the material was another factor to consider. Table 1 and Table 2 show the name and the type of the products, besides the year of the production.
Table 1 – Adverts from the 80’s
Name of The Product Type of The Product Year
1. Long Wearing make-up Maybelline Cream Foundation 1983 2. Maybelline Brush/Blush Blush 1984 3. Shine Free Crease-Resistant Eye Shadow Eye shadow 1984 4. Magic Mascara Maybelline Mascara 1980 5. Fresh Lash Mascara 1982 6. Moisture Whip Maybelline Moisturizer 1981 7. Shine Free Cosmetics. Rich ‘n Gentle Mascara Eye shadow, Powder Blush, Cover 1984 Stick, Translucent Pressed Powder 8. Rich ‘n Gentle Mascara Mascara 1984 9. Moisture Whip Make-up Maybelline Foundation, Blush 1982 10. Moisture Whip Maybelline Lipstick 1985
Table 2 – Adverts from 2015/2016
Name of The Product Type of The Product Year
1. Color Sensational The Reds Lipstick 2015 2. New Brow Drama Pro Palette Eyebrow Kit 2015 3. Blushed Nudes Palette Blush 2015 4. New Brow Drama Sculpting Brow Mascara Brow Mascara 2015 5. New The Falsies Push Up Drama Mascara Mascara 2015 6. New Dream Velvet Foundation Foundation 2016 7. New Lasting Drama Waterproof Gel Pencil Eye Pencil 2015 8. Lash Sensational Luscious Mascara Mascara 2016 9. New The Rock Nudes Palette Eye Shadow Kit 2016 10. Color Sensational The Plums Lipstick 2016
3.3. Data Analysis Procedure
In order to answer the first research question, the textual dimension of the data will be analyzed. Each advertisement from the decade of the eighties will be extensively analyzed in terms of the linguistic features and visual and graphic features (chapter 4). Then, in order to answer the second research question, the adverts published in the years
21 of 2015 and 2016 will be analyzed by employing the same procedure as the one used for analyzing the vintage ads (chapter 5). Finally, the adverts from the 80’s will be compared to the recent ones (chapter 6). This comparison will reveal their changes in terms of linguistic and visual features. For the purpose of linguistic elements analysis the data will be analyzed in terms of grammatical cohesion, lexical cohesion, sentence structure, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. The features of the verbs such as tense, aspect, mood and voice will be also analyzed. For the visual features analysis of the advertisements the data will be also analyzed in terms of the type, size and color of the font used in the texts, as well as the organization of different parts of the texts and the features of the pictures. The organization of the advertising texts will be based on Leech (1966) who states that adverts are structured into five moves and steps: headline, illustration, body copy, signature line and standing details. This detailed analysis of the data contributes to the aim of the research, which is to find out what type of linguistic devices are employed in the advertising discourse and whether these devices, as well as visual and graphic elements have changed over time.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF THE ADS PUBLISHED IN THE 80’S
23 4. The Ads From The 80’s
This section attempts to find the answer to the first research question, i.e. to find out which linguistic and visual devices were employed in the advertisements published during the 80’s in order to persuade the potential costumers. Therefore, the answer to this question is comprised of two parts; the linguistic elements analysis and the visual elements analysis. The first dimension of the three-dimensional model of Fairclough, which is concerned with both verbal and visual elements of text, constitutes the framework used to answer the first research question. The grammar, vocabulary, cohesion and organization of the text in addition to the semiotic indications including composition, images, signs, and fonts are the elements studied at this dimension.
4. 1. Textual Analysis: Linguistic Elements
The linguistic features of the advertisements are explained and discussed in this section. Firstly, the grammatical cohesive devices, then the lexical cohesive devices are introduced and explained. Secondly, the general findings of cohesive devices used in these ads are presented. Thirdly, the features of the sentences and the verb are discussed. The following table (1) introduces the devices used in these ads in order to create
24 grammatical cohesion, some of which were not present in this sample. Cohesive devices, including reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction will be introduced throughout the analysis. Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical relationship between different elements of the text. It is achieved by means of different formal linguistic features. As discussed by Halliday and Hasan (1976), Grammatical cohesion is created by the use of grammatical structures. The authors classify grammatical cohesive devices into four main categories; Reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. As can be seen from the table also these devices are employed in advertising discourse in order to create grammatical cohesion in the text. Cohesive devices are used to simplify or shorten the texts, because these pro-forms are more economical, and help to keep the information current without restating everything.
Table 1, Grammatical Cohesive Devices Used In The 80's
Ads Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
1. Long - Personal pronoun: you Wearing make-up - Nominal: One - - Maybelline - Personal pronoun: It
2. Maybelline - Pronoun: your - Nominal: each one - - Brush/Blush
3. Shine Free - Personal: your Crease-Resistant - - - - Personal pronoun: you Eye Shadow
4.Magic Mascara - Personal: your - - - Maybelline - Personal pronoun: you - Personal pronoun: it - Personal: my 5. Fresh Lash - Personal pronoun: I - - - - Personal pronoun: it
- Demonstrative: this 6. Moisture Whip - Personal pronoun: it - Causal: because Maybelline - Personal pronoun: I - Verbal: do - - Causal: so - Personal: your - Personal: our - Additive: also - Personal: its
25
7. Shine Free Cosmetics. Rich - - - Causal: after all - Personal pronoun: you ‘n Gentle Mascara - Personal pronoun: it 8. Rich ‘n Gentle - Personal pronoun: you - - Mascara - Personal: its - Causal: so - Personal pronoun: them 9. Moisture Whip - Personal pronoun: I Make-up - Personal pronoun: it Maybelline - Personal pronoun: you - - - Adversative: but - Personal: my - Additive: also - Personal: its
10. Moisture - Personal pronoun: it Whip Maybelline - Nominal: each (one) - - - Personal: your
4.1.1. Reference Reference is used in order to refer to the entities in the outside world or to other parts of the discourse (Brown & Yule, 1983). There are two broad categories of reference; Endophora (textual) and exophora (situational), the former refers to an entity within the text and the latter refers to the entities beyond the text. Both are used in the advertising discourse. The three types of references, which could be anaphoric or exophoric, are Personal References classified as personal pronouns (e.g. I, he, she), possessive determiners (e.g. my your, his), and possessive pronouns (e.g. mine, hers, his), However, there was no example of the last type in the corpus chosen for this study. Demonstrative References showing the proximity to the speaker (this, these, here) and the distance (that those, there), and Comparative References, showing the referent by contrasting it. As indicated by Table 1, there was a large use of reference, especially that of personal pronouns in all of these ads. As Beaugrande & Dressler (1981) state pronouns are the best representations of pro-forms, which replace the noun or the noun phrase to which they refer. Personal pronouns are not only used to achieve cohesion but to address the readers directly and personally. The second-person pronoun is abundant in advertising discourse and according to Cook (2001) it is one of the most distinctive features of it. This pronoun is used in the spoken language to address the interlocutor and creates a sense of intimacy.
26 There are several pronouns in the first advertisement, ‘Long Wearing make-up by Maybelline’, which makes use of the personal pronoun ‘you’ five times throughout the text to address the prospects or the readers. The pronoun ‘it’ is also used to refer to the product. There is also the use of the pronoun ‘I’ in some of the ads (5,6,9), which is used by the public figure whose picture appears on the advertisement in order to introduce the product from her point of view. There are many people who follow the footsteps of the celebrities, thus the fact that a certain famous person uses the product give it more credibility. Only the ad of ‘Rich ‘n Gentle Mascara’ (8) employed the pronoun ‘them’ in order to refer to the lashes and avoiding the repetition of the word in a short sentence. These four personal pronouns are the only ones used in the corpus. The interest here is especially on the second person pronoun ‘you’ because addressing the readers directly in the advertising text involves more of their attention, such involvement is the basis of all linguistic understanding since it is “a state of motivation, arousal, or interest and results in searching, information processing, and decision making” (Tannen, 2007; Colbert et al., 2001). The second person pronoun ‘you’ and the personal pronoun ‘it’ as well as ‘your’ was used in almost all the adverts. Examples (the numbers given to the examples indicate the number of the ad in the table):
[1] It’s not just how good you look, but how long you look good. You’ll notice the difference with Long Wearing make-up by Maybelline. One is just right for you. Long Wearing make-up Maybelline keeps you looking good all day It feels light to the touch
[2] So you can mix and match the colors to get just the look you want.
[3] The Magicurve Brush is contoured to the shape of your eye to brush out clumps as it colors and curls even the tiniest lashes. And the Magic formula is waterproof gives you long luscious lashes that won’t smudge.
27
[5] It’s waterproof, smear proof, even sleep-proof.
[8] Put it on the way you like it, Take it off the way you like it. Lashes The Way You Like Them.
Another pronoun, which was used in the second ad ‘Maybelline Brush/Blush’ for a blush product, is the possessive determiner ‘your’. The ‘Fresh Lash’ advertisements (5) together with ‘Moisture Whip Make-up Maybelline’ ad (9) include the possessive determiner ‘my’, used by the actress to talk about her own experience and engage the prospects in her personal life. The use of this type of reference also functions like the personal pronouns, in that, since advertisements target a vast number of people at the same time; accordingly using the second person determiners or pronouns helps the advertisers to address each person directly and personally. Fairclough (1989) developed the label ‘Synthetic personalization’ as a term assigned to the process of addressing mass audiences as though they were individuals through inclusive language usage, which was developed from CDA. In the sixth advertisement “Moisture Whip Maybelline” promoting a Moisturizer, the possessive determiner ‘its’ is also used in order to refer to the skin. In another ad this possessive determiner is used in order to refer to the product. There was only one instance of the possessive determiner ‘our’ by the actress to say that she is also part of the crown and the society, sharing the same issue of ‘aging the skin and getting wrinkles because of the sun rays’. Examples:
[3] These colorful collections of powdered shadows resist creasing for hours to keep your eyes looking beautiful. [4] Put Magic in your life.
[6] harmful light rays that cause our skin to age and wrinkle before its time.
“So use moisture Whip every day and do more than moisture your face.”
28 [5] “My Fresh Lash stays fresh and I give it a workout!” “When I rehearse my specials I work a long, exhausting day, But my Fresh lash mascara always looks fresh”
[9] “Moisture Whip Make-up is rich with moisturizers To blend flawlessly. And protect my skin from dryness.”
“.. Padimate O, a sunscreen that helps protect my skin from aging and wrinkling before its time.”
[8] So you can create your own individual look. And its gentle formula washes off simply with soap and water.
[10] “Pick color so moist it licks your lips”
Further more, the sixth ad ‘Moisture Whip Maybelline’ employs the demonstrative reference ‘this’ two times in the text, in order to show the proximity. Example:
[6] This is where a wrinkle could start…. This is what could stop it.
The actress Lynda Carter is pointing to her eye corner to show that ‘the wrinkle’ could start there and then again by using the reference ‘this’ she refers to the product, which could help to stop the skin to wrinkle. Demonstrative references need an accompanying gesture for its meaning to be complete and here the picture of the actress and the product or the text related to the product completes its meaning.
4.1.2. Substitution and Ellipsis Substitution is the replacement of one item by another one. It is similar to ellipsis, however in ellipsis the item is omitted. There are three types of substitution: Nominal substitution which is the replacement of nouns with words like one, ones, same, so. Verbal substitution which is the replacement of verbs with words like do, be, have, do the same, likewise, do so, be so. Clausal substitution is the process of the replacement of a clause by words like so or not. The advertisement of ‘Long Wearing make-up
29 Maybelline’ (1) uses the word ‘one’ as a nominal substitution in order to avoid repeating the same phrase right after the first sentence and also to pick out one of the colors “in a spectrum of naturally soft shades”. The second ad ‘Maybelline Brush/Blush’ also uses ‘each one’ in order to avoid the repetition of the name of the products; Brush/Blush, and Brush/Blush II. Nominal substitution is also found in the ‘Moisture Whip Maybelline’ ad (10), where ‘each’ substitutes ’30 long-lasting shades’. The verbal substitution could be seen in the ‘Moisture Whip Maybelline’ ad (6), in which the verb ‘do’ replaces the action performed by the actress; using moisture whip and protecting the skin. Examples are as follows:
[1] It feels light to the touch, blends easily, comes in a spectrum of naturally soft shades. One is just right for you.
[2] Choose Brush/Blush in an array of naturally soft shades and subtly frosted shades. Or try the Blush/Brush II collections. Each one has two complementary colors [6[ So use moisture Whip every day and do more than moisture your face. Help protect it from wrinkles. I do. [10] moisture Whip Lipstick offers you over 30 long-lasting shades. Each whipped with moisturizers and a protective sunscreen.
Ellipsis happens when an item is omitted within a text and it is replaced by nothing. In the sample of the ads from the 80’s there were no Ellipsis. There are several sentences in the ads, which are rather short and do not allow more omission of the words. There are three types if ellipses; nominal, verbal and causal. Nominal ellipsis is the omission of a noun head in a noun group; verbal ellipsis occurs when a verbal group presupposes one or more words from a previous verbal group, and Causal ellipsis is the omission of a part of the clause or all of it.
30 4.1.3. Conjunction Conjunctions are a group of words used to connect words, phrases or clauses and they show a certain order or relation between clauses and sentences. It is used in order to structure a text or discourse and give it a logical organization. There are four types of conjunctions; Additive (and, moreover, in addition, besides, by the way, thus, that is, etc.), Adversative (yet, but, however, on the other hand, anyhow, nevertheless, rather, etc.), Causal (so, thus, hence, therefore, because, accordingly, etc.), and Temporal (then, next, afterward, previously, finally, from now on, up to now, etc.). These four types are found in the corpus, although there is a only limited number of them. The ‘Moisture Whip Maybelline’ (6) ad used three different conjunctions in the quotation from the actress, which is essential of the spoken language and works in favor of the flow of speech. The causal conjunction ‘because’ is used to give a reason why the actress uses the product. The second causal conjunction in this ad is ‘so’ as a conclusion to the entire positive remarks the actress made about the product in order to persuade the prospects. Another type of conjunction that is used in this ad is ‘also’ as an additive; to add more information following what the actress were saying. The ‘Shine Free Cosmetics. Rich ‘n Gentle Mascara’ ad (7) also used a causal conjunction ‘after all’ since the word here is a conclusion of the ad in view of all circumstances. The causal conjunction ‘so’ is also found in the ‘Rich ‘n Gentle Mascara’ (8} to show the result of the positive feature of the product, which is being Dial Control. The other type of conjunction is employed in the ninth ad ‘Moisture Whip Make-up Maybelline’ is the adversative ‘but’ along with ‘also’ to introduce a new statement, adding something to what the actress previously said and to show a contrast in some way. Examples (5):
[6] “That’s why I use Moisture Whip Moisturizer by Maybelline. Because unlike the leading moisturizers, Moisture Whip contains Padimate O…”
“Moisture Whip is also dermatologist tested and fragrance free. So use moisture Whip every day and do more than moisture your face.”
31 [7] “After all you were meant to be Shine Free!”
[8] “Rich ’n Gentle Mascara’s unique Dial Control System lets you put on as much, or as little mascara as you like. So you can create your own individual look.”
[9] “I love the look I get with Moisture Whip Make-up by Maybelline. But I also love knowing it’s good for me.”
Table 2 is concerned with Lexical Cohesion, which was analyzed in the data. Lexical Cohesion is achieved through the choice of vocabulary and it is concerned with the meaning in text. it is concerned with two distinct but related aspects; reiteration and collocation. Reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion, which involves repetition, synonym, hypernym, subordinate and a general noun and Collocation is achieved through the association of lexical items that regularity co-occurs and these lexical items or words usually occur in similar environments. The following table indicates the types and the examples of the words used in order to achieve cohesion in the advertisements. As can be seen from the table not all types of these cohesive devices were employed in various ads.
Table 2, Lexical Cohesive Devices Used in The 80's
Synonym/ Hypernym/ Ads Repetition General Noun Collocation Near Synonym Subordinate good, look, Long 1. Long Wearing make-up, spectrum, soft shades, Wearing make- beautiful, - Feel, touch - dermatologist, up Maybelline beautifully, long, skin natural, naturally
brush, blush, soft, color, pink, 2. Maybelline softness, shades, soft, silky burgundy, petal - color, shades Brush/Blush fresh, silky, frost; shades, brush/blush color
32 3. Shine Free eye shadow, shine Crease- - free, crease- - Resistant Eye resistant, colors, new - - Shadow
4. Magic brush, magicurve, clumps, magic, Mascara brush, curls; mascara, magic, eye, lashes; - Maybelline little, tiny brush, clumps waterproof
5. Fresh Lash fresh, lash, mascara - - - lash, mascara; camera, close-up 6. Moisture Whip wrinkle, moisturizer, protect, screen face, skin - - Maybelline whip 7. Shine Free Cosmetics. ‘Shine Free’, look, - - - - Rich ‘n Gentle oil, hours, cosmetics Mascara the way you like it, 8. Rich ‘n soap, water; mascara, gentle - Gentle Mascara - - lash, mascara 9. Moisture ‘Moisture Whip Whip Make-up Make up’,beautiful, - - - - Maybelline good, protect 10. Moisture Whip lips, color, moist, - - - color, shades Maybelline 1 lick
As indicated by Table 2, the first device that helps the cohesiveness of the texts is Repetition, which involves the reiteration of a lexical item and it is the simplest form of lexical cohesion. In other words, the use of the same word (not restricted to the same morphological forms, e.g. beautiful, beautifully) over again. The repetition of words could be seen in all of the advertisements. According to Kaur et al. “intensify the meaning of the advertisement” (2013; 64). In a number of the ads such as ‘Shine Free Cosmetics, Rich ‘n Gentle Mascara’ ad (7) or ‘Moisture Whip Make-up Maybelline’ ad (9), the name of the product is repeated in order to make the readers remember the name. The repetition of the name of the product along with the positive adjectives that describe the features of it could be also found in other ads of this period. Nevertheless, some of the ads repeat only the keywords of the text and not only the positive vocabulary, for example, ‘Moisture Whip Maybelline’ not only repeats the name of the product, but also uses the word ‘wrinkle’
33 four times in the text to convince the readers to think about the ‘problem’ and then presents the product as the ‘solution’. Adjectives and adverbs such as ‘beautiful or ‘natural’ are constantly used in the advertising discourse to emphasize the positive effects of using the product and therefore, they help to persuade the prospects. Examples (6):
[1] “It’s not just how good you look, but how long you look good.”
“A lovely, natural look. A simply beautiful look. You’ll notice the difference with Long Wearing make-up by Maybelline. “
“Maybelline’s special long-lasting formula was developed to wear beautifully”
[4] “The Magicurve Brush is contoured to the shape of your eye to brush out clumps as it colors and curls even the tiniest lashes. And the Magic formula is waterproof..”
“Put Magic in your life.”
The next form of lexical cohesion is created through the use of lexical items that are in some sense synonymous. Synonyms or near synonyms are sometimes used in order to avoid the repetition of the same word. There were not so many instances of synonymous words in the data. The words ‘soft’ and ‘silky’ in the ‘Maybelline Brush/Blush’ advertisements (2) are synonyms and are both repeated throughout the text, however they are not used for the same purpose, ‘soft’ describes the colors of the blushes and ‘silky’ refer to the quality of the product. Example:
[2] “Like Soft Burgundy and Petal Frost. Brush/Blush and Brush/Blush II. Soft blushes with a silky touch.”
34 The other form of lexical cohesion could be achieved through the use of Hypernym and Subordinate, i.e. a word with a broad meaning constituting a category into which words with more specific meanings fall, a superordinate. In other words, one word represents a class or a broad term of a thing and the second word represents the subclass or subgroup or another class at the same level. For example, in the ad (4) the words ‘eye’ represents a broader term and ‘lash’ is part of it. Another example (8) is found the second ad, the words ‘color, pink; burgundy, petal frost, shades, color’ are hyponyms in that a certain color is classified under the general term ‘color’.
[2] “Brush on the blushing softness of colors like Soft Misty Pink or soft Fresh Peach.”
General nouns are another type of cohesive devices; the class of general noun is a small set of nouns having generalized reference within the major noun classes such as ‘place noun’ or ‘human noun’. There was no type of this cohesive device within the corpus. There were a number of Collocations in the data. A collocation is two or more words that often go together. It refers to a set of lexical items that belong to the same semantic field but whose relationship is not clear enough to be identified. The cohesive effect of these items is that they share the same lexical environment. The first ad (1) uses the collocations such as ‘soft shades’ and ‘spectrum’ or ‘harmful’ and ‘rays’. The words ‘camera’ and ‘close-ups’ are also collocations in the ‘Fresh lash’ ad (5). It is important to bear in mind that sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the collocations and synonyms or hypernyms, as the part and whole relationships could be collocations as well. For example, the ‘Magic Mascara Maybelline’ ad (4) used the words ‘eye’ and ‘lash’, which could be collocations as well as hypernyms. Examples (8):
[1] It feels light to the touch, blends easily, comes in a spectrum of naturally soft shades.
[4] The Magicurve Brush is contoured to the shape of your eye to brush out clumps as it colors and curls even the tiniest lashes.
35
[5] Fresh lash mascara always looks fresh—without a touch-up. Even in camera close-ups.
Table (3) presents the summary of the advertisements feature, in addition to some examples and the percentage of the occurrence of each feature. The numbers indicate the number of ads that include such feature, for example the use of reference is seen in all of the ads.
Table 3, Cohesive Devices in Ads of The 80's
Cohesive Devices Examples Number of Ads
Grammatical Cohesion
you, your, it, I Reference 10 Substitution one, do 4 Ellipsis - 0 Conjunction so, also, but 4
Lexical Cohesion
Repetition Product’s name 10 Synonym or near synonym Little, tiny 3 Hypernym and subordinate Pink, color 4 General noun - 0 Collocation camera, close-up 6
The grammatical cohesion was mostly attained through the use of references, which were found in all of the ads, as well as substitution, which was used in four of the ads. There were no examples of ellipsis, which shows that sentences tend to be longer. Different types of conjunctions were also found in four ads. The sentences achieved lexical cohesion by the means of repetition in addition to synonyms and hypernyms in only three ads, respectively. There were no examples of general nouns but collocations were used in most of six different ads. In the following paragraph different features of the sentences will be explained. Table 4 is associated with the features of the sentences in the advertisements of the 80’s. Features such as the type of the sentence, verb type, pronouns, adjectives, and
36 adverbs are discussed in this sample of discourse. Sentences structurally could be classified to four main categories: Simple sentences, which are the ones with one independent clause and no dependent clauses, Compound sentences, which are the ones with multiple independent clauses and no dependent clauses, Complex sentences, which are the ones with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause, and Complex-compound sentences, which are the ones with multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. The verb features such as tense, aspect, mood and voice are presented in the table. Tense is the time of the accordance of the verb, which is generally classified into three major groups of past, present, and future. Aspect refers to the duration of the action, it determines whether the action performed by the verb is completed or still ongoing (progressive or non-progressive). Mood refers to the manner in which the action or condition is conceived or intended. There are three categories of mood in English; Indicative: verbs of this kind state a matter of fact, to indicate something; Subjunctive mood expresses a wish or an indirect command, usually by using English auxiliary verbs such as may, might, should, could, and ought are often part of subjunctive verb forms; Imperative mood expresses a direct command, Voice describes the relationship between the action or state described by a verb and subject of the verb. If the action is being performed by the subject, the verb is in the active voice and if something is performing an action upon the subject of the verb, it is in the passive voice.
Table 4, Grammatical Features in The 80's
Ads Sentence Structure Verb Pronouns Adjectives Adverbs
Tense: simple present, simple long-wearing, simple combined with future, simple past (passive) good, lovely, complex Aspect: non progressive you, it beautifully, easily, natural, beautiful, 1 Mood: indicative naturally long-lasting, light, Voice: active, passive soft Tense: simple present natural-liking,
Aspect: non progressive silky, soft, misty, - naturally, subtly 2 Simple and complex Mood: imperative, indicative fresh, frosted,
Voice: active beautiful shine-free, crease- Tense: simple present resistant, new, simple combined with Aspect: non progressive you colorful, powdered, specially 3 complex Mood: indicative beautiful, Voice: passive, active coordinated
37 Tense: simple present, simple
future contoured, tiny, simple combined with Aspect: non progressive you, it waterproof, long, - 4 complex Mood: indicative, imperative luscious, little
Voice: active fresh, long, Tense: simple present exhausting, mostly complex and Aspect: non progressive I, it waterproof, smear - 5 simple forms Mood: indicative proof, sleep proof, Voice: active 24-hour, nice Tense: simple present, simple past 6 simple, mostly complex Aspect: non progressive I, you, it, our harmful, leading - forms Mood: indicative, imperative Voice: active
Tense: simple present shiny, oily, shine- Aspect: non progressive simple, mostly complex you free, translucent, 7 Mood: indicative now, beautifully pressed, natural Voice: active Tense: simple present
mostly complex forms, Aspect: non progressive gentle, unique, you, it, them simply 8 few simple structures Mood: indicative individual
Voice: active Tense: simple present
Aspect: non progressive beautiful, glorious, simple, mostly complex I, you flawlessly 9 Mood: indicative, imperative good sentences Voice: active Tense: simple present
Aspect: non progressive rich, radiant, long- simple combined with Mood: indicative and it, you lasting, protective, - 10 complex forms imperative
Voice: active
As indicated by Table (3), in terms of sentence structure all of the advertisements had simple sentence structure along with the complex sentences. The sentences although brief, include complex forms; specifically the ads, which include a quotation by the actress, have a complex structure, because the nature of the spoken language includes more complex forms and connected structures. This could be seen in the ‘Moisture Whip Make-up Maybelline’ ad (9), where there are complex sentences such as “I love the look I get with Moisture Whip Make-up by Maybelline But I also love knowing it’s good for me”. The sentences are usually separated by punctuations in this corpus, however they are connected and dependent and could not be read separately. The sentence “The Magicurve Brush is contoured to the shape of your eye to brush out clumps as it colors and curls even the tiniest lashes” extracted from the ‘Magic Mascara Maybelline’ ad (4) is also an example of complex sentences including one independent sentence and
38 multiple dependent sentences. More simple structures are present in the ‘Moisture Whip Maybelline’ ad (10) including independent short sentences like ‘Drench your lips in rich, radiant color. Moisture Whip Lipstick offers you over 30 long-lasting shades.” Regarding verb choice, the dominant tense is simple present, which is used in order to state a general truth or a fact about the product. The present tense also shows that an statement is always true. Other types of tense are only present in three of the ads (1,4,6). The ad (1) uses the future tense in the sentence ‘You’ll notice the difference with Long Wearing make-up by Maybelline’ to give a promise to the readers to see the result of using the product. Another example of giving a promise by the use of the future tense is in the ad (6) ‘And the Magic formula is waterproof gives you long luscious lashes that won’t smudge’. Turning to Aspect, all of the ads include only the non-progressive type of verbs and no progressive verb was used. The progressive aspect expresses the dynamic quality of actions that are in progress. Progressive aspect refers to a verb phrase including a form of be plus -ing that indicates an action or condition continuing in the present, past, or future. According to Leech et al. (2012) the English progressive "has developed a rather complex meaning, or set of meanings, by comparison with progressive constructions in other languages", however, advertising text is short and tries to send the message to the costumers in the most simple way. Regarding Mood all the ads include the indicative mood and some also include one or two verbs with the imperative mood, however, the subjunctive mood was not present in the data. The example of an indicative mood is used in the sentence ‘Fresh lash mascara always looks fresh—without a touch- up’ (5). The example of imperative mood is in the (4) ad ‘Put Magic in your life’ and (9) ad ‘Try Moisture Whip make-up and blushes’. Another feature of the verb is Voice. The active voice is dominant in the data, however there are three instances of the passive voice in the (1,3) ads. In most English sentences the subject performs the action denoted by the verb. This form is the most economic and short way to express a sentence; consequently, one could find more of the active forms in the advertising texts, which are simple and short. When the subject is being acted upon there is the passive voice. The examples of the passive voice are as follows:
39 [1] Maybelline’s special long-lasting formula was developed to wear beautifully.
[3] Now there’s an eye shadow specially formulated by Maybelline to control the oil that causes creasing.
Table 5 presents the percentages of the occurrence of each feature of the verbs in the data. As indicated by the table all the ads include the verbs in present tense and only 20 percent of the verbs are either in past or future tense. Regarding Aspect all the verbs are non-progressive. Indicative mood is present in all the ads, imperative mood in only 40%, and no subjunctive mood is in the data. All the ads include the active voice and only 2o% use of the passive voice is observed.
Table 5, Verb Types of The 80's Verbs Number of Ads Past 2 Tense Present 10 Future 2 Progressive 0 Aspect Non-progressive 10 Indicative 10 Mood Imperative 4 Subjunctive 0 Active 10 Voice Passive 2
The pronouns that were mainly used are ‘you’ and ‘it’ to refer to the prospects or costumers and the product. There were few instances of the pronoun ‘I’ that the actress whose image appears in the ad, uses in order to talk about her experience using the product, which create a one-to-one relationship with the readers. The other pronouns used in the texts are ‘them’ and ‘our’. The use of ‘our’ in the (6) puts the addresser (advertiser) and the addressee (costumer) in the same group, sharing the same need, desires, and issues. Adjectives were employed in all of the advertising texts in order to describe the product and point out the positive features of it. Adjective is a descriptive word, the main
40 semantic function of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase and to give more information about the object. Some of the products include the positive adjectives in the name of the product, which helps to create a positive attitude towards the product. For example, the ‘Shine Free Crease-Resistant Eye Shadow’, ‘Rich ‘n Gentle Mascara or Fresh Lash’ ads use the adjective in the title to emphasize feature of the product. Adverb is a word or phrase that modifies the meaning of an adjective, verb, or other adverb, and expresses manner, place, time, or degree. Some adverbs, like sentence adverbs, can be used to modify whole sentences. The examples of the adverbs in the data are ‘beautifully, easily, naturally’. In the next part the visual and graphic features of the beauty advertisements are discussed.
4. 2. Textual Analysis: Visual Elements
According to Leech (1966) advertisements are structured into five moves; headline, illustration, body copy, signature line and standing details and some steps. The first move is the headline, including the name of the product or the slogan, the second move is the body copy which is the main text of the ad and describes the product, the third move consists of three steps; the image of the product, picture of the model who uses the product, and the final caption with the information about the image. The forth move is the signature line including the name of the brand or the product. All of the moves are found in the data except for ‘standing details’, which is the practical information such as contact or address; this move is not present in this corpus. The first move ‘the headlines’ is usually written in the largest font and sometimes is with a different style and color, in order to get the attention of the readers. The headlines mostly include the name of the product and a slogan. The headlines of the entire set of ads are as follows:
[1] Maybelline presents Long Wearing make-up It’s not just how good you look, but how long you look good.
[2] Maybelline Brush/Blush The natural-liking blush with the silky touch.
41 [3] MAYBELLINE INTRODUCES SHINE FREE NEW CREASE-RESISTANT EYE SHADOW
[4] MAGIC MASCARA GIVES CLUMPS THE BRUSH!
The Magicurve Brush!
[5] "My Fresh Lash stays fresh— and I give it a workout!”
[6] This is where a wrinkle could start…. This is what could stop it.
[7] MAYBELLINE PRESENTS THE SHINE FREE LOOK
[8] Put it on the way you like it Take it off the way you like it.
[9] ”I count on Moisture Whip Make-up for more than beautiful looking skin”. Lynda Carter [10] “Pick color so moist it licks your lips.”
The second move is the body copy or the main text of the advertisements. This part usually gives information or facts about the product or describes the features of it. It is mainly in short sentences and multiple lines written in small font. One example is the ‘Shine Free Cosmetics. Rich ‘n Gentle Mascara’:
[7] Now you can free yourself from the shiny look of oily skin. Maybelline’s Shine Free cosmetics contain special oil control ingredients to keep you looking shine free for hours and hours. Every Shine Free cosmetics…eye shadow, powder blush, cover stick, translucent pressed powder and make up—stays on without streaking or caking to leave you looking beautifully natural. After all you were meant to be Shine Free!
42
The third move includes three steps; the image of the product, picture of the model who uses the product, and the caption, which gives information about the picture. The pictures in this dataset did not include a caption. The layout of the pictures is mainly vertical, including a large picture of the model or actress and a smaller picture of the product below that and next to the body copy, on the right side. The pictures have no captions or extra information. As can be seen in the picture, the large headline including the name of the product ‘Long Wearing make-up’ appears on top of the page to get the attention of the readers. The picture of the actress and the product appears in the middle of the page next to the main text. The forth move ‘signature line’ in these ads include the name of the product in addition to the name of the brand and the date of the production. The signature line is written mainly in large font and distinctive style or different color. In the picture
43 ‘signature line’ can be seen under the picture of the product. It includes the name of the product and the brand.
[1] Long Wearing make-up Maybelline [2] Maybelline Brush/Blush [3] Shine Free Crease-Resistant Eye Shadow New From Maybelline [4] WATERPROOF MAGIC MASCARA MAYBELLINE [5] 24-hour mascara that conditions, too. Maybelline [6] Moisture Whip Maybelline [7] Shine Free Oil Control. Cosmetics from. Maybelline [8] Rich ’n Gentle Mascara. Lashes The Way You Like Them. Maybelline [9] Moisture Whip Maybelline. Now looking beautiful is good for you. [10] Moisture Whip Maybelline
As indicated by the examples, the layouts of the ads are mostly similar, with some minor differences in the composition, font color or size. The pictures of the celebrities in the advertisements are mostly close-up portraits with a light, simple background, which allows the viewers to focus more on the make-up details of the picture of the celeberitiy who appears in the advertisement. The fifth move or standing details is not found in this type of ads. This move includes the contact and address information of the advertisers or producers. It can be concluded that the ads published over this period include four moves of the five moves proposed by Leech (1966). The headlines appear on top of the page, followed by the pictures, the main text of the ads, the signature line including the name of the product and the brand.
44
CHAPTER FIVE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF THE ADS PUBLISHED IN 2015-2016
45
5. The Results of The ads From 2015-2016
This Chapter aims to find the answer to the second research question, i.e. which linguistic and visual devices were employed in the advertisements published in 2015 and 2016 in order to persuade potential customers. As has been done in the previous chapter the answer to this question has been split up into two parts; the linguistic aspect analysis and the visual analysis. Similar to the previous chapter, which made use of the Fairclough’s framework for answering the first research question, this chapter also employs the first dimension of the three-dimensional model of Fairclough, which is concerned with discourse as text and analyzes both verbal and visual elements.
46 The grammatical features, vocabulary, cohesion and organization of the text in addition to the visual and graphic indications including composition, images, signs, and fonts are the elements that will be investigated at this dimension.
5. 1. Textual Analysis: Linguistic Elements In this section, the linguistic features of the advertisements are explained and discussed. The following table (1) introduces the devices used in these ads in order to create grammatical cohesion, some of which were not present in this sample. Firstly, the grammatical cohesive devices, then the lexical cohesive devices are introduced and explained. Secondly, the general findings of cohesive devices used in these ads are presented. Thirdly, the features of the sentences and the verb are discussed.
Table 1, Grammatical Cohesive Devices Used In 2015-2016
Ads Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction
- Personal: your 1. Color Sensational - Personal: our - - - The Reds - Personal pronoun: it - Personal pronoun: she
- Causal: [Is/are your eyebrow(s)] 2. New Brow Drama - Personal pronoun: I rough around the edges? Pro Palette - - Nominal: Sculpt [your brow] - - Personal pronoun: it - Nominal: Fill [your brow] - Nominal: Highlight [your brow]
3. Blushed Nudes - Personal pronoun: I - Personal pronoun: it Palette - - - - Personal pronoun: you - Personal pronoun: us 4. New Brow Drama Sculpting Brow - Personal pronoun: it - Causal: [it is] available - - Mascara - Personal pronoun: I - Causal: [is it] bold?
5. New The Falsies - Personal pronoun I Push Up Drama - Personal pronoun: it - - - Mascara - Personal pronoun: us - Personal: your - Personal: my 6. New Dream - Personal pronoun: I - Causal: [are you] looking Velvet Foundation - Nominal: smoothes [the skin] - - Personal: our - - Nominal: perfects [the skin] - Personal pronoun: it
47
7. New Lasting Drama Waterproof - Personal pronoun: I - - - Gel Pencil
8. Lash Sensational - Personal pronoun: I Luscious Mascara - - - Personal pronoun: it -
9. New The Rock - Nominal: I rock it like no other - Personal pronoun: I Nudes Palette - [color] - - Personal pronoun: it - Verbal: [it is] edited for edge.
10. Color - Personal: our - Nominal: 80 shades in all Sensational The - - - Personal pronoun: it [colors] Plums
As indicated by Table 1 all of the ads employed reference as a grammatical cohesive device. The personal pronouns and possessive determiners are the most common references. The personal pronouns ‘I’ and ‘it’ are present in the entire sample because there is one instance of a simple short quotation from the actress who appears in the ad, as well as the slogan ‘make it happen’ in all of the ads. The pronoun ‘it’ usually doesn’t refer to the product in this sample; since the advertising texts are brief and it is not essential to avoid using the name of the product again by using pronouns. For example, the ‘New Brow Drama Pro Palette’ ad (2) uses ‘it’ in order to refer to the eyebrows without mentioning them before, which has an implication or the shared knowledge between the addresser (advertiser) and the addressee (costumer). It can also direct the attention towards the picture of the model and her eyebrows. This is also found in the ‘New Brow Drama Sculpting Brow Mascara’ ad (4), in which ‘it’ refers to eyebrows. There is only one instance of ‘it’ referring to the product in the ‘New The Rock Nudes Palette’ ad (9) where the model states ‘When I dare to go nude, I rock it like no other’. Examples (the numbers indicate the number of the ad in the table):
[2] Rough around the edges? I keep it polished. [3] Bold? That’s how I picture it. [10] Maybe she’s born with it. Maybe it’s Maybelline!
48
There is only one instance of the use of ‘you’ in the ‘Blushed Nudes Palette’ ad (3), in which the model directly addresses her interlocutor or the readers by saying ‘when I dare to go nude, it’ll make you blush’, here the sentences implies two meanings, by ‘nude’ meaning the color or the name of the product. The pronoun of ‘us’ is only used in two of the ads to ask for the picture of the costumers after using the product.
[3] Show us how you #Daretogonude
[5] Show us your #PUSHUPMASCARA look.
The next type of pronouns that are employed in these ads are the possessive pronouns of ‘your’ and ‘our’. The ad (1) ‘Color Sensational The Reds‘ employs both of the pronouns to create a more personal and direct relationship with the prospects. The ad first addresses the readers by using ‘your’ in the title ‘REVEVIE YOUR LOVE FOR RED’ and then uses ‘our’ in the sentence ‘CREAMER, MORE SUMPTUOUS FEEL from our nourishing honey nectar’. Since advertisements target a large number of audience at the same time, using second person determiners like ‘your’ helps the advertisers to address each person directly and personally. Furthermore, the possessive determiner ‘our’ suggests a relationship between the advertisers (the brand) and the target group. There is only one instance of the possessive determiner ‘my’ in the data, the ‘New Dream Velvet Foundation’ ad, where the model states ‘putting my best face forward. It’s what I dream about’, this creates a more intimate relationship with the readers and suggesting that the model is talking sincerely about her desire. There are no examples of substitution in the data, according to Halliday and Hasan (1976), cohesion occurs when the interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another (substitution). Most of the sentences in these ads are brief and only ellipsis occurred in these ads. Ellipsis is when an item (words, expressions, phrases) is omitted within a text and it is replaced by nothing. There are three types of ellipses; nominal, verbal and causal. Nominal ellipsis is the omission of a noun head in a noun group; verbal ellipsis occurs when a verbal group uses one or more words from a previous verbal group. This verbal
49 group does not express all the grammatical features like finiteness, voice or tense. Causal ellipsis is the omission of a part of the clause or all of it. Ellipsis may be explained as ‘something left unsaid’, nevertheless understood. There are different types of ellipsis in the advertising discourse in this time period. The ‘New Brow Drama Pro Palette’ ad (2) shows a number of ellipses like causal ellipsis: ‘[Is your eyebrow] rough around the edges?’ and nominal ellipsis in ‘Sculpt [your brow]’, Another example is the ‘New Brow Drama Sculpting Brow Mascara’ ad, using the question ‘bold?’ in more of a spoken language style and leaving out the subject and auxiliary [is it]. There are no conjunctions in the data from the 2015-2016. Conjunctions are often used as a linking device between ideas and show logical relationships expressed in clauses, sentences or paragraphs.. Example: [9] [It is] Edited for edge, from heavy metal
[10] In 8 provocative plum shades. 80 shades in all [colors]
Table 2 is concerned with Lexical Cohesion, which is achieved through the choice of vocabulary and is concerned with two related aspects; reiteration and collocation. Reiteration can be attained by the use of repetition, synonyms, hypernyms, and general nouns. A collocation is a combination of two or more words that are commonly used together. Table 2 presents the examples of reiteration and collocation in the ads.
Table 2, Lexical Cohesive Devices Used in 2015-2016
Synonym/ Hypernym/ Ads Repetition General Noun Collocation Near Synonym Subordinate honey, nectar, 1 Red, color, shades - - - color, shades ‘New Brow Drama Pro 2 - - - - Palette’, polished nude (colors), 3 - - - ‘Blushed Nudes Palette’ palette
4 bold, bolder - - - -
‘The Falsies Push Up 5 - - - - Drama Mascara’
hydration, water; 6 dream - - - velvet, smooth;
50 ‘Lasting Drama white, shades (of 7 - - - Waterproof Gel Pencil’ color) ‘Lash Sensational mascara, lashes 8 - - - Luscious Mascara’ nude (color), 9 rock, nude - - - palette honey, nectar; 10 color, shades - - - pigment, color
Table 2 indicates that lexical cohesion was only achieved through repetition (reiteration) and collocation; however, the number of the repetitions and collocations are very limited. Repetition of certain keywords and the name of the product occurred in the entire sample. For instance, in the advertisement of ‘Color Sensational The Reds’ lipstick, the advertiser repeats the words ‘red, color, and shades’ in order to emphasize the big range of colors available in shades of red. The second ad ‘New Brow Drama Pro Palette’ uses the name of the product twice in two different pages of the ad. Another example is the repetition of the words that are not necessarily the same; ‘bold’ and ‘bolder’ in the forth ad. Some of the features or the adjectives that describe the product are used in the name of the product and repeating them creates a more positive attitude towards the brand and the product. It is worth mentioning that the repetitions in the ads from this time period are scarce and mostly in two different pages, which does not necessarily result in cohesion. There are no examples of synonyms, hypernyms, or general nouns in this set of data, but the notions were discussed in the previous section where these elements were present in the advertising discourse. Collocations such as ‘hydration’ and ‘water’ which are closely related but not essentially synonymous create cohesion in the advertising text. Examples:
[6] Unique formula is gel-whipped with 2x more water.
12-hour hydration. Creates a fresh feel as it covers.
[10] TRUER, CRISPER COLOR from our rich, pure pigments.
51 Table (3) represents the summary of the common features of advertisements in 2015 and 2016. The numbers indicate in how many of the ads the feature exists.
Table 3, Cohesive Devices of The Ads in 2015-2016 Cohesive Devices Examples Number of Ads
Grammatical Cohesion
Reference I, my, it, our 10 Substitution - 0 Ellipsis nominal 5 Conjunction - 0 Lexical Cohesion Product’s name 10 Repetition Synonym or near synonym - 0 Hypernym and subordinate - 0 General noun - 0 Collocation hydration, water 7
As can be deduced from the table, the ads did not employ all types of cohesive devices, which is due to the short nature of the advertising discourse in these ads. For creating grammatical cohesion, all of the advertisements employed references, such as ‘I’, ‘it’, or ‘our’ and half of them used ellipsis. However, there are no examples of substitution and conjunction. On the other hand, lexical cohesion is created through the use of repetitions and collocations. Repeating words occurred in all of the ads, while collocations were present in seven of the ten ads, which were analyzed. Table 4 is related to the features of the sentences in the advertisements published in the years of 2015-2016. Grammatical features such as the type of the sentence, verb type, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs are discussed in this sample of advertising discourse. Verbs are further analyzed based on their tense, aspect, mood, and voice.
52 Table 4, Grammatical Features in 2015 and 2016
Sentence Ads Verb Pronouns Adjectives Adverbs Structure
Tense: simple present sensational, pure, Aspect: non progressive simple short sentences - nourishing, 1 Mood: indicative - revishing Voice: active
Tense: simple present Aspect: non progressive rough, polished, - simple short forms I 2 Mood: indicate, imperative new, soft, ultimate Voice: active Tense: simple present, simple past, present continuous, future short simple and bushed, nude, Aspect: non/progressive I, you, us - 3 complex structures blushed Mood: indicative Voice: active Tense: simple present
Aspect: non-progressive I, it 4 bold, new, deep - simple Mood: indicative Voice: active Tense: simple present, present continuous lifted, dramatic, 5 simple Aspect: non/progressive I -
Mood: indicative Voice: active
Tense: simple present, present matte, velvet- continuous smooth, soft-matte, mostly short simple Aspect: non ]/progressive I, it effortlessly 6 hydrating, fresh, sentences, complex Mood: indicative unique, ultimate Voice: active
Tense: simple present lasting, waterproof,
Aspect: non progressive smudge resistant, 7 simple I - Mood: indicative intense
Voice: active Tense: simple present Aspect: non progressive lush, sensational, simple I, it luscious, precious, - 8 Mood: indicative new Voice: active Tense: simple present simple and complex Aspect: non progressive I, it quietly 9 short sentences Mood: indicative, imperative heavy Voice: active Tense: simple present sensational, rich, Aspect: non progressive - nourishing, blissful blissfully 10 simple Mood: indicative
Voice: active
53 As indicated by Table 4, all advertisements include simple structures and only few occurrences of complex sentences have been found. The advertising texts include short sentences and phrases. Short sentences are easily remembered and they convey the message to the addressee faster and present ideas separately. The ‘Blushed Nudes Palette’ ad and ‘New Dream Velvet Foundation’ (3,6) include multiple short simple sentences and only one complex sentence. Examples:
[3] All blushed. Never hushed. Dare to go nude.
When I dare to go nude, it’ll make you blush.
[6] Putting my best face forward It’s what I dream about.
Our first hydrating matte foundation. No drying. no roughness. Just velvet-smooth perfection.
[10] Edited for edge, from heavy metal to quietly quartz.
Regarding the type of verbs that were used in the advertising texts, the dominant tense is the simple present with only three examples of present continuous and only one example of past tense and future. The simple present tense is used in order to state facts and give information about the product, while the present continuous is used to describe the type of the product that the model featuring the ad uses. For example, the sentence ‘Jourdan is wearing Blushed Nudes Palette’. Most of the verbs are non-progressive, showing that the action has been completed. Regarding, verb mood, all the ads employed the indicative mood and only two instances of the imperative mood are present in the data. All the verbs are also have an active voice. Table 5 presents the numbers indicate in how many of the ads each type of verb occurred.
54
Table 5, Verb Types of the Years of 2015-2016 Verbs Number of Ads Past 1 Tense Present 10 Future 1 Progressive 3 Aspect Non-progressive 10 Indicative 10 Mood Imperative 2 Subjunctive 0 Active 10 Voice Passive 0
The table shows that the present tense was used in all of the advertisements, while the past and future tense occurred only in only two of the ads. There are three example of progressive aspect in the data. With respect to the verb mood, all of the ads employed the indicative mood, only two imperatives, and non-subjunctive. Active voice is the only verb type in the data. Pronouns that were mostly employed are ‘I’ and ‘it’. The personal pronoun ‘I’ is used in the short quotations from the models whose picture appears in the ad. The pronoun ‘it’ is usually not used to refer to the product. There is only one instance of ‘you’ and ‘us’ in the data. Examples:
[4] It’s easy now.
Bold? That’s how I picture it.
[5] Drama? Sometimes I like to push it.
The advertising texts in this period contain many adjectives as apposed to the few number of adverbs. The adjectives describe the distinctive features of the products. The ‘New Dream Velvet Foundation’ advertisement employed many adjectives to emphasize the features of the new cream foundation by Maybelline; adjectives such as, matte, velvet- smooth, soft-matte, hydrating, fresh, unique, and ultimate. Another example is the ‘New
55 The Rock Nudes Palette’ ad for eyeshadow, which creates a sense of luxury with the use of the adjectives such as, lush, sensational, luscious, and precious. What follows is the description of visual and graphic elements in these ads.
5. 2. Textual Analysis: Visual Elements
Following the same procedure as in the previous chapter based on Leech (1966) concept of move and steps, advertisements are structured into five moves and some steps; headline, illustration, body copy, signature line and standing details. The first move ‘headline’ is usually written in a large font and sometimes it is with a different style and color than the rest of the text, in order to get the attention of the readers. The headlines mostly include a slogan and the name of the product. The examples of the headlines are as follows:
[1] REVEVIE YOUR LOVE FOR RED. COLOR sensational THE REDS
[3] All blushed. Never hushed. Dare to go nude. The blushed NUDES PALLETE
[4] The bolder brow. It’s easy now.
[5] Lashes so lifted, so dramatic. Dare to get the push-up effect. NEW the falsies PUSH UP DRAMA
[7] Now all-day intensity goes ultra-smooth. NEW LASTING DRAMA WATERPROOF GEL PENCIL
[8] Denser, softer lashes From a blend of precious oils. The fan effect goes luscious. NEW LASH sensational LUSCIOUS FULL FAN EFFECT
[9] Edited for edge, from heavy metal to quietly quartz. Dare to rock nude. NEW THE Rock NUDES PALETTE
56
The second move is ‘body copy’ or the main text, which is absent in some of the ads, for example the ‘New Brow Drama Pro Palette’ does not include a description of the product but only three pictures with short instructions on how to sculpt an eyebrow. Another ad, which does not have any main text, is the ‘Blushed Nudes Palette’ ad. The same is for the ‘New The Falsies Push Up Drama Mascara’ ad, including no body copy. The feature of the most of the ads published in 2015-2016 is that they don’t include ‘body copy’ or the main text which describes the product. The forth move (based on Leech, 1966) is the picture of the model, product, and the caption of the picture. The advertisements in this period usually include two pages, including a close up portrait of the model and another picture , which shows the entire body of the model. The picture of the product covers a large part of the page. Some of the ads include small instruction photos to show that the use of the product is easy. The captions of the pictures are the information on what type of the product the model is wearing. For example, ‘Christy is wearing Lash Sensational Luscious Mascara in Very Black’ or ‘Adriana wears Red Revival’.
57 The forth move is the signature line and all of the ads include a large line including the name of the brand ‘Maybelline’, their slogan, and the headquarters of the brand ‘New York’. The line covers the whole bottom of the page or both pages. The fifth move is not present in any of the ads. Examples:
MAYBELLINE NEW YORK MAYBE SHE’S BORN WITH IT. MAYBE IT’S MAYBELLINE!
MAYBELLINE NEW YORK MAKE IT HAPPEN
The ads published in 2015-2016 have focused more on visual elements such as the picture of the model and illustrations of the product. There are few instances of text and not all of Leech (1966) Moves-steps can be found in these ads.
58
CHAPTER SIX COMPARISION
59 6. Comparison This chapter attempts to answer the third research question, to see whether the language of advertising (by Maybelline) has changed during the time period between the 80’s and 2015-2016. Firstly, the similarities and differences will be discussed by comparing the grammatical and lexical cohesive devices that were used in both samples of data, as well as a number of grammatical features, such as sentence structure, type of verb, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Secondly, the visual features will be compared in order to see the changes in the composition and visual elements of the advertisements.
6.1. Similarities and Differences in Linguistic Elements This section discusses the similarities and differences that were found between the 80’s and 2015-2016. Doing these leads us to find out if the hypothesis was confirmed or rejected. It is hypothesized that due to the competitive market of the beauty products, both the linguistic and visual devices employed by the beauty advertisements, have changed and adapted to the needs and interests of the society. The visual elements play a more important role than the linguistic elements in the recent ads. The following table shows the similarities in the cohesive device choice in the 80’s and 2015-2016:
Table 1, Similarities in Cohesive Devices
Grammatical Number of Number of Year Lexical Cohesion Cohesion Ads Ads
Repetition 10 80’s References 10 General noun 0 Collocation 6
Repetition 10 2015/ References 10 General noun 0 2016 Collocation 7
60 As indicated by the table, both time periods achieved the grammatical cohesion by using references. References were used in all of the ads from both time periods. However, there are some changes in the type of references they have employed. In the 80’s, the personal pronouns ‘you’, ‘it’, and ‘I’, as well as the possessive determiner ‘your’ were mainly employed in the advertising discourse. The anaphoric pronoun ‘it’ was used primarily in order to refer to the product throughout the text. Nevertheless, in the years of 2015 and 2016, the dominant pronouns are ‘I’, ‘it’, and ‘our’. The personal pronoun ‘I’ is used in the quotations by the model whose picture appears on the advertisement. The pronoun ‘it’ usually doesn’t refer to the product in these ads. Using the pronouns such as ‘us’ and ‘our’ in these ads shows that the brand objective is to create a relationship between the prospects and the company. Lexical cohesion was mainly achieved through the use of repetition and collocation. Repetition occurred in all of the ads from both time periods and collocations were present in most of the ads from the 80’s and 2015-2016. Repetition of the name of the products is observed in both time periods, however, the ads in the 80’s repeated the positive adjectives more often, which is probably due to the longer texts of these ads, which allows such repetitions. Repetitions were less in numbers in the new ads. The use of general nouns has not occurred in any of the ads from both time periods. Table 2 shows the differences in the cohesive device choice in both time periods.
Table 2, Differences in Cohesive Devices
Number of Year Grammatical Cohesion Number of Lexical Cohesion Ads Ads
4 Substitution Synonym/near 3 80’s Ellipsis 0 synonym 4 Conjunction 4 Hypernym/subordinate
0 2015/ Substitution Synonym/near 0 Ellipsis 50 synonym 2016 0 Conjunction 0 Hypernym/subordinate
61 As indicated by the table, grammatical cohesion was primarily achieved by the use of substitution and conjunction in the 80’s ads, 40% use of each element, while there were no instances of substitution in 2015-2016 ads. On the contrary, the main grammatical cohesive device in the new ads was ellipsis, which shows that the ads in this time period tend to omit more words. Consequently, the texts are shorter and segmented. Additionally, there were no conjunctions in the advertising discourse in this time period. It is probably due to the fact that the nature of the conjunction is to add more information to the text and the ads are rather short. Lexical cohesion in the ads from the 80’s was primarily achieved through the use of synonyms and hyponyms, which were used 30% and 40% respectively. In contrast, no synonyms or hypernyms were present in the texts of the new ads. Table 3 presents the qualitative comparison results on the sentence structure and linguistic elements.
Table 3, Qualitative comparison of sentences
Sentence Ads Pronouns Adjectives Adverbs Structure
Mostly complex Mostly Many words to More adverbs 80’s along with simple ‘you’ and describe the
forms ‘it’ positive features
Mostly simple Many words to Few number of 2015/ Mostly ‘I’ sentences and describe the adverbs 2016 and ‘it’ phrases positive features
In the 80’s the sentences were longer, including both simple sentences and complex ones. In contrast, the ads in 2015-2016 employ more simple structures as well as short phrases, as the result of ellipsis and leaving out the ‘shared’ information of the sentences. More pronouns were used in the vintage ads, mostly addressing the costumers and referring to the product throughout the text, in contrast, the new ads showed fewer instances of pronouns, mostly first person pronoun used by the model whose picture is in the ads. Both periods, employed a large number of adjectives to describe the product and features of it. The adverbs were also used in the vintage ads to give more information about the verbs and the sentences, while the new ads show a scarce number of adverbs.
62 The following table indicates the similarities in verb choice of both periods. There are only minor differences in the use of past and future tense, imperative mood, and passive voice, which is due to the presence of these types in only one additional advertisement in the 2015 and 2016. The numbers
Table 4, Verb Type Similarities
80’s 2015/16 Verbs Number Number Past 1 2 Tense Present 10 10 Future 1 2 Progressive 0 3 Aspect Non-progressive 10 10 Indicative 10 10 Mood Imperative 2 4 Subjunctive 0 0 Active 10 10 Voice Passive 0 2
6.2. Similarities and Differences in Visual Elements The advertisements layout in the eighties is primarily vertical, printed on one page. The composition of the ads includes four moves; the headline, the body copy, the illustrations, and the signature line. The headlines include the name of the product as well as the slogan about the product. They are written in large font on top of the page and the picture of the model. The second part is the image of the celebrity, usually a close-up portrait, following the picture there is a body copy, a main text with the description of the product. The picture of the product appears in a small size next to the body copy. Finally, the signature line includes the name of the brand and the name of the product. The pictures have no captions or extra information. On the contrary, the advertisements in 2015-2016 are mainly in a horizontal layout, including two pages. One page with the close up portrait of the model, and a simple quotation from her, as well as a caption about the type of the product she is using. The left page includes a long distance picture of the model, a big picture of the product, covering the whole page. The headline is a slogan on top of the page, there is usually no
63 body copy, or the main text is only in couple line. The name of the product appears in a distinctive font in the middle of the page. The signature line includes only the name of the brand and their slogan along with the headquarters of the company. The backgrounds are mostly in dark vivid colors. On the basis of these comparisons, it can be concluded that hypothesis has been confirmed that linguistic and visual elements in advertisements published by Maybelline have changed. The advertising discourse has changed based on the sentence structures and the type of grammatical and lexical cohesive devices and there are few similarities between the two sets of data. The new advertisements seem to focus more on the visual elements than the text. The composition of the advertisements has also gone through a number of changes, which shows that the visual elements and the celebrity or the famous model who appears in the ad plays a more important role in the success of the brand rather than the convincing text accompanying the ad.
64
CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSION
65 7. Conclusion
This study employed a critical approach towards the discourse of advertising in order to ascertain the linguistic and visual features of the persuasive language in the health and beauty ads of the well-known cosmetics brand of Maybelline, during the eighties and the time period of 2015-2016. The three-dimensional analytical model of Fairclough was used for the aim of this research. The findings indicates that the health and beauty advertisements of both time periods use different grammatical cohesive devices such as reference, substitution or conjunction and lexical cohesive devices, such as repetition of the name of the product and positive adjectives for describing the product. Regarding the grammatical features of the text, most of the verbs were in present tense, active voice, indicative mood, and non-progressive aspect. In the past the main text of the advertisements was longer, with the use of a lot of adjectives and adverbs to describe the product. In terms of the structure, the sentences were more complex than now. There were no ellipses in the vintage ads, which is an indication of more complex and longer sentences. In general the texts in these ads were more cohesive with the use of a lot of lexical and grammatical cohesive devices. In some of the ads long quotations from the famous celebrity who appears in the image is included. On the other hand, the ads from the time period of 2015-2016 included shorter forms of sentences, using less cohesive devices. Ellipses were seen more often and less adverbs and adjectives were used to describe the product. The visual elements of the ads have also showed a slight change. In the past there were four main parts; the headline, the body copy, the image, and the signature line. However, nowadays the image of the celebrity or the picture of the product covers most of the page and the texts are rather brief and do not follow a certain order. Using the pictures of influential celebrities, who portray beauty, along with their quotations, shows the power of media and advertisements on society. These advertisements create a certain image of ‘beauty’ and form an ideology in people’s mind. Therefore, critically investigating the verbal and visual modes of communication is possible by the means of Critical Discourse Analysis. The results indicate that the hypothesis has been confirmed, in that the advertising discourse has been changed during the years, in terms of linguistic and visual features. This goes against the result provided by González (2014), which initially hypothesized
66 that the beauty brand of Max Factor has changed its advertising strategies, but the results suggested that Max Factor’s ads have not changed much, and the only difference is the length of their ads that has been reduced during time, along with some of their linguistic devices. The results of the current study contribute to the understanding of advertising discourse and reveal the linguistic and visual features of it. The findings also provide a guideline for the analysis of the advertising discourse, since the detailed analysis of the data by using Fairclough’s model has been provided. There were some limitations to this study. The sample size is small and the focus is on the brand of Maybelline, therefore, it is not possible to generalize the results. Given the limitations, further research is needed to investigate on other types of advertisements and other brands, to find out whether the devices they use to persuade the potential costumers is the same as the strategies used in the beauty ads. Using other analytical approaches and frameworks could reveal more details about the advertising discourse. For example, investigating this type of discourse by employing the Speech Act Theory (Austin, 1962) or Cooperative Theory and Grice’s Maxims (Grice, 1975) can reveal more about the advertising discourse. Moreover, the discourse of television commercials and creative visual print ads could be analyzed from the perspective of visual rhetoric and visual discourse analysis.
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71 Appendix A: Profiles of the 80’s advertisements
1. It is a full-page magazine advertisement by Maybelline, which was published in October 1983 in McCall’s magazine. McCall’s was a monthly American woman’s magazine that was really popular through much of the 20th century. Maybelline advertised a longwearing cream foundation in this ad.
2. This is a 1984 ad for Maybelline, advertising a blush, which has a brush with it. The size of the ad is approximately 8.5x11 inches, in a full-page format. The actress and fashion model Kim Basinger was the face of Maybelline who appeared in this ad.
3. This is an Eye shadow advertisement from 1984 by Maybelline. Deborah Lynn Foreman, the American actress appears in this full-page ad. She was famous in those years for her starring role in the 1983 movie Valley Girl.
4. A full-page Mascara advertisement from 1980 by Maybelline featuring the actress Nancy DeWeir. The ad was published on Seventeen Magazine, which is an American fashion-oriented magazine for teenagers.
5. It is a full-page mascara advertisement accompanied by the picture of Lynda Carter for Maybelline, published in June 1982. Lynda Carter is an American actress, singer, songwriter and beauty pageant titleholder who was titled as Miss World America in 1972 and also the star of the TV series Wonder Woman from 1975 to 1979.
6. It is a full-page magazine ad for a moisture whip by Maybelline featuring the actress and singer Lynda Carter, which was published in Glamour Magazine in December 1981. Glamour is a women's magazine founded in 1939 and first published in April 1939 in the United States, it was originally called Glamour of Hollywood.
7. The full-page advertisement by Maybelline is dedicated to their eye shadow, powder blush, cover stick, translucent pressed powder and make up products. Deborah Foreman the star of 'Valley Girl' and 'April Fool's Day' appears as the face of Maybelline in the year of 1984.
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8. This full-page Mascara ad by Maybelline was published in 1984 featuring Kathy Ireland an American model and actress in the 80’s and 90’s and Cheri La Roque the model in those years (the third person is unknown).
9. The full-page advertisement by Maybelline introduces the new moisture whip. The singer and actress Lynda Carter the face of Maybelline at the time appears in their ad in July 1982.
10. Lynda Carter the popular actress and the representative face of Maybelline appeared on the lipstick advertisement in March 1985. The print ad of Maybelline was shot on the set for their commercial (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RvndFa9DwM0).
73 Appendix B: Profiles of 2015-2016 advertisements
1, The advertisement is in two full-pages and introduces the new lipstick by Maybelline. The ad includes a picture of the famous super model Adriana Lima, which was published in 2015.
2. The advertisement is in two full-pages. It was published in Vogue USA in November 2015. Vogue is a monthly American fashion and lifestyle magazine that is published in 23 different national and regional editions by Condé Nast. The model who appears in this eyebrow palette advertisement from Maybelline is Gigi Hadid, who is Maybelline’s new face. Gigi is an American fashion model and television personality.
3. This is a full-page eyeshadow advertisement by Maybelline, which was published on Vouge in November 2015 in the USA. The model that appears in this ad is Jourdan Dunn a British fashion model who has been the face of Maybelline since 2014.
4. This full-page ad by Maybelline advertises eyebrow mascara, which was launched in 2015. The model that appeared in this ad was Cris Urena who is a Dominican-American fashion model.
5. The mascara ad by Maybelline appears in two full pages and features the model Gigi Hadid, the new face of Maybelline. The ad was published on Vogue USA in 2015.
6. This two full-page print ad by Maybelline was published in 2016 advertising the very newly lunched cream foundation, featuring the supermodel Adriana Lima. Lima has been the face and representative of the brand for many years now. She is Brazilian supermodel and actress, who is best known as a Victoria's Secret Angel since 2000, as a spokes model for Maybelline cosmetics from 2003.
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7. The eye pencil advertisement by Maybelline appears in a full-page featuring the model Jourdan Dunn, British fashion model and the face of Maybelline. The ad was published in Vogue USA in 2015.
8. The two full-page advertisement by Maybelline, introduces the newly launched mascara by the brand. The model that appears in the ad is Christy Turlington, an American supermodel who has been representing Maybelline for many years. The ad was published in 2016.
9. The two full-page advertisement by Maybelline advertises the new eyeshadow kit, which was launched in 2016. The model representing this product is Emily DiDonato, an American model who was signed as the face of Maybelline in 2009.
10. The full-page lipstick advertisement by Maybelline was published in 2016, featuring the model Jordan Dunn. This British model is the face of Maybelline since 2014.
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