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Erich Fromm's Socio-Psychoanalytic Re-Vision of Freudian Theory
Rainer Funk
„Erich Fromm’s Socio-Psychoanalytic Re-Vision of Freudian Theory“, in: Fromm Forum (English Edi- tion – ISBN 1437-1189), 21 / 2017, Tuebingen (Selbstverlag), pp. 22-31. Copyright © 2017 by Dr. Rainer Funk, Ursrainer Ring 24, D-72076 Tuebingen / Germany. E-Mail: frommfunk[at-symbol]gmail.com.
The following paper by Rainer Funk and the comment by Sandra Buechler were presented on January 18, 2017 in a Discussion Group on the "History of Psychoanalysis" at the Na- tional Meeting of the American Psychoanalytic Association at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York. The discussion group was led by Prof. Peter Rudnytsky.
Erich Fromm shares the fate of several other spend the rest of his life in Locarno, Switzer- pioneers in psychoanalysis who did not follow land, where I became his last assistant and fi- the mainstream of what once was called nally his literary executor and trustee of his sci- "Freudian orthodoxy” and as a result were ig- entific papers and his reference library. nored and forgotten. I could tell you the story Fromm grew up as an only child in an orthodox of how this happened in the case of Fromm (cf. Jewish family and studied sociology at the Uni- Funk 2000), but this would take too long. versity of Heidelberg. For his PhD he wrote a By way of introduction I will first give a short sociological dissertation on the function of Jew- overview of the life of Erich Fromm, before ex- ish law (Thora) as a social cement keeping dias- plaining why and how Fromm revised psycho- pora Jews together (Fromm 1989b). Shortly af- analytic theory; and I will then outline some of ter he had finished his dissertation in 1922, he the implications of his socio-psychoanalytic ap- became acquainted with Freud’s psychoanaly- proach, to launch a discussion of whether sis with the help of his girlfriend Frieda Reich- Fromm’s ideas contribute to our present un- mann (who in 1926 became his first wife). This derstanding of psychoanalysis. Let me start acquaintance with psychoanalysis changed with a short biographical sketch. Fromm’s life and interests fundamentally. At this time Fromm linked the idea that human Biographical Sketch beings are related to each other by more or less Erich Fromm was born in March 1900 in Frank- unconscious strivings (stemming from pre- furt in Germany and died in March 1980 in Lo- genital and genital forms of sexuality) to the carno, Switzerland. In 1934 he immigrated to subject of sociology, namely society and socie- the United States in order to escape the Nazis. tal processes. He became a citizen of the United States and Fromm finished his psychoanalytic training in had his main residence until 1950 in New York Berlin and started his own psychoanalytic prac- and Bennington. From 1950 until 1973 his main tice; at the same time he followed up his own residence was in Mexico, but he continued to interest in the social-psychological question of lecture in the United States for three months what makes many human beings think, feel, and more every year. In 1974 he decided to and act in similar ways. For nine years Fromm
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collaborated with the Institute for Social Re- drives caused by societal requirements. Exam- search in Frankfurt, and from 1934 on in New ples here are Fromm's interest in matricentric York, in order to explore this question by using cultures, his criticism of Freud's appraisal of the Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. Oedipus Complex, and his criticism of Freud's view of women; also important, however, were Fromm's stroke of genius: Fromm's new contacts in the United States: Society is represented with Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict and in our psychic structure formation their cross-cultural anthropological studies, and Fromm's stroke of genius was in bringing to- with Harry Stack Sullivan, in whose view human gether the objects of sociological and of psy- beings are driven by an existential need for re- choanalytical investigation – namely society latedness and not by the desire to satisfy libidi- and the individual – by showing that the socie- nal wishes. tal aspect, with its requirements regarding life, In the winter of 1936-1937 Fromm took a few survival, and communal living must be repre- months off to re-formulate his social psychoan- sented in each individual human being in the alytic approach more accurately and to delve form of a libidinal structure formation. To into the "basic principles" of Freud's libido the- quote a paper from 1932: "Every society has its ory, as he wrote in a letter to his Institute col- own distinctive libidinal structure" (Fromm league Wittfogel: "I am trying to demonstrate 1932a, p. 160), which can be studied by looking that the urges which motivate social activities at the libidinal structure which causes large are not, as Freud supposes, sublimations of numbers of individuals to think, feel and act sexual instincts, but rather products of social similarly. The study of this socially molded libid- processes." (Letter to Karl August Wittfogel on inal structure not only makes it possible to for- 18 December 1936 – Erich Fromm Archive – cf. mulate statements about the impulses which Funk 2013.) In this 85-page paper, Fromm are at work in a societal group but also explains (1992e) states in detail his reasons for saying why human beings passionately and gladly con- that most psychic structures are not only tribute whatever they must, in the form of psy- formed by the object relations of man but are chic and social acts of accommodation, in order also independent of libidinal drives. to bring about a successful communal life. Sullivan's relational approach naturally influ- The crucial point is the new determination of enced Fromm's revision of psychoanalytic theo- the relationship between the individual and so- ry in the sense that the individual's underlying ciety. In Fromm's socio-psychoanalytic ap- psychic problem is not the satisfaction of drives proach, the two are no longer antipodes. Ra- but rather the satisfaction of his or her need for ther, society is present with its expectations in relatedness. For Fromm, however, every per- each individual in the form of libidinal impulses, son must always stand in a relationship not on- and the individual cannot exist in any other way ly with reality and with other human beings, as than as a social being. Fromm’s interest as a Sullivan made clear with his interpersonal and trained and practicing psychoanalyst was to (as one would say today) intersubjective ap- overcome the traditional split between individ- proach. The hunger to be related to oneself and ual and society. to the social group one belongs to arises with Yet this idea, that "every society has its own the same existential urgency from this relation- distinctive libidinal structure" (Fromm 1932a, p. al approach. 160) was not the end of Fromm’s re-vision of Implications of Fromm's psychoanalysis. There are numerous indications socio-psychoanalytic approach that Fromm was increasingly doubtful about the Freudian libido theory that he had used to I would now like to point out certain implica- explain the passionate strivings as libidinal tions of the socio-psychoanalytic approach de-
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veloped by Fromm. (2) If we view Fromm's socio-psychoanalytic approach against the backdrop of our deep- (1) Given his view that individual and society rooted fear of social isolation and the psychic are not antipodes, but are structurally joined so structures whose formation it makes necessary, that "society is nothing but living, concrete in- a number of other implications with theoretical dividuals, and the individual can live only as a impact come into view. Freud's concept of social human being" (Fromm 1992e, p. 58), "primary narcissism", for example, and the no- Fromm from the very beginning understands tion that man is "primarily self-sufficient and the individual as a socialized being. This is also only secondarily in need of others in order to reflected in how Fromm expanded Sullivan's re- satisfy his/her instinctual needs" were emphat- lational approach by postulating an existential ically rejected by Fromm (1941a, p. 290) and hunger for ties to a social group which makes were criticized by him point by point in one of every type of psychology a form of social psy- his later writings (Fromm 1979a, pp. 43-54). chology. The concept has also been quite clearly dis- Every person has an inescapable need for rela- proven by the studies of infants and attach- tionship with a social group. And the formation ment. of every psychic structure must satisfy this ge- From the very beginning, every human person netically pre-programmed need for a relation- is a being in relation to reality, one who re- ship not only with persons of reference but also quires a bond with other individuals, to a social with the social group. In my view, this primary group, and to him- or herself for his or her in- sociality of man often receives too little atten- teractional behavior, his or her group behavior, tion in the discussion of Fromm's thought, even and his or her self-regulation. In this regard, the though his thesis in Escape from Freedom is latter, i.e. the relationship with oneself, has in based upon man's existential fear of isolation. my view and in that of Fromm himself nothing Fromm expressed his ideas even more clearly in to do with narcissism (cf. Fromm 1964a, pp. 62- Beyond the Chains of Illusion (1962a, p. 126), 94). where he wrote: (3) However, this attachment behavior, which is "For man as human being [that is to say, guided by inherent affective reactions and at- inasmuch as he transcends nature and is tachment patterns, is subject to a process of aware of himself and of death] the sense development and – as it takes shape – is de- of complete aloneness and separateness is pendent for long periods on relational experi- close to insanity. Man as man is afraid of ences which take root via internalization pro- insanity, just as man as animal is afraid of cesses in the formation of psychic structures. death. Man must enter into relationships It is precisely here that Fromm's socio- with others, he must find union with oth- psychoanalytic approach takes effect, since it ers, in order to remain sane. This need to becomes important here to make a basic dis- be at one with others is his strongest pas- tinction between two different types of psychic sion, stronger than sex and often even structure formation, using their functions as cri- stronger than his wish to live.” teria, namely: Fromm's socio-psychoanalytic approach is • those types which help to lay the foundation based on a view of man that highlights his need for the formation of individual character on for social attachment – an approach confirmed the basis of quite individual circumstances in turn by Bowlby, whose studies of attachment and experiences in the first years of life (for behavior were greatly prized by Fromm. And example parental divorce, the birth of a sib- this view undergoes further development in so- ling, an unusually empathic motherly refer- cio-biology and evolutionary biology. ence person, etc.)
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• and those types which help to lay the foun- and of the social character should be humanly dation for the formation of social character productive, the task of the social character con- on the basis of circumstances and experi- sists first and foremost in contributing to stabil- ences which are shared with the social group ity and to the successful development of a spe- (for example being forced to assume a posi- cific society. This functional determinant has tion of either rivalry or cooperation) the result that the social character often does not contribute to the individual's psychic suc- In designating these types of psychic structure cess but is rather directed towards a financial formation, Fromm built on and developed the and social success which can often be achieved Freudian concept of character in the sense un- only at the cost of a successful outcome on the derstood by Karl Abraham and taught at the part of the individual – one need only think of Psychoanalytic Institute in Berlin, where Fromm the subservient authoritarian character type concluded his psychoanalytic training. After who is plagued by inhibitions and anxieties, or abandoning libido theory, Fromm appears to of individuals today who are ill from "burnout". use the term "character structure" by and large Above all non-productive social character ori- as a synonym for the term "psychic structure". entations that are shared with the majority are The formation of psychic structure or character rationalized as "normal”, although from a socio- goes hand-in-hand with a decisive change in psychoanalytic point of view they are to be the dynamics of relatedness: relational behav- identified as a "pathology of normalcy” and a ior becomes more and more independent of "socially patterned psychic defect” (cf. Fromm both real reference persons and of identifica- 1955a, pp. 12-21). tion with the social group, since it is now guid- The productive or non-productive quality can ed by the internalized images of experiences differ between the individual and the social and character orientations. What we generally character; in addition, non-productive qualities call "autonomy development" and "the process of character orientations are usually repressed of individuation" always presuppose the devel- and unconscious, so that an inner psychic con- opment of a corresponding inner structural flict arises between the conscious and uncon- formation. scious orientations of the two character for- (4) The study of character formation processes mation processes and can bring about illness as always goes hand-in-hand with an evaluative a result. Hence the conflict which Freud dis- question, namely the question of what impact cussed between libidinous wishes and a cultur- character formation has on a human being and ally required renunciation of instincts is no his or her potential for development, individua- longer present as such in Fromm's socio- tion and co-existence with others: is it in a hu- psychoanalytic approach; its place is taken by man sense productive or non-productive? the potential conflict between the conscious and unconscious orientations of the individual We are quite familiar with such value-oriented and the social characters and their respective scientific questions which focus on the individ- productive or non-productive quality. ual. Most branches of psychology are guided by the concepts of what is healthy and what is (5) This leads us to another aspect of Fromm’s pathological, and what allows the person to socio-psychoanalytic re-vision of psychoanaly- succeed or fail as a human being. However, sis: the role of economy, society, the work situ- value-oriented science becomes far more com- ation and culture, how these are organized, and plicated in the socio-psychoanalytic approach what effects they have on individuals should developed by Fromm, in that it takes two dif- receive more attention than psychoanalysis ferent structure formation processes as its usually pays to these issues. If the requirements point of departure. for a successful development of society are rep- resented in the social character formation of While it is true that the impact of the individual
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the many individuals, then the conflict between social situation and lifestyle of the patient ra- what makes society successful and what makes ther than on his childhood. Of course, many the person successful will be avoidable only if neuroses have their origins in childhood and in the conditions for living together in a society complications arising during the differentiation are also oriented toward the successful devel- of psychic structure, when character structure opment of human beings. For Fromm (1955a, p. is established. But one should bear in mind that 72), it was the case "that mental health cannot the pathogenic denials, projections, identifica- be defined in terms of the 'adjustment' of the tions and internalizations, as well as the repres- individual to his society, but, on the contrary, sions which were unavoidable in the patient's that it must be defined in terms of the adjust- childhood, very often resulted from the dynam- ment of society to the needs of man". ics of social character orientations exemplified by the parents as agents of society. By and From a socio-psychoanalytic point of view, psy- large, many pathologies, including many severe choanalysis bears some responsibility in regard ones originating in early childhood, are the re- to what is going on in economics, organizations, sult of non-productive social character orienta- the work situation, society and politics. tions still at work; in many cases, they are Fromm’s psychodynamic theory of different so- stronger today than in childhood and reinforce cial character orientations and their alienating the pathological solutions found then. or productive effects on the individual allows, much more than the Freudian concept of man b) Fromm’s emphasis on the effects of social and society does, psychoanalysis to be applied character orientation greatly affects the patient to the world beyond the therapeutic treatment as well as the analyst. Both represent specific of suffering individuals. social character orientations. The less an ana- lyst recognizes his own social character traits (6) Therefore Fromm’s re-vision of psychoanal- and the less he or she maintains a critical dis- ysis implies that the main pathogenic conflict tance to the dominant social character orienta- should be seen as emerging from the patient's tion, the more likely are analyst and patient to conflict between, on the one hand, his human unconsciously fall victim to the "pathology of needs to be related in a productive way to real- normalcy" (E. Fromm 1955a, pp. 12-21) and to ity, to others, to a social group and to oneself dismiss the disorder by rationalizing it away. and, on the other, the demands of society, The sick society doesn't generally suffer from which are often contradictory because of their this "defect", rationalizing it away instead as non-productive and alienating effects. To quote "normal". Thus Fromm suggests calling this un- from a lecture Fromm gave in 1956: "Man is conscious suffering along with society a "social- not only a member of society. Man is a member ly patterned defect" (E. Fromm 1955a, p. 15) as of the human race. Man has necessities of his opposed to the individual neurotic disorder suf- own which exist quite independently of any fered by the patient, more or less in isolation. other society. It is true that man has to live in such a way that he will fulfill the demands of c) The role which the psychoanalyst's own so- society, but it is also true that society has to be cial character plays in the treatment means constructed and structuralized in such a way that analysts must be trained to understand that it will fill the needs of man." (Fromm their own predominant social character orien- 1992f, p. 108.) tations and to strive for greater productiveness in their own social character. So-called didactic (7) Fromm’s socio-psychoanalytic approach has analysis should lead to a growth of the analyst’s tremendous implications concerning therapeu- own human strengths, such as will enable him tic treatment. to really relate to and take an interest in other a) Fromm’s re-vision of psychoanalysis implies human beings and patients. This, and not pri- focusing therapeutic interest on the present marily possession of a skill or therapeutic tech-
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nique and "know-how", is what qualifies the existence, in a "direct” encounter with the oth- analyst. "I'm convinced", says Fromm in a lec- er, we must refrain from judgment, if we truly ture on the analyst given in 1959 at the William want to see him or her. To quote again from a Alanson White Institute, that lecture which Fromm gave in 1959: "There is a feeling of human solidarity when two people – "you cannot separate your mode of relat- or even one person – can say to the other: ‘So edness to the patient, your realism as far that is you, and I share this with you.’” (Ibid.) as the patient is concerned, from your mode of relatedness to people in general For Fromm the main question is not a specific and from your realism in general. If you technique of treatment but the ability to live in are naive and blind to your friends and to a mentally productive way and to regain this the whole world, you will be exactly as na- ability through psychoanalytic treatment by be- ive and blind to your patients." (Fromm coming aware of the unconscious irrational 1992g, p. 149.) strivings that stem from individual or social character formations. Only by being aware of one’s own social char- acter orientation as a therapist and by Although Fromm in the 1940s was a co-founder strengthening one’s own productive orientation of the New York William Alanson White Insti- can alienation from productive forces be over- tute and established a psychoanalytic society come. At the end of the posthumously pub- and training institute in Mexico, he never lished book The Art of Listening Fromm writes wanted to establish his own psychoanalytic that the analyst school. He called himself a Freudian who made some re-visions of Freud’s meta-theory in order "must be endowed with a capacity for em- to overcome the social amnesia that for a long pathy with another person and strong time was typical of the mainstream of psychoa- enough to feel the experience of the other nalysis. as if it were his own. The condition for such empathy is an optimal of the capacity References for love. To understand another means to love him – not in the erotic sense but in Fromm, E. (1932a): The Method and Function the sense of reaching out to him and of of an Analytic Social Psychology. In: E. overcoming the fear of losing oneself. Un- Fromm. The Crisis of Psychoanalysis, New derstanding and loving are inseparable. If York (Holt, Rinehart and Winston), 1970, they are separate, it is a cerebral process pp. 135-162. and the door to essential understanding Fromm, E. (1941a): Escape from Freedom. New remains closed." (Fromm 1991a, pp. York (Farrar and Rinehart). 225 f.) Fromm, E. (1955a): The Sane Society. New York (Rinehart and Winston Inc.). The most decisive healing factor in psychoana- Fromm, E. (1962a): Beyond the Chains of Illu- lytic treatment is not a technique but the psy- sion. My Encounter with Marx and Freud. choanalyst’s productive character orientation New York (Simon and Schuster). that enables a direct meeting in the therapeutic Fromm, E. (1964a): The Heart of Man. Its Geni- situation to occur. For Fromm, there was one us for Good and Evil. New York (Harper and definitive characteristic of this kind of direct Row). encounter with the other: "If you really see a Fromm, E. (1979a): Greatness and Limitations person (…) you will stop judging provided you of Freud's Thought. New York (Harper and see that person fully.” (Fromm 1992g, p. 178.) Row), 1980. No matter how often we are forced to pass Fromm, E. (1989b): Das Jüdische Gesetz. Disser- judgment on what we want and what we resist tation [originated 1922]. In: Erich Fromm in the course of living and in safeguarding our Gesamtausgabe in zwölf Bänden (GA). Ed.
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Rainer Funk. München (DVA and dtv), 1999, Vol. XI, pp. 19-126. Fromm, E. (1991a): The Art of Listening. R. Funk (Ed.), New York: The Continuum Publishing Corporation 1994. Fromm, E. (1992e): Man's impulse structure and its relation to culture. [originated 1937]. In: E. Fromm. Beyond Freud: From Individual to Social Psychoanalysis. New York (American Mental Health Foundation), 2010, pp. 17-74. Fromm, E. (1992f): Psychic Needs and Society [originated 1956]. In: E. Fromm, Beyond Freud: From Individual to Social Psychoa- nalysis, New York (American Mental Health Foundation) 2010, pp. 75-82. Fromm, E. (1992g): Dealing with the Uncon- scious in Psychotherapeutic Practice [origi- nated 1959]. In: E. Fromm, Beyond Freud: From Individual to Social Psychoanalysis, New York (American Mental Health Foun- dation) 2010, pp. 83-122. Funk, R. (2000): Erich Fromm's Role in the Foundation of the IFPS. Evidence from the Erich Fromm Archives in Tübingen. In: In- ternational Forum of Psychoanalysis, Vol. 9 (No. 3-4, October 2000) pp. 187-197. Funk, R. (2013): Erich Fromm and the Intersub- jective Tradition. In: International Forum of Psychoanalysis, Abingdon (Routledge – Tay- lor and Francis), 22 (1), pp. 5-9.
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