The Effects of Using Translation Strategy To

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of Requirement for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters

JAMIL NUR ARDIANSAH Student Number: 034214104

ENGLISH LETTER STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2008

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of Requirement for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters

JAMIL NUR ARDIANSAH Student Number: 034214104

ENGLISH LETTER STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2008

i ii iii LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma :

Nama : JAMIL NUR ARDIANSAH Nomor Mahasiswa : 034214104

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul :

THE EFFECTS OF USING TRANSLATION STRATEGY TO OVERCOME CULTURAL PROBLEMS IN TRANSLATING WORDS RELATED TO TOOLS IN BUMI MANUSIA BY PRAMOEDYA ANANTA TOER INTO THIS EARTH OF MANKIND TRANSLATED BY MAX LANE beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupaun memberikan royalty kepada saya selamA tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyatan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal : 11 March 2008

iv STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else’s ideas, phrases, or sentences without proper references.

Yogyakarta, March 06, 2008

Jamil Nur Ardiansah

v …qul hal yastawii, aladziina ya’lamuuna walladziina laa ya’lamuun. Innamaa yatadzakkaru uululalbaab (39:9). (…Katakanlah: “Samakah orang-orang yang berpengetahuan dengan orang-orang yang tidak berpengetahuan? Sesungguhnya yang mendapat pelajaran hanyalah orang-orang yang mempunyai pikiran.) v Seorang terpelajar harus juga berlaku adil sudah sejak dalam pikiran, apalagi perbuatan. Itulah arti terpelajar (Pramoedya Ananta Toer) v Every thing that happened to me creates me. Every, even, small thing around me. It can be every single drop of tears, single track of footsteps, or flowing wind caressing my face.

Fear taught me how to bring light inside the dark…

Allah SWT

Muhammad SAW

Father

Mother

Brothers and Sisters

…and for May, who stands right behind me in every prayer.

vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillah, I would like to praise Allah SWT firstly for all the gift and blessings during the process of this undergraduate thesis writing. I would also like to thank my mother for every single word and tears she had during all-day long prayers, my father for every single drop of sweat he spent, my family for all patient and care.

I am very grateful to my advisor Ms. Adventina Putranti, S.S., M. Hum and Mr.

Harris H. S, S. S., M. Hum in guiding me during this undergraduate thesis writing with her advice, suggestion and patience. My gratitude also goes to all staff of the Faculty of

Letters for helping me during my study.

Many thanks must also be given to all students of English Letters 2003, my best: maya, denok, ike, sondang, ika, leni, al, elis, gembus, mei, ketut, nani, daud, muji, wahyu, damn-muz, mando, bigar, tyo, abit, dewi, yuni, punk Ve, susilo and all sastra mungil members, 2004s galih, roni, adit, martha, femme, ison, tita, patrick, ucok, pita, april, for having been so many memories with me; pak dammar, bu endut, mba umi, mas yoko-yoso, andika, hijrah, handi, bowo, yoga, mas nunung, sunar, mas arif, bebek, wiwik, and all HMI members for all laugh, smile and time we spent; home sweet home kampret, serge, cecep, sekar, pipit, sate; and also for my sweet November, May, for all warm-tight hug, tears, happiness, ambition and love she shared. Lastly, I would like to thank all people who helped me during my study in Sanata Dharma who are too many to mention.

J.N. Ardiansah

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE...... i APPROVAL PAGE ...... ii ACCEPTANCE PAGE...... iii MOTTO PAGE...... iv DEDICATION PAGE ...... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vi TABLE OF CONTENT...... vii ABSTRACT...... ix ABSTRAK ...... x CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...... 1 A. Background of the Study ...... 1 B. Problem Formulation...... 4 C. Objectives of the Study...... 5 D. Definition of Terms...... 5

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW ...... 7 A. Review on Related Theories ...... 7 1. Definition of Translation...... 7 2. Principles of Translation...... 8 3. Problems in Translation...... 10 4. Equivalence...... 13 a. Equivalence at Word Level...... 13 b. Equivalence above Word Level...... 14 c. Grammatical Equivalence...... 14 d. Textual Equivalence...... 15 e. Pragmatic Equivalence...... 15 5. Lexical Equivalents...... 16 a. Modifying a generic word with descriptive phrase...... 16 b. Modifying a loan word...... 17 c. Using cultural substitution...... 17 6. Translation Strategies at Word Level...... 17 a. Translation by superordinate...... 18 b. Translation by less expressive word ...... 18 c. Translation by cultural substitution...... 18 d. Translation by loan word (plus explanation) ...... 18 e. Translation by paraphrase using a related word...... 19 f. Translation by paraphrase using unrelated word ...... 19 g. Translation by omission...... 19 h. Translation by illustration...... 19 7. Meaning in Translation...... 19 8. Loss, Gain, Wrong Translation, and Accurate Translation...... 20 B. Theoretical Framework ...... 21

ix CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY...... 23 A. Object of the Study...... 23 B. Approach of the Study...... 24 C. Method of Study...... 24 D. Data Collection...... 25 E. Technique of Analysis ...... 25

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS ...... 27 A. Translation Strategy...... 27 1. Cultural Substitution...... 27 2. Paraphrase using a related word...... 34 3. Superordinate ...... 36 4. Loan word Plus Explanation...... 41 B. The Effects in Using Translation Strategy...... 43 1. Loss of Meaning...... 44 2. Wrong Translation...... 48 3. Accurate Translation...... 49 4. Loss and Gain of Meaning...... 50

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION ...... 53

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 58

APPENDIX...... 60

x ABSTRACT

JAMIL NUR ARDIANSAH. The Effects of Using Translation Strategy in Translating Words Related to Tools in Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s Bumi Manusia into This Earth of Mankind Translated by Max Lane. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University. 2008.

This undergraduate thesis is discussing the translation strategies used in This Earth of Mankind, the English translation of Bumi Manusia by Pramoedya Ananta Toer. This work is related tightly to some Indonesian traditional cultures, such as Javanese, Madurese, Acehnese cultures. There are many expressions that have no English equivalence that were translated by using particular translation strategies. It is important that they should be translated accurately so that the target text readers can understand the whole context in the story as the same with the source language readers. The data of this undergraduate thesis is focused on words classified as tools. The consideration lies in the fact that this kind of category is the most often in occurrence in the novel. On the other hands, this kind of category gets a lot of distortion in meaning. Hence, the translation strategies used must be examined further in order to find out if the strategies have done in transferring the messages of the data or not because, in fact, the translation strategies still bring effects on the results. There are two problems that will be analyzed in this undergraduate thesis. The first problem is what translation strategies that are used in This Earth of Mankind, and the second is what kind of effects in using these strategies. In this study, the method used is comparative method, which is a method of comparing the data from one language to another language, because the culture-bound expressions are firstly compared with their translated versions. This is done in order to find out how those expressions are translated and also to classify the data based on some categories of translation strategies suggested by Mona Baker. The semantics approach is used also in analyzing the data. It is used to compare the meaning of the words in ST (Source Text) and TT (Target Text). The first result of this analysis is the finding of the translation strategies used in translating the data. There are four kinds of strategies; cultural substitution, superordinate, paraphrase using a related word, and loan word plus explanation. The second result is the finding of the effects after using those translation strategies. These effects are gained after comparing the data through their semantics properties, and the meaning built by contextual influence. There are four kinds of effects gained from the analysis, loss of meaning, loss and gain of meaning, wrong translation and accurate translation.

xi ABSTRAK

JAMIL NUR ARDIANSAH. The Effects of Using Translation Strategy in Translating Words Related to Tools in Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s Bumi Manusia into This Earth of Mankind Translated by Max Lane. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma. 2008.

Skripsi ini membahas tentang evaluasi atas strategi penterjemahan yang digunakan dalam This Earth of Mankind, terjemahan bahasa inggris dari Bumi Manusia karya Pramoedya Ananta Toer. Karya ini berkenaan erat dengan beberapa budaya tradisional kedaerahan di Indonesia, misalnya budaya Jawa, Madura, dan Aceh. Dalam novel ini terdapat banyak ungkapan yang tidak mempunyai padanan kata dalam bahasa inggris, maka ungkapan-ungkapan itu diterjemahkan dengan menggunakan strategi penerjemahan tertentu. Bagaimanapun juga, sangatlah penting ungkapan-ungkapan itu ditejemahkan secara akurat agar pembaca teks terjemahan dapat memahami konteks cerita secara keseluruhan seperti pembaca teks bahasa asli. Data untuk skripsi ini difokuskan pada kelompok kata yang berhubungan dengan peralatan. Pertimbangan pemilihan kategori ini adalah karena kategori ini muncul paling sering di dalam novel. di lain pihak, kategori ini mengalami banyak distorsi makna. Maka dari itu, strategi penerjemahan yang digunakan dalam novel ini haruslah di evaluasi lebih lanjut agar dapat diketahui apakah strategi penerjemahan itu dapat menyampaikan konsep-konsep yang terkandung dalam setiap kata di data atau tidak karena pada kenyataannya strategi penerjemahan masih saja membawa beberapa efek dari hasil penterjemahan. Terdapat dua masalah yang akan dibahas dalam skripsi ini. Permasalahan pertama adalah strategi apa saja yang digunakan dalam menerjemahkan This Earth of Mankind, dan permasalahan yang kedua adalah apa saja efek dari penggunaan strategi penerjemahan yang telah diidentifikasi di butir permasalahan pertama. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode pembandingan, yang merupakan sebuah metode dengan membandingkan data dari dua versi bahasa, karena ungkapan-ungkapan yang terikat dengan nilai budaya dalam data pertama-tama di bandingkan arti katanya dengan arti kata-kata dalam versi terjemahan. Metode pembandingan ini digunakan untuk mengetahui bagaimana ungkapan-ungkapan itu diterjemahkan, dan metode ini juga digunakan untuk mengklasifikasikan data berdasarkan beberapa kategori strategi penerjemahan oleh Mona Baker. Pendekatan semantik juga digunakan untuk meneliti data. Pendekatan ini digunakan untuk membandingkan makna kata dalam bahasa asli dan bahasa terjemahan. Hasil pertama yang diperoleh dari analisis ini adalah diketemukannya beberapa strategi penerjemahan yang digunakan dalam menerjemahkan data. Terdapat empat macam strategi yaitu; padanan budaya, penerjemahan dengan kata yang lebih umum, uraian dengan kata yang berhubungan, serta kata pinjaman yang disertai penjelasan. Hasil kedua yang diperoleh adalah efek penggunaan strategi tersebut. Hal ini diketemukan setelah membandingkan properti kata dari segi semantik, serta arti kata yang dibangun dari hubungan kontekstual dalam cerita. Terdapat empat macam efek yang dalam analisis, seperti distorsi makna, berkurang dan bertambahnya makna sekaligus, penerjemahan yang salah, dan penerjemahan yang akurat.

xii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Translation plays an important role in human communication. It enables people to exchange information to others who speak in different languages and have different culture. Mildred. L. Larson in his book Meaning-Based Translation: A

Guide to Cross-Language Equivalence mentions that language is part of the culture.

Thus, interlingual translation cannot be done well without having deep knowledge about the culture and mastering the language of that culture (1984:162). Language and culture cannot be separated because, in fact, one influences the other. In general, language is a means of communication for people to have interaction with another people. Specifically, language is a means for the culture to share its belief, values, and norms. However, we all know that culture is brought by one specific language and it is different from another language. It affects some important aspects in the translation text such as; diction, tone, and the spirit of language. Cultural values itself can also be found in non-fiction texts, in this case, literary texts. As we know literature is the product of a society. It describes the point of view of people in that society, both explicitly and implicitly.

Nida and Taber states that translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, both, in term of meaning and style (The Theory and Practice of Translation, 1969). Hence,

translation should also transfer the meaning, not only the form. However, making an ideal translation, which fulfills the requirement above, is not easy. Jean Paul Viney as quoted by Simatupang states that in translation, there is always something missing from the original message (2000:3). As said by Mildred L. Larson in Meaning-Based

Translation, culture differences between the source and target language become a difficult problem for a translator. Some Source Language (SL) concepts may have no lexical equivalence in Target Language (TL) because of differences in geography, customs, beliefs, worldview, and various other factors (1984:163). Each language is influenced by the culture where it is spoken. The Javanese word kebaya, kemban, and wayang for example, cannot be easily translated into English because English has no equivalence for those words.

The phenomenon of the appearance of non-equivalence as the result in translating process becomes a serious problem for a translator. Nida and Taber state that a translation reaches the highest degree of equivalence when the receptors of the

TL respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the SL (dynamic equivalence). Non-equivalence is usually rooted from the case of untranslatability

(1969). J.C. Catford in A Linguistic Theory of Translation mentions that untranslatability or translation failure occurs when it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text. There are two categories of untranslatability, linguistic and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability is caused by the failure to find a TL equivalent which is due to differences in SL and TL. In cultural untranslatability, the

failure is due to the absence of the SL situational feature which is relevant in the TL culture (1965:94). While Mona Baker in her In Other Words: A Course Book on

Translation reveals the existence of non-equivalence in the word level as the smallest unit of language. Non-equivalence at word level means the TL has no direct equivalence concept for a word which occurs in SL (1992:20). Some common causes of non-equivalence at word level are cultural-specific concepts, the SL word is semantically complex, the TL lacks a superordinate and hyponym terminology, and differences in expressive meaning, and the use of loan words in the Source Text (ST)

(1992: 20-25).

There are certain strategies that may be used to translate the SL text when the problems of untranslatability or non-equivalence occur, so the translation can be understood easily by the TL readers. In researching the effects of the usage of translation strategies that are applied to overcome cultural problems, an English novel

This Earth of Mankind, which is the translated version of Indonesian novel Bumi

Manusia by Pramoedya Ananta Toer, is chosen as the object of the research. Bumi

Manusia was translated into English by Max Lane who was the second secretary in the Australian embassy in Jakarta until recalled in 1981 because of his translation of

Pramoedya’s Buru Quartet.

The setting of the novel took place in Java in 1898, and set up in the middle of

Dutch colonialism. Many Javanese cultural values are introduced in this novel by many expressions uttered that are difficult to translate because they hold cultural concepts that can only be understood by Javanese society. The words and phrases

containing cultural concepts, often said to be culture-bound expression that can only be understood by Source Language speakers, may relate to social belief of market day

(e.g.: jumat legi), Dutch terminology (e.g.: mevrow, buitenzorg), or even types of

Javanese food, language level, tools, and clothes. Those terms are familiar to

Javanese speakers, but not for foreigners. Although have been translated into English, they may be very confusing for those who are outside the society to understand the concepts.

The writer is interested in finding an idea of the result of using translation strategies to overcome cultural problems, which the translation strategies, suggested by Mona Baker, carries some consequences in its practices. The analysis will be focused on the translation of tools that are gained as the data from the novel. The concept of tools, here, contains some of cultural values that can only be easily recognized in SL environment. However, there is a matter of cultural value in each datum that must be considered consciously by the translator before using the strategy to translate those data because, in fact, they carry social identities and characteristics in its usage. These identities determine their functional usage and even their shapes.

B. Problem Formulation

1. What are the translation strategies, which are suggested by Mona Baker, used

to translate words related to tools in This Earth of Mankind?

2. What are the effects of using those translation strategies?

C. Objective of the Study

The aims of this research are to examine the use of translation strategies in translating words related to tools in This Earth of Mankind that was the translated version of Bumi Manusia that are culturally problematic to translate, and the effects that come after using these strategies.

D. Definition of Terms

1. Cultural Problem

Mildred L. Larson stated that culture is a complex of belief, attitudes, values, and rules which a group of people share (Meaning –Based Translation, 1984:431).

Cultural problem in translation appears due to the differences between SL and TL.

There are always some SL concepts that have no lexical equivalence in TL because of differences in geography, customs, beliefs, worldview, and various other factors

(1984:163). It can be concluded that cultural problem means the difficulty in translation that is caused by cultural differences between two languages that the translator deals with. It leads to the existence of culture-bound expressions.

A.S. Honby in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English defines culture as “subjects of a particular group or nation”, and expressions as “word or phrase” (1989:285,407). In this case, the culture-bound expression means all words or phrases that are used and developed in some culture.

2. Translation Strategy

Zuchridin Suryawinata and Sugeng Haryanto define translation strategies as the way to translate words, phrase, clause, or maybe a whole sentence if the translated part cannot be separated into smaller unit to be translated (2003:67). In this case, the translation strategy means designed plan to manage and overcome difficulties and problems in the activity in translation in order to achieve a good result.

3. Tool

A.S. Honby in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English defines tool as any instrument that held in the hand and used for making or repairing something, or instrument that helps one to do one’s job (1989:1260).

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

A. Review on Related Theories

1. Definition of Translation

J. C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation mentions that translation is an operation performed on languages; a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another language. He proposes that translation should refer to the theory of language, in this case a general linguistic theory. In this definition, the form plays an important role. Translation is indeed a change of form in which the form of the source language (SL) is replaced by the form of the receptor’s (target) language (1965:20). According to Nida and Taber, this kind of approach belongs to the older focus in translation. The new focus has shifted from the form of the message to the response of the receptor (1969:1). The receptor of the TL should have the same response as the receptor of the SL. It is the meaning that plays an important role in translation subject. Based on the point of view of meaning, Nida and Taber state that translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, both, in term of meaning and style (The

Theory and Practice of Translation, 1969:12). Hence, translation should also transfer the meaning, not only the form. It is supported by Larson (1984:6) who mentions that in order to do effective translation, one must discover the meaning of the SL and uses receptor’s language forms which express this meaning in natural way.

2. Principles of Translation

As quoted by Basnett, there are five principles for a translator that was published by Dolet in 1540 in a short outline of translation principles (1996:54):

1) The translator must fully understand the sense and meaning of the original text;

2) The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL;

3) The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings;

4) The translator should use forms of speech in common use;

5) The translator should choose and order word appropriately to produce the correct tone.

Dolet’s principles stress the importance of understanding the SL text as primary requisite. According to Dolet, the translator is far more than a competent linguist, and translation involves both a scholarly and sensitive appraisal of the SL text and an awareness of the place the translation is intended to occupy in the TL system.

On the other hand, Nida and Taber in The Theory and Practice of Translation set the principle of translation by using stimulating question “what is a good translation?” (1974:173). They try to answer it by contrasting a good translation with bad translation of two kinds:

A Good Translation Contrasted with Two Kinds of Bad Translations (Nida and Taber, 1974:173) Bad Good Bad Formal correspondence: Dynamic equivalence: the Paraphrase by addition, the form (syntax and form is restructured deletion, or skewing of classes of words) is (different syntax and the message.

preserved; the meaning is lexicon) to preserve the lost or distorted. same meaning.

Nida and Taber explain that it is possible to produce a bad translation by preserving the form at the expense of the context, as in the first column. It is also possible to produce a bad translation by paraphrasing loosely and distorting the message to conform to alien cultural pattern, as in the third column. However, a good translation focuses on the meaning or context as such and aims to preserve that intact; and in the process it may quite radically restructure the form, as in the second column.

Mildred L. Larson in his Meaning-based Translation: A Guide to Cross-

Language Equivalence discusses that the best translation is the one which:

1) uses the normal language form of the receptor language;

2) Communicates, as much as possible, to the receptor language speakers the same

meaning that was understood by the speakers of the source language, and;

3) Maintains the dynamics of the original source language text.

Maintaining the “dynamics” of the original source language text means that the translation is presented in such a way that it will, hopefully, evoke the same response as the source text attempted to evoke (1984:6).

Hymes (in Bell, 1997:11) describes a good translation to be:

That in which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended,

and as strong felt, by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. There are three principles that implicitly described in that quotation. The first is that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. The second is that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. The last is that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition

3. Problems in Translation

J.C. Catford in A Linguistic Theory of Translation mentions that there is a translation problem namely untranslatability. Translation fails, or untranslatability occurs, when it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text (1965:94). There are two categories of untranslatability, linguistic and cultural untranslatability. In linguistic untranslatability, the functionally relevant features include some which are in fact formal features of the language of the SL text. It occurs when TL has no formally corresponding feature (1965:94). In cultural untranslatability, the failure is due to the absence of the situational feature which is relevant in the SL culture in the TL culture.

Nida, in his essay A Framework for the Analysis and Evaluation of Theories of Translation compiled by Sakri in Ikhwal Menerjemahkan, mentions two problems in transferring the message, namely problem of content and problem of form

(1985:71).

1) Problem of Content

Talking about content of a message, it must be distinguished clearly between the story and the setting. That is to say, what happens in the story constitutes a series of problems, and the culture setting of the story would give a series new problems.

When the culture setting of the story is really different from the culture setting in the target language, it will raise the serious problems in translation. The problems concern the equivalence; if we talk about culture, the problem is to find the equivalence because each country has its own culture, and language, of course, is one of the products of the culture itself.

There are two dimensions that directly concern the content; they are setting of time and culture. It can be explained, if there are two countries that have a great distance, the culture of those countries must be different. For example the culture of

Indonesia in Bumi Manusia is different from the culture of other countries, in this case Australia. The same thing also happens in the setting of time. If the time when the novel is written with the time when the novel is translated has a great distance, the translator must really understand that the situation in the story is different from the present day situation. For example the situation and condition of Indonesia in the era of colonialism in Bumi Manusia is really different from the present day.

The degree of foreign culture setting preserved in a translation depends on its imperative function in the story. The culture setting is important to preserve because it will promote the particular types or the features of the source language culture to receptor language readers. Sometimes a translator feels justified to change the feature

of the culture setting of the original, in purpose to make the receptor understand what happened at the particular time in the story or in another culture. But above all the translator is generally obligated to preserve as much of the original culture setting as possible.

2) Problems of Form

Nida says that though the difficulties related to the adequate reproduction of content are often acute, they generally do not constitute as complex and intractable a series of problems as the particular formal features of language in a message

(1976:172). Therefore it will be easier for someone to analyze and describe cognitive equivalences of content than the formal equivalences of language. That is to say, the componential features of cognitive meaning can be more readily transferred and, if necessary, redistributed from source language to receptor language than the corresponding features of discourse structures.

The formal linguistic features become all the more important as the text under consideration contains more and more highly specialized stylistics features

(1976:128). Therefore, the greater the significance of the form for the comprehension and appreciation of the message, the more difficult it is to find appropriate formal equivalence in the receptor language.

As the formal features of a text become more highly specialized (that is, distinctive of the source language in question), the more difficult it is to approximate the form and the unlikely it is that even a formal equivalence will carry anything like the same significance for receptor language readers.

4. Equivalence

There are five categories of equivalence according to the level of complexity, suggested by Mona Baker in her In Other Words: A Course Book on Translation

(1992:5). They are: a. Equivalence at Word Level

It can be gained by exploring the meaning of a single word in ST and replacing it with TL word which expresses the same meaning as the word in ST does.

Non-equivalence at the word level can be one of the problems in translating ST. Non- equivalence at the word level means the TL has no direct equivalence of a word that occurs in ST (1992:20). There is some common non-equivalence at the word level

(1992:20-25). They are:

1) Culture-specific concepts

Certain words occurring in the ST may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture, such as type of food, and some other concepts related to religious belief and social custom.

2) The SL word is semantically complex

A single word in the SL may express a complex set of meanings. As a word may have several meaning in its usage.

3) The TL lacks a superordinate

The TL may have specific words (hyponyms), but no general word

(superordinate) to head the semantic field. On the other hand, the TL sometimes may have superordinate but lacks of specific words.

4) Differences in expressive meaning

The TL may have a word with the same proportional meaning as the SL word, but the expressive meaning is not definitely yet the same. It often happens in translating a text related to sensitive issues such as religion, politics, and sex.

5) The use of loan words in the ST

It can add the atmosphere of sophistication that almost cannot be transferred into the TT. Another problem is called false friends which refers to some words or expressions having the same form in two or more languages, but convey different meaning (1992:25). Word or expression which is borrowed in another language will develop in meaning. It rarely has the same meaning as the original. b. Equivalence above Word Level

The second type of equivalence is the equivalence above word level. It is gained by exploring the meaning of the combination of words and phrases. This types of equivalence covers collocation, idiom and fixed expression. c. Grammatical Equivalence

Every language has its own grammatical rules. The differences in the grammatical structures often result in some change in the information content of the message during the process of translation (1992:86). The differences in the grammatical structures that can raise problems for translator may be deal with number (singular and plural distinction), gender (the classification of nouns and pronouns into masculine and feminine), person (forms of pronoun in expressing different level of situational background such as familiarity, and interaction), tense

and aspect (the distinction of tense that not all language has this type), and voice (the distinction of passive and active forms and the effect of using such patterns). d. Textual Equivalence

This level of equivalence emphasizes on the aspect of cohesion (1992:80).

Cohesion is the relation that provides links between various parts of a text. There are five main cohesive devices in English that are identified by Halliday and Hasan

(Baker, 1992:182-208). The first is reference. It refers to the use of anaphora and cataphora in the text. The second is substitution. Certain words can refer to the same aspect. This cohesive device mainly focuses on verb. For example; He loves you. He does. The third is ellipsis. It uses when there are two or more subjects in the sentence with same verb. It is used to avoid unnecessary repetition. For example; I read novel but Andy a poem. The verb read is omitted because those subjects are doing the same action using one verb. The fourth is conjuction, such as and, but or, etc. the last is lexical cohesion. It refers to the role played by the selection of vocabulary in organizing relation within a text. e. Pragmatic Equivalence

It deals with how a text ‘make sense’ for readers. This level of equivalence emphasizes on the aspect of coherence. It is more complicated than cohesion. It refers to the network of conceptual relations which underlie the surface of the text. There is also the aspect of cooperative principle that must be understood in the text and the context of dialog that merely influences the meaning of the text.

5. Lexical Equivalence

Mildred L.Larson in his Meaning-Based Translation states that translation was described as the process of studying the lexicon, the grammatical structure, and the communication situation of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determinate the meaning (1984:153). The translator is constantly looking for lexical equivalents between the source language and the receptor language. Larson states that language, it is also mentioned in chapter I, is part of culture. Therefore, a translator should be the one who has an adequate knowledge about both SL and TL structures and cultures because culture differences between SL and TL can be serious problems for a translator, since some SL concepts mat have no lexical equivalence in TL as the result of differences in geography, customs, belief, and various other factors

(1984:163).

Beekman and Callow (1974:191-211) proposed three basic alternative ways in which a translator can find an equivalent expression in the receptor language as quoted by Larson (1984:163-172). They are: a. Modifying a generic word with descriptive phrase

When an SL concept does not occur in the TL, it may be very helpful to analyze its meaning component to discover a generic word and a descriptive modification. Descriptive modification can be based on the form or function of the concept. The form has to do with the physical aspects of particular thing or event, while the function has to do with the significance, the reason for, or the purpose of the thing or event. Equivalence can be gained by modifying a generic word and a

descriptive phrase. In modifying a descriptive phrase, it is necessary for a translator to study the context to decide whether he/she will include the form, function, or both.

The decision will depend on which component is significant in the context. b. Modifying a loan word

It refers to a word from another language and mostly unknown for receptor language speakers. These words are commonly used for the names of people, places, etc (1984:169). Loan word can be used in translation by modifying it with a classifier or with a description of form, function, or both of them. c. Using cultural substitution

It is used by using certain concepts that are not exactly the same but occur in the TL. Cultural substitution always results in some distortion of meaning and should not be used unless the other possible solutions have proven insufficient. On the other hand, a cultural substitute does establish dynamic equivalence, without which part of the original message might not be understood.

6. Translation Strategies at Word Level

Mona Baker in her In Other Words: A Course Book on Translation suggests some translation strategies to deal with the occurrence of non-equivalence at word level (1992:26-42) as follows:

a. Translation by a more general word (superordinate)

A translator may “go up” one level by giving a word from higher semantic field, in other word, a more general word when TL has no word that share the same proportional meaning as the SL word.

b. Translation by a more neutral/ less expressive word

This strategy is used when the TL has no specific expression like in SL. For example the adjective exotic can not be translated easily into Chinese because there is no word that expresses the same meaning. Exotic is used in Western people to refer to unusual and interesting things that came from distant countries. In Chinese, it can be translated in to strange-unique.

c. Translation by cultural substitution

This strategy is performed by substituting cultural-specific items or expressions that occurs in the SL with TL items which have different proportional meanings, but which are likely to have the same impact on the target readers.

d. Translation by using a loan word or loan word plus explanation

This strategy is often used to deal with culture-specific items, modern concepts, and buzz words. It will be effective when the word is mentioned frequently in the text. Once explained, the word can be mentioned repeatedly without explanation.

e. Translation by paraphrase using a related word

This strategy is used when the concept expressed by the source item is lexicalized in the TL, but in a different form. It is also used to avoid repetition of certain word that results on unnaturalness of the TT.

f. Translation by paraphrase using unrelated word

This strategy can be used in a context when the concept expressed by the source item is not lexicalized at all in the TL. Paraphrasing may be based on modifying a superordinate or unpacking the meaning of the source item.

g. Translation by omission

This strategy is used when the meaning that is carried by a particular item or expression in the SL is not vital enough to the development of the text. A translator may omit some additional expressions considering its effect in the story, if it is useful and essential it cannot be omitted.

h. Translation by illustration

This strategy can be used to avoid a lengthy explanation of a source item.

7. Meaning in Translation

The meaning of a word is not only influenced by its structural position in sentence, but also the field of the writing. According to (Kridalaksana, 1984:120) that

is quoted by Nababan (1999: 48-50), there are five kinds of meaning, lexical, grammatical, textual, contextual or situational, and socio-cultural meaning. Lexical meaning is the meaning that is contained in the word. It is stated in the dictionary.

Grammatical meaning is the meaning that is gained from the relation with other word in a broader structure, such as phrase, clause, or sentence. This meaning can also be gained by the addition of participle. For example the word can in they can the fish means to put in a can (verb), while can in he kicked the can hard means a can (noun).

Textual meaning is the meaning that is influenced by the relation with the field of writing. For example the word interest in economics field means money paid for the use of money. Contextual or situational meaning is the meaning gained from the context in which an utterance take place. For example good morning can mean get out when it is stated by a manager for his employer who is late. The last is the socio- cultural meaning that is a meaning which is gained from the relation with culture of the speaker. Suryawinata (1989:24) gives an example in Javanese when an utterance is said to a friend who has just came back from a trip “endi oleh-olehe?” that does not really means “mana oleh-olehnya?” but more to “bagaimana perjalananmu?”

8. Loss, Gain, Wrong Translation, and Accurate Translation

There are several results of translation process namely loss of meaning, gain of meaning, wrong translation, and accurate translation. Each of them has their own definition. Their occurrence depends on several conditions related to the state of equivalence. It can be gained implicitly through the theory of translation equivalence

by J.C. Catford that SL and TL are equivalent if their items must be relatable to (at last some of) the same features and substance (1965:93). Relatable, in this case, means similar. It is also explained in the foot note that the type of substance depends on the scope of translation (1965:50). Since this thesis deals with the meaning of word, hence the substance is applied in the scope of the meaning of the datum; and the features will deal with the semantic properties of each datum. Loss of meaning means there is not all of features of SL and TL concepts which are related to each other. It means that the concepts of SL and TL share similarities only in some features. Gain of meaning means there is an additional features shared in TL concepts that are surely absent in SL concepts’ features. Wrong translation means there is no same feature shared between SL and TL concepts or they merely share a few concepts, but the concepts shared are very general that can still lead to different representation. The difference in features makes the meaning of the concepts of SL and TL is totally different. The last result is accurate translation. It means that the SL and TL concepts shared the same features.

B. Theoretical Framework

The definition of translation from Nida and Taber, and Larson and also theories about several principles of translation are needed as the basic understanding to the topic being discussed. The theories about problems of translation as described by Catford and Nida are also needed to give explanations about translation difficulties. It is important to know the problems of translation firstly before

discussing about the translation strategies. The theory of translation strategies will be used to answer the first problem formulation. The indication of translation strategy will be discovered in analyzing the object of the study. The data will be categorized based on Mona Baker’s classification of translation strategy at the word level that only deal with non-equivalence at word level because the analysis only deals with word level. The linguistic theory of translation and also the theories about the terminology of equivalence are needed in determining the translation strategies suggested before. The consideration in determining these strategies is focused from semantic point of view. The theory of meaning in translation is significant as guidance in examining the data.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

A. Object of the Study

This thesis deals with a novel Bumi Manusia written by Pramoedya Ananta

Toer, published for the first time in 1980 by Hasta Mitra publishing house before it was banned later in 1981. This novel was translated into English, entitled This Earth of Mankind, by Max Lane who was the second secretary in the Australian Embassy in

Jakarta until he was recalled in 1981 because of his translation of Pramoedya’s Buru

Quartet. The object of this study is the English version, This Earth of Mankind, since the study will be focused mainly on the translation product. This book was published firstly in 1983 by the Penguin Books Ltd of Australian edition.

The story took place mostly in Java in 1898. This novel also pictured the situation that the Javanese People had to face during the Dutch colonization. Some

Javanese culture values, feudal system, and way of thinking are also introduced. One thing to be emphasized here is the use of language in this novel. There are four languages used by the characters; Javanese, Dutch, Malay, and Madurese. The use of language in this period was an important indicator of a person’s social caste. Each language brings its own significance to the development of the story. From the translation’s point of view, this fact brings a great impact on the process of translating the original version since there are a lot of culture-bound expressions used through the vocabularies in this novel.

Max Lane wrote his comment about the work he translated in the introduction part of This Earth of Mankind. He admitted that there are two principles he used in translating this novel. Firstly, he considered mostly in making a linguistic forms that would facilitate the reader’s enjoyment, and for the sake of easy reading. He also tried to remain generally faithful to the author’s text. Secondly, he tried to avoid using full authority as a translator.

B. Approach of the Study

The approach used in the analysis is semantics that can be defined as the systematic study of meaning (Kreidler, 1998:3). This thesis will use semantics point of view in analyzing the object of the study based on meaning. It is the reason why semantics will be the most applicable theory to answer the problems. A semantic approach can analyze the data, consisting of culture-bound expressions, and determine its equivalence in meaning by using the semantic properties of those words. By having a semantic approach, the use of translation strategies can be analyzed further since the meaning and semantic properties of those words have been determined.

C. Method of Study

According to Sudaryanto in his Metode Linguistik; Bagian Pertama Ke Arah

Memahami Metode Linguistik, there are three methods of doing linguistic research.

They are comparative, structural, and descriptive method. In this study, the method

used is comparative method, which is a method of comparing the data from one language to another language, because the culture-bound expressions are firstly compared with their translated versions. This is done in order to find out how those expressions are translated and also to classify the data based on some categories of translated strategies suggested by Mona Baker.

D. Data Collection

The data were the words or phrases related to tool. The data consist of 16 nouns or noun phrases. The purpose of limiting the data is to make the analysis more focused because there are a lot of categories of culture-bound expressions. The writer’s consideration also lies in the fact that the data, words related to tool, are words that have the most reduction in meaning. These expressions are considered culturally problematic to translate because they hold cultural concepts that only occur in the Source Text.

E. Technique of Analysis

Some steps are taken in making the analysis in order to answer the problems.

To answer the first problem about the translation strategies, there are some steps taken. The first step is collecting some words that are considered as culture-bound expressions from the source text. The second is comparing the meaning of the words in source text and target text in order to be able to classify what translation strategies used in translating them. To answer the second problem, the data gained before are

analyzed through its semantic properties and characteristics. After the semantic properties of the data are compared, the result of comparing the data is analyzed further to identify the effects in using the translation strategies.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS

A. Translation Strategy

1. Cultural Substitution

This strategy is used for some items that are identical with some specific culture outside the TL environment. Those items are almost similar with the items in

TL environment. The similarity may deal with the function, or maybe the shape.

Hence, the items in ST can be substituted by the items in TT that are more common to the readers in TT. This strategy is done for the sake of TT readers’ easy understanding. The use of this strategy can be seen in the translation of the following items. a. Clurit ? Giant Sickle

SL: ..kumis, sekepal, dan clurit. (p.25)

TL:...mustache, a fist, and a giant sickle. (p.24)

According to the footnote in Bumi Manusia, arit besar, clurit means a big sickle. Clurit in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a tool like sickle with a curved blade used to cut grass, etc (1990:159). This definition, in Kamus Bahasa

Indonesia Kontemporer, is added with its characteristics that its blade is thin, made of iron (sometimes steel), with a short wooden handle (1991:271). The translator translates clurit into a giant sickle, which is closer to the definition given in the footnote in Bumi Manusia. Sickle in Encarta Webster’s College Dictionary is defined

as a short-handled implement with a curved blade used for cutting tall grass or grain

(2005:1342).

It becomes problematic because the concept of clurit is common in SL environment, but the same concept cannot be found easily in TL environment.

However, there are several kinds of farming tool with characteristics like the definitions above in SL environment, such as arit, sabit, and clurit. They are differentiated based on their shape, and function. Sabit and clurit have the same shape, but the last is bigger, and they have different shape from arit. Originally, they function as farming tools, but there is one consideration to be taken in translating clurit based on the meaning built in the story, where the author uses clurit to characterize Darsam, one of the character in the novel who works both as Nyai

Ontosoroh’s employee in her agricultural firm and also her family’s guardian.

Darsam is a Madurese fighter who mastering Javanese martial art. Implicitly, the word clurit in the story represents one of the characteristic of Madurese people, that they usually use clurit not as a farming tool but as a weapon.

Based on this consideration, it is difficult to find an equivalent terminology since it also deals with SL’s specific cultural concept. The concept of clurit is absent in the TL environment. Here, the translator uses the strategy of cultural substitution because the closest concept, based on its shape and function, of such tools in SL environment that is available in TL is sickle.

b. Parang? Machete, Dagger

Sl: Sebilah parang pendek terselip..(p.68)

TL: A short machete was fastened..(p.49)

SL: Tangan kanan membawa parang..(p.78)

TL: ...powerlessly held a dagger. (p.56)

Parang in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a tool (sometimes functions as weapon) like a big knife but shorter than sword used to cut wood, etc

(1990:648). The concept of parang is difficult to translate. It can be seen in the translation that the translator cannot even decide what would be the most equivalent concept because, in fact, machete and dagger are different things. Machete in Encarta

Webster’s College Dictionary is defined as a large heavy broad-bladed knife used as a weapon or as a tool for cutting through vegetation (2005:862), while dagger means short pointed knife used as a weapon (2005:361).

Based on the characteristic of parang, it is similar to machete in the shape and number of blade that is only single blade, while dagger surely has different shape and amount of blade that is double. Functionally, the concept of parang is also similar to machete that they can be functioned as weapon and farming tools. On the other hand, a dagger functions specifically as a weapon.

As a consideration, there are a lot of tools which seem to be similar in SL environment both in function and shape, such as golok, belati, and pedang. Each of them has its own characteristics. Golok and parang only differ in their size, that golok is bigger and usually a little shorter than parang. They have one blade and the blade

in golok is bigger than parang. Pedang and belati have the same characteristics, they are tip-pointed and two-sides bladed, although pedang is bigger and longer.

Considering the previous definitions, dagger is more similar to belati because they have the same characteristics, while machete is closer to parang and golok. The problem is that the TL environment do not have specific concept for equivalent expression. The translator uses the strategy of cultural substitution in translating this tool. The characteristic of machete can illustrate the tool even in SL environment it is differentiated further into more specific terminology.

c. Belati? Dagger

SL:..datang memberikan sebilah belati (p.195).

TL:..came and gave me a dagger (p.131).

Belati in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a weapon shaped like small knife with a sharp-pointed tip and double-bladed. It has straight blade, but sometime it is also curved (1990:95). Beside as a weapon, it is also used as equipment for army, etc. Dagger in Encarta Webster’s College Dictionary is defined as a short pointed knife used as a weapon (2005:361). The translator uses the strategy of cultural substitution in translating this concept.

d. Rencong? Dagger

SL: Rencong itu beracun. (p.79)

TL:..a poisoned-tipped dagger. (p.57)

Rencong in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a weapon like machete from Aceh with curved blade and sharp pointed tip, which becomes the symbol of virility (1990:741). Rencong is shaped like machete with a single blade. In the novel this tool is introduced when the author put the history of war in Aceh. It deals with the life history of Jean Marais, one of the characters, who lost his leg in the battle of Aceh between Dutch and Acehnese people. Jean met his wife and had a daughter with her. Unfortunately, she was killed by her brother by using rencong. It is one specific characteristic of rencong that it is traditional weapon from Aceh.

This concept becomes difficult to translate since this concept is unknown in

TL environment. In this case, the translator uses the strategy of cultural substitution by taking one common object in TL environment to replace the unknown expression in ST in order to give visualization to the readers about the weapon. However rencong and dagger are different things, although they share similar characteristic like “sharp pointed tip”

e. Pincuk? Plate

SL: Ia rebut pincuk rujak..(p.277)

TL: He grabbed the plate of fruit..(p.186)

Pincuk in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a food container made of banana leaf folded on one of its part which pinned together with palm-leaf rib sharpened on its tip (1990: 685). Usually it is used to eat traditional foods, such as rujak, gado-gado, pecel, brambang asem, etc. It is different with takir (data no. 8)

because pincuk is folded only on one of its side, while takir on two sides; and pincuk is bigger than takir.

Given the context, this tool is used to eat rujak (types of food made of sliced fruits or vegetables with special spices, 1990:756). This concept is absent in TL environment since both the food and its container cannot be found in TL. The translator uses the strategy of cultural substitution in translating this concept. The translator uses the word plate to be the translation of pincuk. Plate in Encarta

Webster’s College Dictionary is defined as a flat/shallow dish, usually round, made of plastic or metal from which the food is eaten (2005:1111). Plate is definitely different from pincuk both in their shape and their material. The translator uses plate to visualize the function of pincuk as a tool for carrying food/food container.

f. Bedug? Drum

SL: Bedug Masjid Agung telah bertalu, (p.179)

TL: The Grand mosque’s drum..(p.120)

Bedug in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia means a tool which is used in the mosque to inform people the time to pray (1990:91). It is made of long and round wood with two holes on both sides which are covered with animal skin as a membrane on one of its sides. Functionally it is different from drum that is used as musical instrument. In Encarta Webster’s College Dictionary, drum is defined as percussion, a musical instrument consisting of a membrane stretched across a hollow frame and played by striking the stretched membrane (2005:440).

This concept is difficult to translate since it is related with SL’s religious concept. It also deals with the condition that there was no electricity at that time so that the information about the time to pray can not be done by using microphone like in recent time. The translator uses the strategy of cultural substitution considering some characteristics of bedug that it has membrane on one of its sides and it is played by striking the membrane with a special stick.

g. Sampur? Sash

SL:..membawa talam berisi sampur. (p.201)

TL:..upon which was a sash. (p.135)

Sampur is one traditional tool that is related to dancing art. It is often used by the dancer in tayub dance festival. Sampur in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a long-narrow cloth that is worn in dancing festival (1990:778). It is usually used around the dancer’s shoulder or sometimes in waist. It depends on what kind of dance the dancer wants to present.

Given the context, this tool is introduced at Minke’s father’s celebration of his appointment. There is an information that can be gained from the novel that sampur is worn by the assistant resident in his shoulder when he starts to dance in Tayub.

This concept becomes problematic since sampur refers to one tool that related tightly to traditional art of dancing in SL environment. Surely, this concept is absent in TL environment because there is no such traditional art of dancing like in SL environment. The translator uses the strategy of cultural substitution when translating

it into sash that in Encarta Webster’s College Dictionary is defined as a long strip of cloth tied around the waist or over one shoulder for ornament or a part of ceremonial dress (2005:1286). When applied in SL environment, this definition can refer to several different things, such as stagen, setut, sampur, selendang, sabuk, and selempang. Sash can represent some of sampur’s characteristics even though specific details that can differentiate sampur with other tools are missing.

2. Paraphrase using a related word

This strategy is used for item that is absent in TL environment. Actually, there are items in TL environment that are functionally similar, but refer to another items in

SL environment. For example hat that will refer to different items in Indonesia. By using this strategy, the translator can give slight description of specific characteristics of the item in ST in order to make some visualization to the readers in understanding the concept that is shared by such items. There is only one item found from the data, and it is presented below.

a. Caping? Farmers’ Hats

SL:...semua bercaping bambu. (p.44)

TL: They all wore bamboo farmers’ hats. (p.36)

Caping in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a cone-shaped tool to cover the head made of plaited bamboo or coconut leaf used to avoid sunshine or rain

(1990:152). Commonly, it is used by the farmers when they work at rice field or

paddy, but it does not mean that only farmers use it because it is also common thing to be used out side farming activity. It is still used by people in most villages in

Indonesia recently. The translator translates it into farmer’s hat. In Encarta Webster’s

College Dictionary, hat is defined as a covering for head for protection from the weather or as an accessory in fashion (2005:656-657).

The concept of caping is unknown in TL environment. In this case, the translator uses the translation strategy of paraphrasing using a related word. One of the characteristic of caping, which is usually worn by farmers, is presented by the modifier farmer’s in order to visualize the concept, although the details of caping itself is not covered including its shape. The translator seems to put his consideration in emphasizing the similarity of the function of the tool, that both caping and hat are used to cover head from weather.

b. Cangklong? Bamboo pipe

SL: koleksi cangklong Tuan Mellema (p.343).

TL: Mellema’s bamboo pipe (p.230).

Cangklong in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as curved pipe with a bowl at tone end used for smoking tobacco (1990:150). It is made of bamboo. The translator uses paraphrasing strategy by adding one characteristic bamboo in characterizing the concept. The writer considers this strategy to be accurate because those concepts share the same characteristics, in material, shape and function.

3. Superordinate

This strategy is used when TL has no word that share the same proportional meaning as the SL word. In this case, the translator goes up one level by translating it using word from higher semantic field, or more general word. The use of this strategy is presented below.

a. Takir? Container

SL:..dalam wadah takir daun pisang. (p.177)

TL:..all in a banana-leaf container. (p.119)

Takir in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a tool used for food container made from banana leaf that are folded quadrangularly (sometimes shaped like bowl) and pinned together (in two sides) with other side of folded part using palm-leaf rib sharpened on its tip (1990:887). In SL environment, takir is used to serve small food because takir is usually small. It is also used in traditional celebration called kenduri, where people of some village are invited and they are given food.

This concept is absent in TL environment since originally this tool is related functionally to some SL’s traditional concept. The translator uses the strategy of superordinate in translating takir into container. However, the information about the characteristic of takir is missing, especially about its shape and function.

b. Bakul? Dish

SL:..dari basi ke bakul. (p.62)

TL:..from bowl to dish (p.46)

Bakul in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a food (rice) container made of plaited bamboo which is shaped round on top and smaller four-sided on its base (1990:71). It is Javanese common tool as rice container. According to Encarta

Webster’s College Dictionary, dish is a container for serving food, usually bowl

(2005:411). Dishes can refer to all tools that are used to serve food in a large meal, such as plate, bowl, etc.

However, it is difficult to find the similar concept of bakul which is used particularly as a rice container in a meal. Here, the translator used the strategy of superordinate when translating this concept. One thing to be considered in this concept is that bakul is made of bamboo plait. In SL environment itself (Javanese), there is also a tool that function the same as bakul called cething. Both of them have similar shape and function. The only difference lies on their material. Cething is made of plastic, while bakul is made of bamboo. On the other hand, dish is usually made of plastic, or glass. The word dish can represent the function of bakul so the readers can get a slight visualization of its usage though the characteristics of bakul are somewhat lost.

c. Tikar? Mats

SL:..duduk diatas tikar..(p.201)

TL:seated on their mats..(p.135)

Tikar in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a tool made of plaited coconut leaf that functions as base to sit, sleep, pray (for Moslem), etc. The common characteristic of this concept is its material. There are several kinds of tools in SL environment that are functioned as base to sit. They are differentiated based on their material, such as klasa, galar (data no. 17), and karpet. Klasa is made from plastic, galar from bamboo, and karpet from special cloth.

Mat in Encarta Webster’s College Dictionary is defined as a flat material, like carpet, placed on a floor for decoration, or protection, or for wiping the feet

(2005:887). From this definition, mat has three functions, as a decoration, protection

(base to sit), and wiping the feet. It becomes problematic when those functions are applied in SL environment because each function will definitely refer to different tool. This differentiation makes the concept of tikar has no direct equivalent in TL environment. The translator uses the strategy of superordinate when translating it into mat. The translator translates tikar into mat considering that the function of those tools is similar. It can be said that mat refers to several things while tikar refers only to one specific item.

d. Galar? Mat

SL:..ia letakkan juga di galar..(p.483)

TL:..onto the mat. (p.325)

Galar in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a base to sit that is made from bamboo. It is usually used as a base in traditional bed called ambin or bale-bale (1990:249). Functionally, it is similar with tikar (data no. 11), but they differentiated by their material.

Mat in Encarta Webster’s College Dictionary is defined as a flat material, like carpet, placed on a floor for decoration, or protection, or for wiping the feet

(2005:887). From this definition, mat has three functions, as a decoration, protection

(base to sit), and wiping the feet. It becomes problematic when those functions are applied in SL environment because each function will definitely refer to different tool. This differentiation makes the concept of tikar has no direct equivalent in TL environment. The translator uses the strategy of superordinate when translating it into mat. It is based on the function of mat that is similar with galar.

e. Sloki? Glass

SL:”Satu sloki lagi, Nyo,” (p.245)

TL: “Another glass, Nyo,” (p.165)

Sloki in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a small glass for drinking alcohol (1990:803). The translator uses the word glass in translating this concept. Glass in Encarta Webster’s College Dictionary is defined as a container

made from glass (sometime crystal, cooper, etc.) used to drink (2005:608). However, it becomes problematic because glass has wide varieties considering its definition, such as cup, mug, tumbler, wine glass, beer glass, etc. Sloki is included in a kind of glass itself.

This concept becomes problematic since there is no similar terminology for sloki in TL environment. Hence, the translator uses the strategy of superordinate in solving this problem. Glass can visualize the concept of sloki functionally, although the specific details are missing.

f. Teplok? Oil Lamp

SL:..dekat pada lampu teplok. (p.71)

TL:..near the oil lamp. (p.52)

Teplok in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a kind of lamp using burning oil with a fuse of a rope (1990:933). It is used in early historic time in

Indonesia, especially Java, because there was no electricity. There are a lot of tools in

SL environment that use burning oil with a fuse, such as tintir, oncor (torch), sentir, etc. All of those tools are have their own characteristics that differentiate one from another. Tintir, sentir, and teplok have the same shape and they usually used inside the house because their light are not really bright. There is a space at the bottom of the lamp where oil is placed. Tintir and sentir are actually the same, but usually sentir is bigger and having brighter light. They are different from teplok because teplok uses glass, which is called semprong, slipped through the side of the lamp in order to

avoid the wind that can make the light off, while sentir and tintir do not use this kind of glass because their fuse are bigger so that the light cannot be easily turned off by the wind. On the other hand, oncor is different because it is made of bamboo and usually placed outside the house because the smoke from the burning oil through the fuse is very thick.

This concept becomes problematic since TL environment do not have terminology that refers to the same thing with the same details. In this case, the translator uses the strategy of superordinate by taking one common characteristic of this tool that it uses oil as fuel. The word oil lamp can illustrate teplok so that the readers may have understanding of the concept related to the setting when there was no electricity.

4. Loan word Plus Explanation

This strategy is used when there is a concept that is mentioned several times in the text. By having this strategy, the translator just has to include the explanation in the first part when this concept is introduced, then the rest would be just the loan word. The explanation included with the loan word is functioned to give illustration about the concept in order to give the readers the information about the concept. It is done because usually this strategy is used to translate a concept, which is surely absent in the TL environment, and there is no such similar concept to be used. The used of this strategy is presented below.

a. Keris ? Ceremonial sheathed short sword, a keris

SL:..sebilah keris bertatahkan.. (p.197)

TL:..a ceremonial shetathed short sword, a keris inlaid with..(p.133)

Almost the same as rencong, keris is one of traditional weapons in Indonesia.

Keris in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia is defined as a sheathed weapon with sharp pointed tip and bend (sometime straight) double bladed made by special craftsman called empu (1990:427). It is a common weapon from Central Java that is believed to have magical power. The shape of keris is different from sword. It is smaller than a sword and the blade is bent (in Javanese called luk).

Based on the context, this tool is introduced whenever Minke, the narrator, faced some important ceremonial moments, such as his father’s appointment, and his marriage. Implicitly, keris symbolizes nobility in Javanese people. It is worn with special cloth, blangkon, kain batik, and it is worn by slipping at the kain batik and the special belt. Based on this context, the translator uses the strategy of loan word plus explanation. There is additional information through the word ceremonial.

On the other hand, there is a loss of meaning since the explanation in the loan word cannot cover the meaning of the concept culturally. As said in the explanation above, this concept is introduced when Minke faced some important events, firstly is his father’s appointment (Bumi Manusia: p.185-202), and secondly is his marriage

(Bumi Manusia: p.450-471). There are different contextual usages of keris from both ceremonies. In the first event, keris is functioned as a symbol of Javanese nobility. In the second event, keris shows the characteristics of Javanese honor. It is explicitly

stated when Minke’s mother gave him advice of what a Javanese man should have

(Bumi Manusia: p.463). Keris is a symbol of self-defense, strength to keep the life.

This value is lost since it is not included in the explanation of the loan word.

B. The Effects in Using Translation Strategy

In analyzing the use of translation strategies mentioned previously, the present would compare the meaning of those data both from SL and TL environments completely. Here, the analysis does not only deal with the lexical meaning that refers to the meaning of the words but also the contextual meaning that determine the meaning of the words based on the context where the words are used in the novel.

The word meaning is built by the semantic properties of word that can determine the meaning of a word completely. The semantic properties that the present writer would like to describe are gained from the words’ meaning both lexically and contextually.

The contextual consideration is included because in some cases the context has an influence to affect the meaning to change. Since the meaning is determined from semantic properties, the context also influences the determination in semantic properties, for example clurit. Lexically it only has one property as farming tool, but contextually it also has one additional property weapon. Since the data have been classified into the same group, the writer will only explain some of data.

1. Loss of Meaning a. Cultural substitution

Clurit Sickle

· + farming tool · + farming tool · + weapon (from Madura) · - weapon · + single blade · + single blade · + curved blade · + curved blade · + handled · + handled

From the semantic properties presented above, there is one difference between the data. It deals with the function of clurit both as a weapon and farming tool, and the function of sickle as a farming tool only. As the explanation in the previous analysis, the function of clurit as a weapon is related with the contextual terminology.

Clurit is used by the author to characterize Darsam, one of the characters in the story, who is a Madurese fighter. The concept of clurit is developed in meaning when it is related with the cultural background. It is not merely about one single concept of a thing but also deals with a symbol of honor and virility of Madurese men. The concept of clurit in this context becomes one aspect in building the image of Darsam as a Madurese fighter. This aspect is lost when the concept of clurit is translated by using the strategy of cultural substitution into giant sickle. It also leads to different characteristics of Darsam. In ST, the concept of clurit builds an image of Darsam as a

Madurese fighter who has clurit as a weapon. On the other hand, when the concept of

clurit is translated into giant sickle, the image of Darsam may change into a Madurese farmer who uses sickle as in his farming activity. b. Paraphrasing using a related word

Caping Farmers’ hat

+ plaited bamboo + plaited bamboo - other than plaited bamboo - other than plaited bamboo + cone-shaped - cone-shaped + protection from weather + protection from weather + used by farmers + used by farmers + used out side farming activity - used out side farming activity

There are differences in meaning between two words. It deals with the characteristics of caping as a traditional tool used in SL environment. Based on the material, caping is different from hat because most of common traditional tools in

Java at that time are made of plant leaf, can be coconut or banana leaf, including caping. Hat is usually made of special cotton. Based on the shape, those two things are also different. Caping is usually wide round and sharpened upward (cone-shaped), while hat has wide varieties of shape according to its kind. From this view, the translation strategy brings loss of meaning lexically. On the other hand, there is also an impact that is related contextually with the function. In the novel, the concept of caping is introduced in the relation with farming activity in Nyai Ontosoroh’s company. Slightly, the used of pre-modifier farmers’ to emphasize the characteristic of the concept in translation seems to be correct. However, it is related with the

culture in a wider scope that caping is also used out side farming activity in Java. It is commonly used by the villagers. This difference may deal with the background of SL and TL environment that SL environment is commonly known as agricultural country while the TL culture is industrial. This paraphrasing strategy brings a limitation of concept in ST as the result of reduction in meaning. The concept of caping is limited functionally to be used only by farmers without being given the description of its other characteristics, such as its shape and material. c. Superordinate

Takir Food container

+ side-dish container + all food container + made of banana leaf - made of banana leaf + folded quadrangular - folded quadrangular + pinned two sides with palm- - pinned two sides with palm- leaf rib sharpened on its tip leaf rib sharpened on its tip

From the semantic properties presented above, the concept of takir is just represented in a very general terminology. The characteristics of the concept in ST are completely lost. There is only one single property that is presented, and merely in a more generalized scope. This property is the function of takir as a side-dishes container that is represented by the whole concept of paraphrase. It must be understood that the size of takir is not really large. It is even smaller than a plate. This is why takir is only used for side-dishes. The paraphrase does not present the

characteristics of takir in specific details. The concept of food container can refer to all kinds of tools related to dishes, such as plate, bowl, etc. In this case, both lexical and contextual meanings of the ST concept are lost.

The same case also happens in the translation of bakul into dish.

Bakul Dish

+ rice container + food container + made of plaited bamboo - made of plaited bamboo + shaped round on top and - shaped round on top and smaller four-sided on its smaller four-sided on its base base

The characteristics of the ST concept are lost, while the concept of dish may refer to some different kinds of tools. The translation brings an impact of loss of meaning. There is one essential concept that is missed by the translator. The concept of bakul as a rice container shares an implicit message that Indonesian people use rice the primary food. Since the SL and TL environment have different primary foods.

This concept cannot be easily translated because there is no such tool that is functioned the same.

The loss also occurs in lexical meaning that is related to its characteristics.

The concept of bakul that is made of plaited bamboo is lost when it is translated into dish. Both of the concepts have different material because dish is usually made of plastic.

The loss of meaning also happens in the concept of teplok that is translated into oil lamp.

Teplok Oil lamp

+ oil + oil + fuse + fuse + glass (semprong) around the fuse + glass (semprong) around the fuse - glass (semprong) around the fuse

From the semantic properties above, the concept of teplok is not fully covered by the meaning of oil lamp since one of the characteristic of teplok, which is using a special glass called semprong, is lost. It is because the concepts of oil lamp may refer to several items in TL environment that may be with or without glass. The use of pre- modifier oil only covers one characteristic of teplok that it uses oil as fuel.

2. Wrong Translation a. Cultural Substitution

The same case also happens in the translation of pincuk into plate.

Pincuk Plate

+ food container + food container + made of banana leaf - made of banana leaf - made of plastic or glass + made of plastic or glass - round + round

From the semantic properties above, the concept of pincuk is different from plate. Lexically, the shape and the characteristics of those concepts are different. The similarity of those concepts lies in their function as food container. Here, the type of food contained by those concepts is different contextually. Usually pincuk is used to some traditional foods as explained in the previous part. On the other hand, plate can be used not only for traditional food. However, even though those concepts merely share the same function but the differences can lead to different reference.

3. Accurate Translation a. Cultural Substitution

Belati Dagger

+ weapon + weapon + sharp-pointed tip + sharp-pointed tip + double-bladed + double-bladed + like short knife + like short knife

From the properties above the concept of dagger can represent the same characteristics of belati. The essential concepts to be considered are the function and the characteristics because there is no specific cultural value lies behind this concept.

There is no changing in meaning as the result of contextual relation because the concept of belati only in the text contains a single functional concept as a weapon.

The writer’s consideration of saying this translation to be accurate lies in the similarities of those semantic properties after being compared.

b. Paraphrase using a related word

Cangklong Bamboo pipe

+ curved pipe + curved pipe + a bowl for tobacco + a bowl for tobacco + used for smoking tobacco + used for smoking tobacco + made of bamboo + made of bamboo

From the properties above the concept of bamboo pipe can represent the same characteristics of cangklong. The most essential concept to be considered is its function to smoke. There is no changing in meaning as the result of contextual relation, so the meaning just deals with lexical meaning.

4. Loss and Gain of Meaning a. Loan word plus explanation

Keris Ceremonial sheathed short sword, a keris

+ weapon of Javanese people - weapon + symbol of Javanese nobility - symbol of Javanese nobility + sheathed + sheathed + pointed tip + pointed tip + handled + handled + double bladed + double bladed + bend + straight

+ made by special craftsman called empu - made by special craftsman called empu

From the semantic properties above, there is essential information that is changed that is there shape of keris. Mostly it is shaped bent. Lexically, keris is different from sword. It is related with cultural value of Javanese. It is not the same with usual sword or other weapons because it is made by empu. It is believed to have some magical power. On the other hand, it is also related with the symbol of Javanese cultural value and Javanese nobility. Contextually, this concept is introduced in the era of colonialism when the nobility title influenced the caste system among people.

This sense is lost when the concept is translated into sword.

Keris Ceremonial sheathed short sword, a keris

+ weapon of Javanese people - weapon + symbol of Javanese nobility - symbol of Javanese nobility + used in ceremony + used in ceremony - used in ceremony

There is an additional explanation by the word ceremonial. It has been explained in the previous part of analysis that the translator may consider the context in the novel. But actually, there is a concept that must be specified in the use of modifier ceremonial because it is related tightly with the function of keris as a symbol of Javanese nobility. It is common contextually that keris is used for those who are included as noble, or in SL environment called ningrat. This sense is not introduced in the explanation in translation. Contextually, in the colonialism era, all

Javanese governmental officers called bupati wear keris in their daily activities because there was no special uniform so they have Javanese traditional clothes, such as beskap, kain batik, blangkon and keris as their uniform. Implicitly, it can be stated that keris is not used only in special ceremony but also in daily as a uniform.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

There are four kinds of translation strategies suggested by Mona Baker that is used by the translator in This Earth of Mankind. It is based on the data that has been being classified into one category of concrete concept used as tools. The data itself contains 16 culture-bound expressions found in the novel. The strategies used are:

A. Cultural Substitution

1. Clurit ? Giant sickle

2. Parang ? Machete, Dagger

3. Belati ? Dagger

4. Rencong ? Dagger

5. Pincuk ? Plate

6. Bedug ? Drum

7. Sampur ? Sash

The concepts in ST above do not have equivalents in English because those tools only exist in Indonesia. Some of the tools are related tightly to some cultural values so that they must have no equivalent in TL environment, such as clurit that is identical with Madurese, rencong that identical with Acehnese, and pincuk that is identical with Javanese. For tools like parang, and belati they do not have a relation with one specific culture but they are common in Indonesian culture generally. On the other hand, bedug is common in Indonesia especially for Moslem. However, there are

some items in TL environment, which may have similar characteristics, can be applied in replacing the concepts in ST. This strategy is applied when the concepts in

ST can be replaced by concepts in TT though there are some differences in characteristics in details.

B. Paraphrase using a related word

1. Caping ? Farmers’ hats

2. Cangklong ? Bamboo pipe

The concepts above do not have equivalents in English because those tools only exist in Indonesia. There are some items that may have the same function but are merely different with the concepts in ST. From the data presented above, caping and hat are merely two concepts with a similar function, which is to cover head from weather. Cangklong and pipe are also tools for smoking. The modifier farmers’ in the first datum shows that the concept is usually used in farming. The modifier bamboo in the second datum shows the material of the concept.

C. Superordinate

1. Takir ? Container

2. Bakul ? Dish

3. Tikar ? Mats

4. Galar ? Mat

5. Sloki ? Glass

6. Teplok ? Oil Lamp

The strategy can be applied when the data consists of concepts that have no equivalents in TT and there are no other concepts with similar characteristics that can be used to replace the concepts in ST. In this case, the more general terminologies are used to visualize the concepts. This strategy is used to avoid too long paraphrase in characterizing the concepts.

D. Loan word Plus Explanation

1. Keris ? Ceremonial sheathed short sword, a keris

This strategy is used to translate a concept, which is surely absent in the TL environment, while there is no such similar concept to be used. It is applicable for a concept that is mentioned several times in the text. By having this strategy, the translator just has to include the explanation in the first part when this concept is introduced, then the rest would be just the loan word. The explanation included with the loan word is functioned to give illustration about the concept in order to give the readers the information about the concept.

The translation strategies in translating culture-specific concepts presented above carry some results in meaning lexically and contextually. The results lead to loss of meaning, loss and gain of meaning, wrong translation, and accurate translation. Each strategy may result on different impact that depends on the datum itself. The results of the strategies are presented below.

A. Loss of Meaning

This result happens in all strategies presented above. In the strategy by cultural substitution, the loss of meaning happens in the concept of clurit. It deals with the cultural value that lies in this concept. It is related tightly with the contextual usage of the concept in the story. In the strategy by paraphrasing using a related word, the loss of meaning happens in the concepts of caping. The loss deals firstly with the lexical characteristics of the concepts. The properties of the material and shape of caping are lost. On the other hand, the loss also deals secondly with the functional usage of caping. There is a limitation of concept happens in this datum. In the strategy by superordinate, the loss of meaning happens in all data. In teplok, the properties of specific characteristic, using glass, is lost. Each datum has different aspect of loss of meaning.

B. Wrong Translation

This result happens in the strategy by cultural substitution. The wrong translation happens as the result of using different concept in ST to replace the concept in ST. it happens in the concept of parang (when it is translated into dagger), pincuk and bedug. For parang the consideration lies in inconsistency of the translator because it is translated also into machete. From the comparison of the properties, the concept of dagger refers to different tool. For the other three concepts, the use of this strategy is definitely inappropriate because the concepts are absent in the TL environment. It leads further into the use of different concepts to replace the concepts

in ST. There is actually a way to anticipate the occurrence of wrong translation. The translator may use the glossary or footnote in the translated novel. It can give clearer explanation about the concept.

C. Accurate Translation

This result happens in some of the strategies. In cultural substitution, the accurate translation occurs in the concept of parang (when it is translated into machete), belati, and cangklong. The consideration lies in the similarities of properties the concepts shared.

D. Loss and Gain of Meaning

In the strategy of loan word plus explanation, the loss happens in the concept of keris. It deals with the lexical meaning of this concept. The characteristic of the shape of keris is lost.

This result of gain of meaning happens when there is an additional explanation through the modifier ceremonial that leads to the addition in meaning lexically. The use of this modifier is based on the context that this concept is introduced in ceremonial moment of the narrator. However, it is necessary to have a deeper understanding about the cultural value behind this concept before using modifier in the explanation.

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Appendices

Appendix 1: The sentences where the data are found in Bumi Manusia.

1. Clurit : Hanya kumis, tak lain dari kumis, sekepal, dan clurit (P.25).

2. Parang : Sebilah parang pendek terselip di pinggangnya (p.68).

Tangan kanan membawa parang yang tak berdaya (p.78).

3. Rencong : Rencong itu beracun. Pembunuh itu sendiri terbunuh di bawah pekikan

sendiri: Mampus kafir, pengikut kafir! (p.79).

4. Guling : Diangkatnya aku seperti sebuah guling tua dan dibopongnya masuk,

diletakkannya tanpa daya di atas ranjang yang indah dan bersih (p.124).

5. Pincuk : Ia rebut pincuk rujak dan melemparkannya ke tanah (p.277).

6. Bedug : Dia belum juga muncul. Bedug Masjid Agung telah bertalu, menyusul

suara azan yang murung (p.179).

7. Belati : Pada waktu aku hamilkan kau, aku bermimpi seorang tak kukenal telah

datang memberikan sebilah belati (p.195).

8. Caping : Begitu kami datang, semua berhenti bekerja dan memberi tabik dengan

anggukan dan tangan sebelah kanan dinaikkan keatas. Semua bercaping

bambu (p.44).

9. Cangklong : Terdapat juga sebuah kotak kaca dalam lemari itu yang ternyata

koleksi cangklong Tuan Mellema (p.343).

10. Teplok : Tapi pandangku tertumbuk pada potret dara impian diatas meja, dekat

pada lampu teplok (p.71).

11. Takir : Diatasnya: nasi goreng berminyak mengkilat, dengan sendok dan garpu,

dihias telur mata sapi dan sempalan goreng ayam di dalam wadah takir

daun pisang

12. Bakul : Tak seorang membuka kata. Hanya mata berpendaran dari piring ke basi,

dari basi ke bakul (p.62).

13. Tikar : Mereka tinggal duduk di atas tikarnya di pelataran sana (p.201).

14. Sampur : Seorang penari dengan badan berisi seperti terbang memasuki

gelanggang, membawa talam berisi sampur (p.201).

15. Sloki : Wiski menyemburi Ah Tjong dan Min Hwa. Mereka tak marah, tetawa-

tawa senang. ”Satu sloki lagi Nyo,” tuan rumah menyarankan (p.245).

16. Galar : Ia melompat dari kursi. Cermin kecil dan pencabut kumis ia letakkan di

galar (p.483).

17. Keris : Sebuah blangkon, dengan gaya perpaduan antara Jawa Timur dan Madura,

sama sekali baru, kreasi Niccolo Moreno sendiri, terpasang pada kepalaku.

Menyusul sebilah keris bertatahkan permata (p.197).

Appendix 2: The sentences where the data are found in This Earth of Mankind

1. Giant sickle: Just a mustache, nothing but a mustache, a fist, and a giant sickle

(p.24).

2. Machete, Dagger: A short machete was fastened at his waist (p.49).

Her right hand powerlessly held a dagger (p.56).

3. Dagger: “When I was pregnant with you, I dreamed that someone that I didn’t

know came and gave me a dagger.” (p.131).

4. Dagger: Her younger brother sneaked into the camp and stabbed her in her side

with a poison-tipped dagger (p.57).

5. Plate: He grabbed the plate of fruit and threw it on the ground (186).

6. Drum: The grand mosque’s drum began its beating, followed by that sad call to

prayer (p.120).

7. Sash: A full-bodied dancer entered the arena as if flying, carrying a tray, upon

which was a sash (p.135).

8. Farmer’s hat: They all wore bamboo farmer’s hats (p.36).

9. Bamboo pipe: There was also a glass cabinet which held Herman Mellema’s

bamboo pipe collection (p.230).

10. Container: on it was fried rice, shining with oil, adorned by a fried egg and fried

chicken, plus a spoon and fork, all in a banana leaf container (p.119).

11. Dish: Eyes just moved about from plate to bowl, from bowl to dish (p. 46).

12. Mat: They stayed seated on their mats out in the compound (p.135).

13. Mat: The little mirror and the tweezers fell onto the mat (p.325).

14. Glass: “Another glass, Nyo,” the host suggested (p.165).

15: Oil lamp: But my eyes fell upon the portrait of the goddess near the oil lamp on

the wall (p.52).

16: Ceremonial sheathed short sword, a keris: Then came a ceremonial sheathed short

sword, a keris inlaid with jewels (p.133).

Appendix 3: Translation strategies used in translating the data

1. Cultural substitution

a. Clurit ? Giant sickle

b. Parang ? Machete, dagger

c. Belati ? Dagger

d. Rencong ? Dagger

e. Pincuk ? Plate

f. Bedug ? Drum

g. Sampur ? Sash

2. Paraphrase using a related word

a. Caping ? Farmers’ hat

b. Cangklong ? Bamboo pipe

3. Superordinate

a. Takir ? Container

b. Bakul ? Dish

c. Tikar ? Mats

d. Galar ? Mats

e. Sloki ? Glass

f. Teplok ? Oil lamp

4. Loan word plus explanation

a. Keris ? Ceremonial sheathed short sword, a Keris

Appendix 4: The effects of using translation strategies

1. Loss of Meaning

a. Cultural substitution

1) Clurit? Giant sickle

2) Rencong ? Dagger

3) Sampur ? Sash

b. Paraphrase using a related word

1) Caping ? Farmers’ hat

c. Superordinate

1) Takir ? Container

2) Bakul ? Dish

3) Tikar ? Mats

4) Sloki ? Glass

5) Galar ? Mats

6) Teplok ? Oil lamp

2. Wrong Translation

a. Cultural substitution

1) Parang ? Dagger

2) Pincuk ? Plate

3) Bedug ? Drum

3. Accurate Translation

a. Cultural substitution

1) Parang ? Machete

2) Belati ? Dagger

b. Paraphrase using a related word

1) Cangklong ? Bamboo pipe

4. Loss and Gain of Meaning

a. Loan word plus explanation

1) Keris? Ceremonial sheathed short sword, a Keris