Chasing the Parsi Theatre in Bareilly Pamela Lothspeich

Staging Heroic Abhimanyu From the Sanægam Theatre to IMA Hall When the play Vır\ Abhimanyu (Heroic Abhimanyu) premiered on 4 February 1916 to a full house at the Sanægam Theatre in New Delhi on the auspicious occasion of Vasant Pañcamı \ (a festival heralding spring), it was just over a year since Gandhi had arrived from South Africa on 9 January 1915.1 Meanwhile, World War I was underway and over one million Indian sol- diers in the British Indian Army were fighting in the Middle East and France (Metcalf and Metcalf 2001:161). Gandhi’s brand of Indian nationalism was as yet nascent, and independence was still a generation away, but a new sociopolitical consciousness initiated in the 19th century was gripping North India. Reformist and revivalist movements in the major religious traditions

1. Playwright Pandit Radheshyam Kathavachak discusses the day Heroic Abhimanyu premiered in his memoirs ([1957] 2004:60–62).

Figure 1. Bhim (Arshad Azad, center) comforting a bereft Yudhishthir (Patrick Das, right) as Nakul (Devendrapal Singh, left) looks on at the Mishra production of Heroic Abhimanyu (10 December 2012). (Photo by Sanjeev Gupta, Atul Studio, Bareilly)

TDR: The Drama Review 59:2 (T226) Summer 2015. ©2015 Pamela Lothspeich 9

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10 Pamela Lothspeich the designation “katha\ the Pradesh. Infact, likemanypan∫dits(Hinduscholars)inthislineofworkeventoday, heappended (1890–1963), adevoutbrahminandpoet-singerinthe Vaishnava traditionfromBareilly, Uttar India Companytoasoberingacceptance, evencontriteness, withrespecttotheevilsofempire. sion” andraciallytingedhysteriaparanoiaensuingfromthe1857RebellionagainstEast a slowparadigmshiftinpublicopinion, fromanunwaveringconfidenceinthe “civilizingmis- to thisgenreasdha cals” Alfred Theatrical CompanyofBombay, forwhichKathavachakwroteaseriesof “mythologi- throughout muchofhislife. The companythatfirststagedHeroicAbhimanyu wastheNew Ra\dhes;ya based onstoriesfromtheclassicalHinduarchive. Oneofthelatter, commonlyknownasthe Kathavachak wrotemorethanadozenplaysandthreemajornarrativepoems, almostall surname 48). DivisivedebatesragedaboutthestatusandrelationshipofHindiUrdu. were animatingthesubcontinent(Brown[1985]1994:159–66;Metcalfand2001:137– and socialcampaignstoupliftthestatusofwomenthosemarginalizedbycasteaffiliation Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh. [email protected] book project isontheRa Reimagining theMahabharata intheAgeofEmpire (Oxford University Press, 2009).Her current literatureepics inmodern andtheatre, especiallytheRa\mlīla Comparative Literature from Columbia University in2003.Her research interests includetheHindu the University ofNorth Carolina atChapelHill. She received herPhD inSouthStudies Asian and Pamela Professor LothspeichisAssociate ofHindi-Urdu andSouthliterature Asian andculture at conveniently facilitatedbynewmoderntechnologies stage. With itsdependenceonmusic andtendenciestowardsmelodramaspectacle audiences toanewstyleofcosmopolitantheatresetindoorson Western-style proscenium medium,In this travelingcompaniesbasedinBombayandlaterothercities, introducedIndian tainment inNorthIndiabeforetheriseofIndiancinema, whichitgreatlyinfluenced. in Indiafromthe1870sto1930sandwasoneofdominantformsperformanceenter Zoroastrian businessmenincolonialBombay theatre untouchability, andtheriseofNehru-Gandhibloc. Khilafat movement, increasingrevolutionaryactivities, B.R. Ambedkar’s campaignagainst momentous developmentswereyettocomebefore WWII andindependencein1947 1932 (15), evenwhilemanyothercompanieshadadoptedthepracticebeforethen. tion ofSohrabjiOgra. As onesignofthis, theNew Alfred resistedutilizingwomenactorsuntil celebrated theatricalcompaniesinIndia, andalsooneofthemostconservative, underthedirec- 5. 4. 3. 2.

The playinquestion, HeroicAbhimanyu, waswrittenbyPanditRadheshyamKathavachak (1999, 2011, 2003), and Kapur (2006). to the 1930s (Kapur 2006:211). My discussion of the Parsi theatre here is informed by Gupt (2005), Hansen release of the first Indian film with sound suggests(Hansen 2011:4). Anuradha Kapur likewise roughly the 1850s Hansen dates the ParsiKathryn theatre as 1853–1931, from the founding of the first Parsi theatre clubs, to the memoirs ([1957] 2004:39, 166, 174–75). Also see Hansen (1999). Kathavachak discusses the use of cross-dressing actors in the Parsi theatre, a in conventionhis he supported, For a succinct discussion of the tumultuous period from 1885–1939, see Metcalf and Metcalf (2001:123–99). On these debates and the Hindi language movement generally, see King (1994), Orsini (2002), and Rai (2001). The New Alfred operatedwithinacommercialenterpriseknownastheParsiorPersian

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itself wasn’t censored, but the narrative is covertly critical of the British, covertly critical of the British, but the narrative is itself wasn’t censored, (Lion) (Solomon 1994:346). In a survey of ten Marathi plays, including The ten Marathi plays, In a survey of (Lion) (Solomon 1994:346). \

is an important play in the history of Parsi theatre, it may also be it may in the history of Parsi theatre, is an important play Heroic Abhimanyu Kesarı was subject to imperialist scrutiny

On the languages of the Parsi theatre and the early historyearly and the (2003). theatre Hansen see medium, the of Parsi the of languages the On Heroic Abhimanyu Heroic Abhimanyu - the Hindi mythological became fashion appeared just when The play Heroic Abhimanyu Although and subterfuge when we consider transference, can understand the need for mimesis, We Khadilkar was no doubt drawn to the ideology of his Meanwhile in the Bombay Presidency,

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also helped that companies offered plays in languages suited to their audiences, which allowed which allowed suited to their audiences, plays in languages that companies offered also helped one that was It was a polyglot medium, vernacular theatre. beyond a regional or it to grow lin- its Asia, Southeast Asia and even colonial South many audiences throughout able to reach Hindi. and finally, Urdu Gujarati, spanning English, guistic repertoire \d Prahla Parambhakt another of Kathavachak’s plays, However, below. Prahlad), avoided censorship because the allegory was too opaque ([1957] 2004:84–85). and in its prologue there is a strong expression of anticolonial nationalism, which I d and in its prologue there is a strong expression of anticolonial nationalism, horrific conditions on indigo plantations, is set in the historical present but contains many is set in the historical present but contains horrific conditions on indigo plantations, while Krishnaji Prabhakar Khadilkar’s Marathi play Kı epic allusions, between 1898 Act, Performance which were proscribed under the Dramatic , of Kichak Slaying some more Solomon notes that nine of the ten plays employed allegory, Rakesh H. and 1910, and epic history, classic themes from Indian folklore, and seven drew on obviously than others, literature (326–27). ration from English examples, especially plays by Shakespeare, but over time increasingly but over especially plays by Shakespeare, English examples, ration from and Indic folklore, romances and legends, from Indo-Persian themes drawn favored indigenous Hindu mythology. episodes from the Maha\bharata: the The play itself is based on several able in the Parsi theatre. Arjun’s dramatic kill- and rites, his funeral Abhimanyu, Arjun’s son of Kauravs’s heinous killing It is not surprising that Kathavachak chief perpetrator of his son’s death. the ing of Jayadrath, late colonial period that the as it was during the for inspiration, turned to the great epic Themes from the national history. itiha\s (legendary history) to Maha\bharata apotheosized from period. in the literature and visual art of the Maha\bharata were commonplace which generally witnessed a flow- history of modern Indian theatre, situated within the larger veiled some of which contained of British rule, ering of mythological plays in the latter half two notable examples from different regional present To anticolonial messages and allegories. Dinabandhu Mitra’s Bangla (Bengali) play Nı theatres, clearly relates of Draupadi in the Maha\bharata, about an attempted molestation 1907), Kichak, in part This turn toward the classical Hindu archive “Mother India.” to the imperialist rape of ironically, Yet, interventions in the subcontinent. stemmed from Orientalist and imperialistic classical themes and ideas into powerful discourses Indian writers strategically refashioned the a topic I have explored however alienating it was for non-Hindus, of anticolonial nationalism, 2007 and 2009). more extensively elsewhere (see Lothspeich the subversive potential of India’s modern theatre, that British authorities were well aware of distaste for Mitra’s Their and Madras. Bombay, most active in the colonial cities of Calcutta, the seat of British colonial damning play The Blue Mirror in the Bengal Presidency region, Act XIX Control surely figured into the passage of the Dramatic Performances power in India, defama- dramatic performances which are scandalous, “prohibit public which was to in 1876, and regulation, surveillance, From that time, 1994:325). (Solomon or obscene” seditious, tory, routine. censorship of the Indian theatre became with his uncompromising stance against the British Tilak, friend and employer Bal Gangadhar nationalist Tilak’s Khadilkar worked as an editor at and gestures toward Hindu nationalism. newspaper Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

12 Pamela Lothspeich Scene 5[Abhimanyu’swifeUttarapinesforherbeloved,comfortedbysakhı ties tothedomesticworld. Scene 4Enroutetobattle,Abhimanyuhesitates,tornbetweenawarrior’scredoandhis despite histenderageandlimitedknowledge. Pandavs, isfretting.FinallyheacquiescestoAbhimanyu’srequestbreakthecakravyu Scene 3HavinglearnedoftheKauravs’lateststratagem,Yudhishthir, theleaderof of thebattlefield. how toexitthecakravyu (not present)havetheknowledgetobreakarray. However, Abhimanyudoesnotknow cakravyu\h (circularbattleformation).OnlyAbhimanyu,Arjun,Krishna,andoneofhissons Pandavs’ victory. ThispromptsDrontovowdefeatonePandavherointhevortex-like leader, Duryodhan,accuseshisgeneralDronacharya(Dron), ofconspiringtoensurethe Scene 2TheKauravsaredespondentduetothePandavs’ascendencyinwar. Their Krishna counselsawaveringArjun. Arjun andhisdivinecharioteerKrishnasetoutonthe12thdayofgreatBharatawar. Scene 1TheopeningscenerevisitsthemesintheBhagavad-Gita,asAbhimanyu’sfather Act 1 the useofHindiinit.] between anactorandactresswhoeffectivelyintroducethesubjectofplay, andpraise [A benedictoryversetoLordGaneshsungbyachorus,followedbriefconversation Prologue death.] Scene 2[AfranticUttaraislikewisetortured byapropheticdreamaboutAbhimanyu’s Scene 1[Arjunexperiencesbadomens asheandKrishnareturnfrombattlethesameday.] Act 2 to takerevenge,Abhimanyuis slain. Thegodsinheavenraindownflowersonhiscorpse. causing theKauravstomovein forthekill.CursingKauravsandcallingonhiskinsmen Abhimanyu andcallshisnephew toembracehim.Touched, Abhimanyudisarms himself, Abhimanyu andheapabusesonhim.Duryodhanthensuddenly feignsaffectionfor kill him.Droncallsthemovecontrarytodharma,butheisignored. TheKauravssurround Kaurav casualtiesatAbhimanyu’shands,theybecomedefiant andresolvetocollectively regroup, discouragedbyAbhimanyu’sprowess.Butafterdevastating newsofalist just beforebeingdefeatedthemselvesbyAbhimanyu.]Meanwhile, theprincipleKauravs shifts toagroupofsevenkingswhopredictthatloneAbhimanyu isabouttobedefeated, also exchangeangrywords.ThebattleendswithDuryodhan retreating. [Thescenebriefly but ratherhisuncleBhim’ss;ika physically overpowersDuhshasan,butagainspareshimsince heisnothisbhojan(food) tangles withDuryodhan’sbrotherDuhshasan.Afteraheated verbal exchange,Abhimanyu the match.Heconsidersit“unethicalforapreceptortofight a youngboy.” Nexthe him toexitthecakravyu becomes emboldened.Meanwhile,AbhimanyuencountersDron whotriestoconvince Upon reviving,Jayadrathisfirstdisgustedforhavingbeendefeatedbyamerelad,then “unconscious inthelapofmotherearth,”asheconsidersitasintokillfallensoldier. sentry tothecakravyu Scene 7AbhimanyufacesaseriesofKauravwarriors,firstamongthemJayadrath, berates himforhiscowardiceandofferstotakeplace.] flatter anddeceivetheKauravleaders.Apprisedofthis,hisyoungwifeSundari(Beauty) name suggestsaregalnature Scene 6[Performedasafarce:AnofficerinDuryodhan’sarmy, Rajabahadur mother Subhadra,whoreadilyblesseshim. expressing somereservations,shefinallyoffersherblessing.Abhimanyunextvisitshis (attendants).] Abhimanyuarrivesmid-scene,toaffectionatelybidfarewellher. After that wereexcisedfromtheMishraproduction. h, protectedbyaboonfromShiva.ButAbhimanyuleaveshim \ [Bracketed textindicatesportionsofthescript h. Abhimanyurefusesandtheyspar, withDronfinallyforfeiting \ h, andArjunKrishnaareotherwiseengagedinaremotepart \ Summary ofHeroicAbhimanyu

— r (quarry).NexthemeetsupwithDuryodhanandthey \

unashamedly desertsthewar, braggingofhisabilityto

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whose s \ h, \ Parsi Theatre 13 \ . Sundari then challenges him on . Sundari then challenges arrow, causing his head to fly many miles and fall arrow,

” (Yes sir). She proposes a duel, which he agrees to, but tells her to leave his a duel, which he agrees to, but tells sir). She proposes sarka\r” (Yes

\ ). Sundari then accuses the real Karamchand of having poisoned her husband and \). Sundari then accuses the real Karamchand The Pandavs are coming to terms with Abhimanyu’s death. Arjun is overcome death. Arjun is overcome with Abhimanyu’s are coming to terms Scene 3 The Pandavs consciense. his older brother’s guilty hide this to assuage yet he endeavors to with grief, in his son’s for his pivotal role he vows to kill Jayadrath turns to rage and Arjun’s grief suicide himself. day or else commit sundown the following death before her to ensure and asks the goddess Yogmaya turn, Krishna summons Scene 4 [In a fanciful of ma\ya to the sun with a “cloud temporarily covering by the next day, Arjun’s success mad with grief and rage. nightfall.”] Arjun delivers a long monologue, create the illusion of realm of Kailash for an that they must depart for the celestial Krishna arrives and explains undisclosed purpose. by Lord to Kailash where they are warmly greeted Scene 5 [Krishna and Arjun travel him to Shiva’s blessings and his pa\s;upat missile, which will allow Shiva. Arjun receives decapitate Jayadrath.] Thus disguised, now donned the uniform of a Pandav soldier. Scene 6 [Farce: Sundari has anyone swearing loyalty to in the jungle and threatens to shoot she confronts Rajabahadur the most powerful of which Rajabahadur boasts of his weapons, evil Duryodhan. Worried, is “Jı wife, so that she may perform satı corpse behind for his his supposed command of Vedanta philosophy and Sanskrit before finally revealing her philosophy and Sanskrit before of Vedanta his supposed command true identity.] Abhimanyu. Uttara and Subhadra are Scene 7 [The Pandavs perform the final rites of sister Subhadra with a philosophical discourse inconsolable.] Krishna tries to comfort his on women’s dharma. Act 3 He is mad with worry and fear. vow, Scene 1 The next day Jayadrath, aware of Arjun’s questions Dron’s loyalties. Dron acknowledges begs Dron to protect him. Duryodhan again but agrees to protect Jayadrath out of that his sympathies are in fact with the Pandavs, duty. Arjun first battles his beloved preceptor Dron, Scene 2 [Arjun and Krishna enter the fray. reminds him of the shortage of time to complete even wrecking his chariot, before Krishna his vow.] Yudhishthir takes in the blood- as Scene 3 [Meanwhile Bhim is also fighting maniacally, bath despondently.] her that her husband is about to play Scene 4 [Farce: Sundari’s friend Champa informs humiliation. They decide to play along. a trick on her in retaliation for his previous disguise of a sadhu with his friend, Karamchand, Rajabahadur subsequently appears in the that Rajabahadur has perished. Unperturbed, acting as a servant. The sadhu announces remarry (despite a previous vow to perform Champa announces that Sundari will simply satı bring her husband’s corpse, which he does, threatens legal action. She orders him to announces that she will make a cremation ground Rajabahadur now playing dead. Sundari husband. Just as she is about to ignite their out of their house and burn herself with her and house, Rajabahadur leaps off the pyre, but Sundari pretends to take him for a ghost everyone that he is alive, and At length, Rajabahadur is able to convince screams in terror. the truth is revealed to all.] yet was not able to dispense Scene 5 Arjun has fought relentlessly throughout the day, with Jayadrath, shielded by Dron. Just when it appears the sun has set thanks to efforts, Arjun loses all hope and prepares to enter the fire. As he bids farewell Yogmaya’s to his loved ones, Duryodhan appears to taunt Arjun. They verbally spar until the divine cloud suddenly disappears, revealing the sun. Reinvigorated, Arjun immediately decapitates Jayadrath with his pa\s;upat Startled, his father stands up, Vriddhakshatra. into the lap of Jayadrath’s meditating father, only to have his own head split apart, in accordance with his own prior vow that whoever should cause his son’s head to be severed would find his own head shattered. The Pandavs are triumphant, but there are still five more days of the war to go. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

14 Pamela Lothspeich Pradesh. Throughout Irefertothemasfollows: tions ofHeroicAbhimanyu betweenOctober2010andDecember2012, allinwestern Uttar atre. HisRa\mayan Bareilly, moreoftenthannotitseems, these playsareonesKathavachakwrotefortheParsi- may ornotrelatedirectlytotheRa\mayan up toamonth. Moreover, someRa\mlı enact the hybridvisualartthatdevelopedincolonialperiod. With referencetopopular, mass- my instancesofcolonialimitationcome” (1994:86). reforming, civilizingmissionisthreatenedbythedisplacinggazeofitsdisciplinarydouble, that insurgent. As Bhabhaexplains, “It isfromthisareabetweenmimicryandmockery, wherethe needs, addingsomethingnew, inwaysthatareendlesslyprocreativeandsometimesdeeply thetic, andperformativetoolsofthecolonizer, butinstinctivelyadaptsthemtolocaltastesand Bhabha referstoas “colonial mimicry.” The colonizedmayborrowsomeofthediscursive, aes- Abhimanyu Kathavachak doesnotdwellonthepoliticalimplicationsofhisplays, ImaintainthatHeroic ations organizeRa\mlı the earthlylifeofRa\ma(called “Ram”), Vishnu’s seventhincarnation. Neighborhood associ- graphic sphereofinfluence. ThetheatreofRa\mlı his mythologicalsistheRa\mlı which occasionallystagesKathavachak’swork, theonlyplaceonecanstillreliablyencounter Kathavachak’s playsperformed. OtherthantheNationalSchoolofDramainNewDelhi, Hindi languageandtheatre, aswellinculcatingpositivesocialandnationalistvalues. Motilal Nehru, werealsoadmirersoftheplay;theycreditedKathavachakwithpromoting 2004:123). Otherdignitariesoftheday, includingnationalistsMadanMohanMalviyaand the publicrespecteditmorethananyotherplaythusfarstagedinParsitheatre([1957] Premchand, oneofthegreatestlivingwritershisday, praisedHeroicAbhimanyu, sayingthat own paradigms. unmoored fromcolonialprecedentsandbegantooperateunderitsownruleswithin inevitably involvedaprocessofstrategicmimicrybutultimatelytheartitselfnecessarilybecame (primarily) tosignifyitself” (31). That is, theproductionofIndianartunderthesecircumstances circulates outsideitsframeworkoforigination:itisjettisonedintothecolony, whereitcomes that thisstyleofartoperatesinamode “xeno-realism,” or “colonially authorizedrealismthat genized seemtoconveyakindofIndian “magical realism” (2004:31). Heelaboratesbysaying suggested thatthehybridformsresultedwhen Western intellectualimportswereindi- forms; glorious, beneficentgods;andverdant, utopianlandscapes produced printart, particularlychromolithographs city about30miles southwestofBareilly. The othertwowereboth performedbycommunity The Jhaproductionwasperformed byaprofessionalRa\mlı 1. Despite fewopportunitiestoseeKathavachak’splays, I wasabletoobservethreeproduc- Besides theParsitheatre, anothersitethatexhibits “instances ofcolonialimitation” is 3. Despite thisinitialwarmreception, nowadaystherearefewopportunitiestosee In hismemoirs, Mera\ nat∫ak-ka \l Heroic Abhimanyu ispartofthishistoryradical, allegoricalanticolonialtheatre. 2.

6 October 2012),6 October directedby Ambuj Kukreti; The RanægVina\yak production(IndianMedical Association [IMA]Hall, Bareilly, The JhaproductionortheRa\mlı directed by Anil Mishra. Our productionortheMishra production (IMAHall, Bareilly, 10December2012), 2010), directedbyLallanJha; Ra\m-katha (thestoryofRam), usuallyoverthecourseofabouttwo weeks, butsometimes and indeedthehybridParsitheatreitselfpresentuswithexamplesofwhatHomi ∫a is alsowidelyusedasasourcebookforRa\mlı la\ festivals, hiringprofessionaltroupesorconveningamateurteamsto \ la \ \ stage, especiallyinwesternUttarPradesh, theauthor’sgeo- (My TheatreYears;1957), la\ festivalsincludesupplementalmythologicalplaysthat \ la\ production(LavelaChowk, Badaun, 17October \ ∫a, butgenerallyareofareligiousnature. Around la\, literally, “the playorsportofRa\ma,” enacts \

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) ;a\stra \ tradition in that area since 2006. In la\ tradition in that area since 2006. \ s, in Bareilly and across Uttar Pradesh, over in Bareilly and across Uttar Pradesh, la\s, \ team, having played Lakshman, Hanuman, and many Hanuman, having played Lakshman, la\ team, \ production and our production. Taking stock of the complex Taking la\ production and our production. \ and the Parsi theatrical traditions, staged as it was in the mod- staged as it was theatrical traditions, la\ and the Parsi \ , and there were also touches from the Indian cinema that crept in, and there were also touches from the Indian cinema that crept in, la\,

Reflecting upon our production, I was initially bedeviled by the question of how well we had I was initially bedeviled by the question of how Reflecting upon our production, and not only to the extent I realize this was a naïve line of inquiry, however, In retrospect, a unique oppor of Heroic Abhimanyu I now see in these three productions Despite this, yak production had perhaps the highest budget and for aficionados of mod for aficionados of - highest budget and had perhaps the \yak production The Ranæg Vina in terms of the aes- was perhaps the most overdetermined meanwhile, Our production, teams, one based in Subhashnagar, Bareilly, and the other in Cantt, Shahjahanpur, about about Shahjahanpur, and the other in Cantt, Bareilly, one based in Subhashnagar, teams, of the actors were familiar to me as I have been Many 50 miles to the southeast of Bareilly. and the Ra\mlıresearching Kathavachak’s dramatic legacy I observed 19 Ra\mlıthe subsequent eight years, the course of five festival cycles. our and feared that in several key respects, theatre, replicated the company style of the Parsi in However, in large part due to our limited budget and time. production had come up short, dramatic style our cast was perhaps the most successful in reviving the terms of the acting itself, actors struggled to move out of the more flamboyant a few of the Even so, of the Parsi theatre. theatrical style of Ra\mlı even emu- Shivam Shukla (Shakuni) score. evident in the costuming and recorded background TV Maha\bharata of the character in the lated Gufi Paintal’s iconic representation of hybridity our production exemplified a different sort Overall, and all. hunched back, It showed vestiges of Ra\mlıthan that which characterized the 1916 production. such as those directed by Ramanand TV series, ematic mythological (Bollywood films and legendary kings, relay the stories of the Hindu deities, that and Ravi Chopra, Sagar and B.R. most obviously through its printed, and even the modern theatre, and religious exponents), polythene backdrop. how- or fraud, that all artistic verisimilitude necessarily involves a knowing process of deception classical Greek and Sanskrit critics as both the ever pleasing or transformative, the Na\t∫yas to Bharata Muni (author of the Sanskrit text on performance, and perfor it wasn’t just that the Parsi theatre itself was so fraught with processes of aesthetic the basic problem was that our project was to engage No, mative mimesis from colonial models. and perhaps more prob- in a process of imitation now twice removed from colonial precedents, we might be able to Yes, mostly mediated through textual accounts of a lost form. lematically, but how could we superficially copying the company style of the Parsi theatre, stage the play, inherent in the original production? strategic mimicry reproduce the subversive, had pro- tunity to reflect upon and even unravel some of the performative genealogies that especially the Ra\mlıduced them, ern theatre, the most impressive production values, with its simple but tasteful costumes and but tasteful costumes with its simple production values, the most impressive ern theatre, most But it was the music. well integrated live and subtle, sound and lighting, effective sets, both the Ra\mlıremoved from Below I me the least here. Thus it concerns style of India’s large cities. cosmopolitan ern, which the two prologue, nationalist of Kathavachak’s anticolonial, mostly discuss its handling out. other productions edited or this production with Mishra, I coorganized sources that fed into it. thetic and performative served as director and actor in two Mishra who as his personal assistant. served more accurately, From the out- of the production. oversaw every aspect Arjun, and Dronacharya major roles, in the as accurately as possible, to replicate the style of the Parsi theatre Mishra’s goal was set, Mishra was well pre- constraints. within our given budgetary and time author’s own hometown, Rohilkhand (the historic region He is a historian with a special interest in pared for the task. Mishra had considerable and Kathavachak’s literature. the Parsi theatre, encompassing Bareilly), experience acting in an amateur Ra\mlı our production were drawn from two amateur Ra\mlı all of the actors in In fact, other roles. yak’s), and the other ad hoc (ours). Both were staged at Both were staged the other ad hoc (ours). and \yak’s), æg Vina one ongoing (Ran theatre groups, Hall in Bareilly. Association Medical the Indian Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021 Pamela Lothspeich) Rāmlīlā production of Rāmlīlā 16 Pamela Lothspeich Figure 2. More song-and-dance just prior to the Abhimanyu, beforeturningtothethreeproductionsthemselves. tain theNew Alfred’s policyofonlypermittingmaleactorsonthestage. at thelastglorydaysofParsitheatre. Itwasalsotheonlyproductionofthreetomain- scenery, andbodycomportment. Visually, itmimicked commercialposterart, evenasithinted comedy, song-and-dance), andtheintensesensoryexperienceitofferedthroughitscostuming, the Parsitheatre. These elementsmostnotablyincludeditsinclusionofmultiplegenres(drama, Parsi theatreirrevocablyaltertheRa\mlı think aremoreinteresting, criticalquestions:Howdidthe Westernized, prosceniumstyleof ­interrelated historiesoftheParsitheatreandRa\mlı Jha\næ utilizing pantomime, jha formed out-of-doors, incourtyardsoropenfields, withlittleornospokendialogue, instead of Ra\mlı composed circa1600bythe Varanasi-based poet-saint Tulsidasa. Outofthis, adistinctivestyle tion likelydevelopedoutoftemplerecitationsthestory Ram astoldintheRa\mcaritmanas, in theHindi-speakingbeltofNorthIndia. With rootsinthe17thcentury, thistheatrical tradi- migrated throughthegeographyofSouth Asian diaspora, butRa\mlı Ra\mlı The Intersection ofRa\ and theParsi Theatre 7.

I beginwithsomehistoricalbackgroundontheRa\mlı I discuss the subject of jha Parsi theatre are illuminating (2006). particularly kı la\ isritualtheatre, thedramaticenactmentoflifeHindu godRam. Ithas \ s werealsopopularintheParsi theatre \ Heroic Abhimanyu (17 October 2010). (Photo by la\ evolvedinthe18thand19thcenturies, inwhichperformances weretypicallyper \ \næ \ n kı æ kı (tableau), andtherecitationofRa\mcaritmanas \ in more depth on page 25. Anuradha Kapur’s insights on the convention in the \ cakravyūh mlı la\ \ scene at the la\ tradition, withitsoriginsintemplerecitationsand \

—

all threeproductionsutilizedthem.

la\ tradition, Iamnowaskingwhat \ la\, theParsitheatre, andHeroic \ Ra\mlı what waysdocontemporary open-air performances?In a prosceniumstage elements ofthecompanystyle have surprisedme epic content? when itinvolveslivestagingsof community theatre, particularly and culturalimpedimentsto of Ra\mlı ipation intheritualandtheatre atre, andinviteaudiencepartic- introduced bytheParsi- imposition ofthefourthwall the Ra\mlı the mostlow-browofthree, production manywouldconsider 88) “co- Dwight Conquergoodcalls itably, aparticipantinwhat tant ethnographerand, inev- Perhaps itshouldnot

— efrac” (1991:187– ­performance”

that insomeways, the la\s \

la\? What arethesocial \ — la\’s homelandisstill \ la\ one, bestpreserved \

even thoseseton by specialists.

—

— 7

a reluc-

resist the - Parsi Theatre 17 \ la\ got \ la\ that is (scheduled castes) sweep the grounds grounds the sweep castes) (scheduled Dalits were held in a hall behind the the behind hall a in held were Abhimanyu Heroic Figure 3. The stage and grounds at the Ordinance Factory Rāmlīlā Ordinance the at grounds and stage The 3. Figure Mishra’s for Rehearsals 2011). October (7 Shahjahanpur in of production Rāmlīlā,During stage. after every night’s performance. (Photo by Pamela Lothspeich) performance. Pamela by (Photo everyafter night’s Figure 4. Another example of a “field” Rāmlīlā,“field” a of example in one this Another 4. Figure of miles 30 within are Bisalpur and Pilibhit Both Bisalpur. Hanuman before deliberate allies monkey Ram’s Here Bareilly. those like masks of use The 2013). October (12 Lanka to travels Ramnagarat used Rāmlīlā.old an is this that suggests by (Photo Lothspeich) Pamela \ in Bisalpur. It is now rare to find a continuous Ra\mlı It is now rare to la\ in Bisalpur. \ la\ began \ la\s shifted from \ la\s in Uttar [ July–August] and ˘ However, nowadays However,

8 \van \ \ la\s matured in the colo- in the town of Bisalpur, of Bisalpur, la\ in the town S:ra

I have witnessed the first two Rāmlīlās, but not the one in Kasganj. I must credit Anil Mishra for informing informing for Mishra Anil credit must I Kasganj. in one the not but Rāmlīlās, two first the witnessed have I an performance with field traditional a combines which Rāmlīlā, Kasganj the of me afternoon/evening, the in 2013b). (Mishra night at one stage updated Some Ra\mlı Manoj Tripathi, one of one Tripathi, Manoj the About 150 years ago, whole area around Bisalpur jun- used to be nothing but temple There was one gle. called to Shankar ji (Shiva) Pandits Baba Guleshwarnath. month used to come in the of (Tripathi 2013) started. do Ra\m-katha the whole every starting month long, day at about 2:30–3:00 p.m. All the peo- in the afternoon. And gradu- used to come from all of the surrounding villages to listen. etc. farmers, ple, That’s how our Ra\mlı to act out scenes. ally what happened is that people started

8. most are performed on a cov- open- stage, Western-style ered, As ing to a field for spectators. Ra\mlı nial period, performances began nial period, to migrate from temple and field in part due to proscenium stage, to the influence of the Parsi the- there was At the same time, atre. a democratization of the tradi- The chief tion on many levels. patrons of Ra\mlı that old. Pradesh retain the recitative- whether in pantomime style, temple courtyards or fields or other outdoor venues; there are three in the vicinity of Bareilly and Pilibhit, alone (Bisalpur, Kasganj). the organizers of the current the organizers Ra\mlı and developed: they by 1847 (and possibly earlier), residents, He further explained that according to senior were doing a 10-day Ra\mlı about 30 miles east of Bareilly, east of Bareilly, about 30 miles that that is exactly confirmed Ra\mlıhow Bisalpur’s

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021 18 (girlfriends). of (Courtesy Wikimedia Commons) Pamela Lothspeich heroine Shakuntala pines for her beloved, King Dushyant, attended by her Ravi Raja Varma. In this representative painting by Ravi Raja Varma, the epic Figure 5. “Ś akuntalā Patralekhan” (Shakuntala writing a letter, 1905) by Nehruvian India. As such, theydrewonthepast the Hindibeltin1940s, ’50s, and’60sduring aRa\mlı backdrops, andcolorful, glitterycostumes. These new, modernstageRa\mlı tions: bombasticoration, exaggeratedbodymovementsandfacial expressions, bright, painted moved fromopenfieldtoprosceniumstage, andbegan adaptingmanyParsitheatreconven- Ra\mlı atre, aftertheturnof20thcentury, theyespecially tookinspirationfromtheParsitheatre. than viceversa. While Ra\mlı influenced oneanother, butRa\mlı theatre, includingtheParsi theatre. TV seriesandfeaturefilms). ButlikeRa\mlı and glamorous. NowadayssomeRa\mlı they werenowmoreinclinedtoimitatetheParsitheatre, perceivedasprofessional, modern, royals andaristocratstoordinarycitizens, whilecontroloverRa\mlı atre, butalsothevisualarts, including, forexample, thepaintingsofRajaRavi Varma (1848– particularly Western dramasandotherartforms, asrefractedthroughnotonlytheParsi- based intemplestomixed-castegroupsworkingthroughneighborhoodassociations. venue acrossfromthesacredcityofKashi(Varanasi). neighboring Ra\mlı participants describethehistoriesoftheirownlocalproductions, theymostoftencitevisitsto 9.

Artistically, asRa\mlı Schechner and Hess (1977). See Hess (1983), (1991), Kapur Sax(1990), Lutgendorf (1990), Schechner (1985), and Ramnagar Rāmlīlā. English-language contribute scholarship to may this inadvertently impression as it tends to focus on the In thefirsthalfof20thcentury, theRa\mlı la\s thusunderwentadramatictransformationinthelatecolonial period, whenmany \ la\s, onesinadjoiningneighborhoodsornearbyvillages, nottothefamous \ la\s modernized, theybegantoexhibitinfluencesfromoutsidesources, \ la\s havealwaysbeensyncreticanddrawnonstylesofregionalthe - \ la\ probablyabsorbedmorefromthecommercialtheatre \ la\s aretakingcuesfromthecinematicmythological(in \ la\, thisformtooowesmuch tovernacularstylesof \

— la\ andtheParsitheatreundoubtedlygreatly \

the “old” Ra\mlı sakhīs la\ renaissanceintheheadydaysof \

found isthatwhenRa\mlı India. Moreover, whatIhave across Hindi-speakingNorth spread, synchronicdevelopment above mostlikelyreflectsawide- suggests thattheaccountgiven On thecontrary, myresearch Greco-Roman classicism. from Europeanrealismandneo– ing Indianformswithimpulses alized settings, freelyblend- and maidensinsumptuouside- of Ra\mlı for somethesupposedepicenter theatrical fountofRamnagar, Ra\mlı trary topopularconceptions, all and goddesses, saints, visually reimaginedthegods colonial periodwhenartists classical styledatingfromthe forms alldrewonapseudo- sold inthebazaars. These hybrid 1906) aswellthepopularart All ofthisistosaythatcon- la\s ofthe19thcentury \ la\s movedfrombrahmins \ la\s didnotspringfromthe \ la\ theatricalpractices. \ la\s sprangupallover \ ­royals, la\ \

—

yet 9

Parsi Theatre 19 \ kı \ la\ \ la\: (10 December 2012). 2012). December (10 Abhimanyu Heroic \ were from the Parsi theatre, or they the Parsi theatre, la\ were from [...] We ourselves used to do more plays ourselves used to We [...] \ (Mahendru 2011) r Abhimanyu. and Vı Figure 6. Jayadrath (Ankit Saxena) cowers, fearing Arjun at the the at Arjun fearing cowers, Saxena) (Ankit Jayadrath 6. Figure of production Mishra Parsi the of acting melodramatic the displays face expressive His Bareilly) Studio, Atul Gupta, Sanjeev by (Photo theatre. \n and Alla\ Rakha Kha , - Kona\rak \ [Money] Paisa plays, and did two in 1948, once came to Shahjahanpur, \ actor from Shahjahanpur, Chandramohan Mahendru, in his mid-70s in in Mahendru, Chandramohan Shahjahanpur, la\ actor from 10 \ la\ and regret \ la\ partici- \ candra ones like Haris;candra la\, \ la\ as opposing \ , evident in the la\, [The Wall], and the Parsi companies used to come and stage plays like Inna\ the Parsi companies used to come and stage and Wall], [The \r \ va

nostalgia for the “good [Inna’s Voice], [Inna’s Voice],

Dı \z \ \ la\ predated the Parsi the- - la\ in Shahjahanpur (pop —

With this in mind, it would this in mind, With during Ra\mlı - travel the of founder and actor, stage a stars, film of dynasty a of patriarch the was (1901–72) Kapoor Prithviraj Theatres. Prithvi company ing One retired Ra\mlıOne retired [English] [...] “business” has become a Now the lila affair. used to be a purely religious Prithviraj Kapoor When I was young, most of the actors in the Ra\mlı most of the young, When I was popular in the Hindu mythology was In those days, join the Parsi theatre. went on to People weren’t and sincere. dedicated, more religious, and everyone was Parsi theatre, Ra\mlı they are now. [English] and money like and fame” “name concerned about and a\va

old days” of Ra\mlıold days” for the supposed moral decline of society reflected in its han- dling and reception of the ritual But they also speak performance. to a profound theatrical synthe- sis between the style of the Parsi theatre and early- and mid-20th century Ra\mlı be wrong to see the Parsi the- atre and Ra\mlı mythological impulse of both, as mythological impulse of both, well as their overall aesthetic and production values. traditions (modern/folk, secular/ traditions (modern/folk, It would rural/urban). religious, be better to view them as over lapping theatrical forms that share some of the same conven- Of course tions and aesthetics. Ra\mlı atre and has continued beyond From 1962 to 2004, Mahendru From 1962 to 2004, was involved in the biggest Ra\mlı pants ulation ~500,000), in the neigh- in ulation ~500,000), which is still borhood of Cantt, patronized by the state-run He Ordinance Clothing Factory. played many major roles over Mahendru’s com- two decades. ments echo sentiments I have detected in interviews with many other older Ra\mlı 2013, remembers clearly the influence the Parsi theatre had on Ra\mlı influence the Parsi clearly the remembers 2013, 10. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

20 Pamela Lothspeich the decline, particularlyamongthegentrifiedclasses. larly performedinvillagesandurbanneighborhoodsalloverNorthIndia, itspopularityison is asenseofurgencytothecomparisonthatfollows. Moreover, althoughRa\mlı their comportment, expressions, andoratory. Butthesevestigesarethemselvesfading, sothere Some Ra\mlı melodramatic styleofitsacting;admixturedialogueandsong;livelybackgroundscore. bright, two-dimensional, paintedbackdrops;frontalmodeofaddress;bombasticorationand one, whereonecanstillseetracesoftheformermajestyParsitheatre, apparentinits most vibrantvenueforKathavachak’splaystoday, itisalsoalivingtheatre, perhapstheonly was morewidelyunderstoodthans reminds usthathewrotetheplayinanerawhenUrdustillhad greatculturalcurrencyand indictment ofthepowerfulzamı on theonehand, andthecowardly, obsequious Rajabahadurontheother, butalsopresentsan drama, thefarceservestodrawasharpcontrastbetweenheroic, virtuous Abhimanyu and Arjun which arefilledwithvocabularyderivedfromPersianand Arabic. Integratedintothemain India’s nationalistheroesinthepresentmoment. logically significantromanceofKrishnaandRadha, yetremindsusofthepersonalsacrifices his handlingoftherelationshipbetween Abhimanyu andUttara, whichcallstomindthetheo- 14th through19thcenturies, whichthemselvesdrawonclassicalprecedents. This isapparentin ventions ofBrajpoetrythebhakti(devotional)andrı of and time. Ithasalsodrawnonvariousothersourcesalongtheway, forexample, thetheatre its disappearanceso, ofthetwo, Ra\mlı 11. multilayered metaphysicaldiscourseintheBhagavad-Gı Kathavachak demonstrateshisknowledgeofclassicalHinduphilosophy, asrelayedinKrishna’s mand ofSanskrit-, Braj-, andUrdu-basedliterarycultures. Intheveryfirstscene, forexample, Indian literatureandtheatre. presented withmoreliteral-mindedness, suggestingthatanewnaturalismwasenteringinto greatly downplayedincomparisontothedepictionSanskritMaha\bharata. Eventsarealso wright operated. Ingeneral, moralimproprietyonthepartofKrishnaandPandavsis nuances thatgiveinsightintothesociopoliticalclimateandtheatricalmilieuinwhichplay- Maha\bharata (seetheboxedsummary), healsomakessomeminorplotchangesandadds While Kathavachakmaintainsthebasicplotofstory Abhimanyu asgivenintheSanskrit Some Background onHeroicAbhimanyu be suretheaudiencecouldunderstandit(Kathavachak[1957] 2004:58). ruin a relativelyhighstyleofHindi

naut∫anækı Then tooKathavachakwasaskilledwriterinUrdu, assuggestedbyhisfarcicalscenes, Kathavachak utilizedsomeBrajvocabulary, andhadafirmgrasponthethemescon- For ourpurposes, understandingthetheatreofRa\mlı Kathavachak’s treatmentofthestoryoverallsuggeststhathewasascholarwhohadcom- and Urdu came to be reflexively associated with religious communities (Hindus and Muslims, respectively). proponents of each language sought to purify “their” language and distance it from the other. Over time Hindi levels wheredivergent at formal, weliterary find Sanskritized Hindi and Persianized Urdu. In the colonial period, (Devanagari and Nastaliq, respectively). On a basic level the languages are mutually intelligible, but become more Hindi and Urdu are often treated as two separate languages on the basis of their respective orthographies

—

he deliberatelywrotethecomicbitsinUrduratherthanpure Hindi, atOgra’surging, to . \ la\ actors, particularlyseniorones, stilldemonstratevestigesoftheParsistagein \

— nda\r \

a factthatmadeoneofthecompany’sownersfearfinancial ;uddh (landed-gentry) class. Kathavachak’sstrategicuseofUrdu la\ asaformhashistorythatismorevariedacrossspace \ (pure) Hindi. 11 Although hewrotemostoftheplayin tika\l (courtly)periods, roughlyfromthe \ ta\. \ la\ iscriticalbecauseitnotonlythe \ la\ isstillregu- \ Parsi Theatre 21 -

12 ). Then too it is doha\). All quotes from live performances live from quotes All and \

, I felt that pleasing lyrics \cak, exemplified the mixed aesthetic style (“spicy,” or mixed-genre) form of enter (“spicy,” are from the 1937 edition. 1937 the from are

now more political and realistic than the same

([1916] 1937:act 1, scene 7:76) ([1916] 1937:act 1, ([1916] 1937:act 1, scene 2:15) 1, ([1916] 1937:act —

) Abhimanyu Heroic ( more in emotional and romantic scenes, fewer in somber and heroic more in emotional and romantic scenes,

—

Vīr Abhimanyu Abhimanyu Vīr सप� क� अपे�ा सप� का ब�ा । क� अपे�ा सप� बड़ा भयंकर है सप�

article includes supplemental content with links to video files of performances and re-recorded audio files of files audio articlere-recorded performances of files video to links with content supplemental includes and others, the lyrics would be written after the composition of the tunes. (Kathavachak the lyrics would be written after the composition of the tunes. ­others, These songs would have been performed to the accompaniment of the orchestra, but no These songs would have been performed to the accompaniment of the orchestra, 13

(Look, we have both the milk and the talisman, and we are determined too! and we are determined and the talisman, have both the milk we (Look, and for all how much water is in this milk!) Now we’ll reveal once KARN: (The son of a snake is much more dangerous than the snake [itself].) much more dangerous than the snake [itself].) (The son of a snake is There are two dozen songs its commercial success. The music in the play also helped ensure The distribution of songs across the prologue and three acts is as follows: 2, 12, 9, 1. The greatest number of number greatest The 1. 9, 12, 2, follows: as is acts three and prologue the across songs of distribution The 5). scene 1, (act Uttara and Abhimanyu between interlude the in is 5, songs, All quotes from from quotes All are verbatim, however, for reference purposes, where there are discrepancies, I have included citations from the the from citations included have I discrepancies, are there where purposes, reference for however, verbatim, are this of version online The otherwiseunless translations, All notes. the edition in 1937 own. my indicated, are TDR article.this in cited passages Heroic Abhimanyu Heroic Abhimanyu the language of register of Hindi, lofty theme and studied Despite its । ठानी है भी हठ और हमने है, और य�� भी लो �ीर भी है अब कर डालेंगे, सा괼 �कट मेंदूध इस ॥ पानी है िकतना [1957] 2004:52–53) we might say that the play Heroic Abhimanyu All in all, According to Kathavachak, the songwriting process involved a collaboration between the the songwriting process involved a collaboration between According to Kathavachak, and master would write the tune (tarzThe tradition was such that the [harmonium] ), it I wanted to change this tradition because then the writer would write the lyrics. Having the mindset of a katha\va didn’t yield pleasing lyrics. exerted the primary influence on the audience, and that the tune was supplementary. [...] and that the tune was supplementary. exerted the primary influence on the audience, while songs the lyrics would be written first, Finally it was decided that for some of the for

Heroic Abhimanyu In other words: we’ll see how loyal Dron is to our side when we challenge him to take action. we challenge him to take action. see how loyal Dron is to our side when In other words: we’ll is another Here by his love for the Pandavs. he may be tainted with water, Like milk adulterated cautions the other Kauravs: when Karn example, The snake is of course Arjun, and his son, Abhimanyu. Karn here fears they may be underesti- Karn Abhimanyu. and his son, Arjun, The snake is of course collo- script freely blends idioms, Kathavachak’s As these couplets suggest, mating the youth. high-minded epic content. in a story with to quotidian life, and references quial speech, in ones. exudes a simple charm and instances of folk wisdom, as here in an aside by Jayadrath: as here in an aside of folk wisdom, charm and instances exudes a simple and multifaceted entertainment of the best plays in the Parsi theatre. Thematically, it blends Thematically, plays in the Parsi theatre. and multifaceted entertainment of the best prose and verse (caupaı and stylistically, high drama and comedy, Like many contempo- crowd-pleasing songs. filled with what we may assume were melodious, is a masa\la Heroic Abhimanyu rary Hindi-Urdu films, musical notation or detailed instructions are given with the songs in the printed text, as these are given with the songs in the printed text, musical notation or detailed instructions like other songs in the Parsi theatre they were probably But would have been conveyed orally. mode and used to underscore meaning and mood at emo- light-classical composed in a popular, tional high points. though he personally felt that the lyricist’s job playwright and the company’s music director, Here is how he describes the creative work that was more important than that of the composer. : produced the songs for Heroic Abhimanyu 12. 13. tainment, but the epic content of the play tainment, Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

22 Pamela Lothspeich 15. 25 percent oftheplay,25 percent wasparticularlyregrettable. the centralityofvocalmusicandcomedytoParsitheatre, theomissionofboth, about Vina\yak production. MishraomittedthePrologueandKathavachak’ssongsaltogether. Given and evenincludedsongsfromtheoriginalscript, thoughtheywereonlyrecitedintheRanæg digressed fromthem. To theircredit, thefirsttwoproductionsmadeprovisionforlivemusic, the principlemalecharacters: Abhimanyu, Jayadrath, and Arjun, andeliminatedmaterialthat including thethreewithfarce. Kukretiespeciallycompressedact2. Bothkeptthefocuson although limitedtooneact, wasthemostfaithfultooriginalscript. the Prologue, andacts23, leavingvirtuallyallofact1includingitsfarceandsongs. Jha’s, of eachproductionmadesignificantcutstothescriptonorderabout50percent. Jhacut a halfhours, andtheMishraproduction, aboutthreehours. To scaledowntheplay, thedirector tainment) atLavelaChowklastedabouttwohours, theRanægVina\yak productionaboutoneand with rides, games, andfoodvendors, which runsconcurrentlywiththefestival. 9:00 p.m., eachwithdifferentcontent. And asat manyvenues, thestageabutsalargemela\ are twodramaticprogramsperday:aneveningprogramat5:00 p.m. andanightprogramat to tellingRam’sstory, therestoftimebeingfilledwithprocessions, rituals, andplays. There knowledge ofKathavachak’splays. At LavelaChowkonlyaboutathirdofthemonthisdevoted ident oftheneighboringstateBihar, hehimselfdidn’thaveanyparticularfondnessfor or hours ([1957]2004:58, 64). Meanwhile, theRa\mlı of inal production. Two daysbeforeopeningnight, Kathavachakrecallsthatthedressrehearsal the present. narrative intheSanskritMaha\bharata 14. long Ra\mlı it wasthelocaltraditionatLavelaChowktostageaseriesofmythologicalsduringtheirmonth- day RamkillsRavan. Itwouldbemyfirstchancetoseetheplay. of with theactors, Inoticedthatonememberofthetroupewasleisurelythumbingthroughacopy found afewcastmembersandstagehandschattingnappingonthestage. While conversing Badaun, todosomeinitialreconnaissanceonaRa\mlı On theafternoonof15October2010, ItraveledtotheRa\mlı Song andDanceinBadaun The Ra\ Ra\mlı Mahotsav Committee(TheGloriousRa\mlı Ra\mlı Dramatic Arts Association) hadbeenperformingatLavelaChowk since2003, butthe

Heroic Abhimanyu lastedsixhours. However, theplaywassubsequentlyediteddowntofour Heroic Abhimanyu. HeexplainedthattheplaywouldbestagedintwodaysonDussehra, the parts of Nepal.parts dom is thought to correspond to a region in the present-day state of Bihar, the home state of the troupe, and In the Rāmāyan ≥ the authors of most of these works. Kukreti andMishrashowedallthreeacts, buteditedthemseverely, cuttingwholescenes, story of Ram: story The S:rı The threeproductionsthatIdiscussbelowweremuchshorterthantheNew Alfred’s orig- When IaskedtheactorswhytheyperformplayslikeHeroicAbhimanyu , theyexplainedthat Śrī Kr≈ program at Lavela Chowk listed the followingIn plays, in this order, 2010 the Rāmlīlā of Ram: before the story la\ venues, inearliertimes la\ venueitselfisaround150yearsold, nowunderthecontrol oftheS:rı \ \ s ∫ n ∫ a janma, Bhakt Pūran∫ mlı Mithila\VijayRa\mlı \ la\ festival. \ la\ \ Vīr Abhimanyu, Satī Anasūyā, Hariścandra Rājā , and a, Mithila refers to the capital city (and kingdom) of King Janak, Ram’s father-in-law. The king- Production 14 Inspeakingwiththetroupe’shead, LallanJha, itwasclearthatasares- mal, Bhāī kā pyār,≈ Bhartr Rājā

ad (The Victory-to-Glorious-Mithilala\ Nat≥yaKalaParisad \ —

here untilabout60yearsago

—

reimagines thepastinwaysthataremeaningfulto la\ FestivalCommittee). As hashappenedatsomany \ la\ production(minusthepreliminaryenter \ hari, Satī Nāg Campā, Satyavān Sāvitrī; and after the la\ Ihadnotyetseen. Uponmyarrival, I \ Satī VanDevī la\ groundatLavelaChowk, \

—

neighborhood residentsonce . The troupe could not confirm Ra\mlı \ la\ \ 15

(fair) - Parsi Theatre 23 - ­ (cymbals), (cymbals), \ theatre, theatre, kı æ ≥ an geographically, geographically,

—

\ - la\ staples: the harmo the harmonium, tabla\ (pair of hand the harmonium,

—

16 (kettledrum played with sticks), jha\ñjh (kettledrum played with sticks), \ \s (specialist in Ram-katha) who intermittently sings but were always hired professionals. Musicians worked within but were always hired professionals.

—

\ , but have since adopted the practice of hiring a professional troupe. troupe. practice of hiring a professional since adopted the but have la\, \ . He also told me that it was around this time that the committee started the committee started around this time that told me that it was He also la\. \ s, drummers provide the beat, but leave the more difficult work of oper drummers provide the beat, la\s, \ one would be much more likely hear the dholak than the classical tabla\. la\ one would be much more likely hear the (two-headed hand drum, played horizontally), as well as a Western drum set. drum set. Western as well as a played horizontally), (two-headed hand drum, (stringed instrument), nak∫ka\ra (stringed instrument), \

ægı \ s generally, the musicians sat for hours, their eyes fixed on the performers, pro- on the performers, their eyes fixed sat for hours, the musicians la\s generally,

\ \ \ \ and it is generally expected that he will be a brahmin specialist, even when accompa- la\ and it is generally expected that he will be a brahmin specialist, where the orchestra is generally smaller and more reliant on folk instruments. For and more reliant on folk instruments. la\ where the orchestra is generally smaller committee decided to bring in professionals was because they wanted a “faster,” that is, that is, “faster,” they wanted a professionals was because decided to bring in la\ committee A transition (Sharma 2010). on all sides by spectators surrounded field, la\ on an open

As an aside, I noticed that the Jha production also imparted a hint of naut I noticed that the Jha production As an aside, The biggest amateur Rāmlīlās in Bareilly (Subhashnagar) and Shahjahanpur (Cantt) each has a non-Hindu musi- non-Hindu a has each (Cantt) Shahjahanpur Rāmlīlās and amateur biggest The (Subhashnagar) Bareilly in respectively. vocalist, Sikh a and player, dholak Christian a cian, Just as it had done in the Parsi theatre, music “carried the story forward” at Lavela Chowk, Chowk, at Lavela “carried the story forward” music Just as it had done in the Parsi theatre, In the Parsi theatre, orchestras historically provided a live background score, as well as musi- orchestras historically provided a live background score, In the Parsi theatre, . Around . Heroic Abhimanyu I returned to Badaun to see days after my initial interview, Two

another dramatic form much synthesized with the Parsi theatre. This was evident in the another dramatic form much synthesized with the Parsi theatre. linguistically, and religiously linguistically, atic storytelling to a harmonium-playing vya since this was a play supplementary to the story of However, lines from the Ra\mcaritmanas. The vya\s is key to the religious theatre of easier. the harmonium player’s job was much Ram, Ra\mlı nied by non-brahmins or for that matter, non-Hindus. nied by non-brahmins or for that matter, 16. drums), sa\ran Musicians came from various backgrounds and clarinet (Kapur 2006:226). normally finds in vernacular styles of theatre like a more elaborate orchestral setup than one Ra\mlı instance, in Ra\mlıinstance, Speaking of the importance of the orchestra-driven music in the Parsi theatre, Anuradha Kapur music in the Parsi theatre, Speaking of the importance of the orchestra-driven It begins to be employed “becomes a way of carrying the story forward. has observed that it but also to mark exits and entrances and to indicate character motifs, to create atmosphere, summon seasons and explicate a character’s innermost to set mood intensify atmosphere, secrets” (2006:226). and mostly improvised. although here the musical arrangement was less sophisticated, Noramally at Ra\mlı nium and dholak As at Ra\mlı playfully followed and embel- instrumental background score that viding an almost-constant the audience through all of They instinctively guided on the stage. lished words and actions as though adding a powerful voice to the stage action. performance’s emotional ebb and flow, made a dramatic announcement or accented They filled a pregnant pause before a character and even served a kind of onomatopoeic or excitement, pathos, added suspense, one afterwards, as during the fury of war when the dholak player launched into a lightning-paced function, and the harmonium player, a boom-boom-boom on the bass, the other drummer, rat-a-tat-tat, amidst a flurry of arrows and swords. a rousing melody, deliver arrangements in To songs onstage. cal accompaniment for vocalists singing original orchestras included a range of instruments varying styles, staged their own Ra\mlıstaged their explained to me that part of the reason the to me that part of the Amar Uja\la explained from the newspaper A local reporter Ra\mlı the of conducting to the older practice they conformed to this, Prior actual stage. utilizing an Ra\mlı as their maha\dharmik urged everyone to take their places an announcer (very reli- 10:00 p.m. They would open with a limited. and space would soon be to begin, gious) program was about stationed on the extreme the three musicians And with that, program. preliminary devotional two Ra\mlıThe orchestra here included lively tune. house left struck up a more exciting Ra\mlımore exciting Westernized forms of from the around 1950 suggests influence from field to the proscenium the Parsi theatre. if not directly theatre, Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

24 Pamela Lothspeich actors themselvestypicallyreportthatonceincostumeandmakeup, thekala\kars mance, Hanuman, thoughotherdeitiesmayalso befeaturedattheritual. Bothdevoteesandthe ties worshippedareofcourseRam, LakshmanandSita, andonthedaysheappearsinperfor simply seated, butsometimesarestationedinelaborate tableauxonstage. The principledei- form.Ra\mlı At flame onanoffertoryplatterbeforeaHindudeityrepresented intwo-orthree-dimensional ally gurates stageRa\mlı new, technology-enhancedmodernitythathadnotexistedpreviouslyinIndiantheatre. towards aspectaclethatcouldn’thelpbutoverwhelmthesenses. The Parsitheatreexudeda While sucheffortsmayhaveostensiblybeenintheserviceofrealism, theygenerallyworked 25). SomnathGuptprovidesafullerpicture: batteries, [and]flyingsystemsthatcausedinstantappearancesanddisappearances” (2006:224– Kapur addsafewmore: “sound-making devices, windmachines, sparkingswordsconnectedto and multiplecurtains” (2011:14). Inadiscussionofthe “pictorialisation” oftheParsitheatre, Hansen enumeratessomeofthemostcommonones: “trapdoors, flyingmachines, lighteffects, Stage setups, likeeverythingelse, wereover-the-top, utilizingtrompel’oeilandotherstagetricks. illumination thatworkedtoenhancegrandiosityandheightenmelodrama(Kapur2006:222). lighting effectsbecamecommonplace(Gupt2005:180)andfootlightswereamainsourceof lighting waslimitedtocandles, oillamps, andtorches, butlaterincludedgasandelectriclamps; adopted moderntechnologiestoheightenthesensoryappealoftheirperformances. At first, utilized tocreateeffectsduringboththemanysong-and-dancesequencesandplayitself. bulbs positionedabovethestage, afootlight, andastrobelight. Coloredfiltersweresometimes in keepingwithwhatonefindsatmanystageRa\mlı audience assembledonanopenfield. Thelightingandspecialeffectswererelativelylow- form, whichmanynowassociatewithbawdysong-and-danceshows. tered nowadays(Hansen1992:6), theJhaproductionhintsatwhathasbecomeofnaut visual symbolismasasignifierofmeaning” (1992:209). Whilepurenaut important nonverbalsystemofcommunication, rankingabovedance, actingtechniques, or quality ofnaut≥anækı\inherstudy, evenassertingthat “it isthemusicthatconstitutesmost often withcolorful, soulful, andtremulousvoices. KathrynHansenforegroundsthemusical Vocal musicwasalwayscentraltonaut ­operatic characterofthepreludetoplayproper, andalsointhestyleofsingingitself. 17. Shiva wasrepresentedasalargeblackS:iva linægam dozen actors, sevenofthemcross-dressers, sangaseriesofbhajans 18.

Although the image itself invokes the sexual metaphor, the god Shiva is associated with ascetic traditions. The dramaticprogramatLavelaChowkopenedwithaHinduritualthatnearlyalwaysinau- bridge intoariver:thesewerethekindsoftrickscenesthataudiencesloved. (2005:174) carried offthroughtheairanddeliveredtoafairy, arailwaytrainfallingfrombroken ing fromtheheavens, godsanddemonsrisingfromariftintheearth, asleepingprince Audiences wereespeciallythrilledbyspectacularmechanicalscenes. Deitiesdescend- In contrasttothismodestuseoftechnology, directorsintheParsitheatrecontinually As atmanyoutdoorRa\mlı S The term “naut≥ During thea\ratı A S A issues. temporary (Pritchett 1983:47). Historically, stories have been drawn from popular folktales, myths, legends, films, and con- sān iva linæ become : æ g iva linæ : (Hansen 1992:56), though the form dates to the 19th century, “growing out of older forms of folk opera” gam˘ gam˘ the gods, svaru\ps (self-forms)ofthegodsandgoddessestheyrepresent. is often placed on or is integral with a is a phallus-shaped image, traditionally made of stone, which represents the Hindu god Shiva. The la\s, however, the deitiesareliveactorsratherthanvisualimages, whoareoften \ anæ ki” has only been in currency since around 1920, having previously been known as svān ceremonythevya\srecitedaSanskritprayertoShiva, andthenabouta \ la\s, ana\ratı \ la\s, static-ladensoundthunderedthroughhugespeakersforan \ ceremony. This formofworshipinvolvesthewavingasmall \ an ≥ æ kı \ whereperformersusedtosingaloneoringroups, yoni base, representing 18 ˘ paintedontoatwo-dimensionalcutout la\s: astripofeightlampsandfewbare \ śakti or the divine female principle. (Hindu devotionalsongs). an ≥ æ kı \\ israrelyencoun- (artists)liter 17 æ g budget ­ or or an

≥ - æ kı -

\\ Parsi Theatre 25 -like nymphs on on nymphs -like ­ parī and ) and his bull Nandi Nandi bull his and ) - gam˘ \ fashion, the la\ fashion, apsarā- apsarā- Kathavachak alludes to

Before the cur —

at Lavela Chowk, Badaun Badaun Chowk, Lavela at Abhimanyu Heroic In typical Ra\mlı In typical (blessed sweets). The esteemed (blessed sweets). 19 (Mother India) stationed in full rega- stationed in full (Mother India) debuted: \ (oil lamp). As commercial enterprises, com- As commercial enterprises, pa\ (oil lamp). but they would not have been calibrated to the same but they would not have been calibrated

\ . My guess is that they proceeded more along the lines la\. —

(17 October 2010). Note the banners featuring banners the (17 OctoberNote 2010). at the Rāmlīlāthe at of production Figure 7. An āratī tableau featuring Shiva (as a linæ a (as Shiva featuring tableau āratī An 7. Figure either side of the pavilion. (Photo by Pamela Lothspeich) Pamela by (Photo pavilion. the of side either \ in Ra\mlı as needed to be distributed [to those assembled]. \ la\ and in \ associations, they charged admission for their shows and competed fiercely la\ associations, \ ceremony was per∫a\s and “the structural practice of speeding the narrative and then interrupting it by a jhanki “the structural practice of speeding the narrative

\ \ tableau largely has a ritual established both a ritual established both lad∫du\s a chaste, sari-clad goddess, holding aloft an Indian flag. aloft an Indian holding sari-clad goddess, a chaste,

tain is raised, they break a coconut and smash a bottle of liquor. As soon as the curtain As smash a bottle of liquor. they break a coconut and tain is raised, \d and then distribute the prasa they sing a prayer, goes up, Then the time came for raising the new curtain. At such times, Parsis do rituals that are At such times, Then the time came for raising the new curtain. they place things Just like the Hindus, sort of like [Hindu] pu\jas (worship ceremonies). They send for sweets such on a platter. and sugar-candy flowers, camphor, like incense, as However, Kathavachak does describe a religious ritual that transpired at the stage after the However, Two Rāmlīlās in Shahjahanpur, those in Cantt and at Khirni Bagh, also feature a tableau of Mother India in their their in India Mother of tableau a feature also Bagh, Khirni at and Cantt those in Rāmlīlās Shahjahanpur, in Two festivals. their of day one on ceremonies, āratī Ritualized opening ceremonies were customary in the Parsi theatre Ritualized opening ceremonies were customary Whereas in Ra\mlı —

of the more secular ceremony we had at our production, in which several dignitaries entered the in which several dignitaries production, of the more secular ceremony we had at our dı stage to give speeches and light a large brass troubling the religious sensibilities of its diverse audi- panies in the Parsi theatre could not risk ence; unlike Ra\mlı for profits. on the day Heroic Abhimanyu morning rehearsal, them in his memoirs ([1957] 2004:166) level of religious ritual as a\ratı or tableau is, then, the very scaffolding on which the Parsi theatre narratives stand” (2006:216). (2006:216). on which the Parsi theatre narratives stand” the very scaffolding then, or tableau is, ritual function (it affords visual communion with the divine) in the Parsi theatre tableaux were primarily used as a dramaturgi- cal strategy to cultivate an emo- tional response and were often As we used to round out a scene. the other two produc- will see, Kapur Emphasizing the importance of the technique, tions utilized tableaux in this very way. notes that devotional processions that like- wise feature live representations of Hindu gods and goddesses, the a\ratı religious and patriotic tone. religious and patriotic - the audience an unob giving the svaru\ps, on either side of in two diagonal lines actors stood ;an for dars structed channel tell- It was divine]). (viewing [the ing that the a\ratı Bha\rat dedicated to Shiva and as indi- not to Ganesh, Ma\ta, But this cated in the script. a play seemed appropriate for a deci- in which Shiva plays so replete sive role and also one Here with Hindu nationalism. the a\ratı 19. lia set against a pavilion (painted on a backdrop), attended by his white bull Nandi (also a two- by his white bull Nandi attended a backdrop), a pavilion (painted on set against \ta came a live Bha\rat-Ma After Shiva cutout). dimensional Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

26 Pamela Lothspeich before thecommencementof Ra\mlı for theblessing(moneytosupplement theseriousfund-raisingthatgenerallytakesplacewell the flame, andiftheychoose, toplacesmallmonetaryofferingsontheplatterinexchange through theaudience, allowing participantstoreceiveablessingwiththewaveofhandover bled audiencerelishesdars;;;anofthesvaru\psfromafar. Afterwards, thea\ratı hood residentsandlocaldignitariescongregateonthestageto dothehonorswhileassem- wall andinvitesaudienceparticipation, especiallyatamateur productionswhereneighbor pants intheRa\mlı much entertainingtheatreasitisreligiousritual. Audience memberscanbecomeactivepartici- ing cashofferingstodancers, suggestingthatthiskind of publicperformancecanbeatleastas especially duringanimatedcombatscenesandexcitingdance numbers, infrequentlyevenmak- I havenotedthatmaleaudiencememberssometimesrecordperformances ontheirphones, lay moneyatadancer’sfeet, abrashtokenofappreciation. At Ra\mlı more engaged, morelively. Somerecordeddancenumbersontheircellphones, andatleastone impassively, asthoughwaitingforthenextdanceroutine. his assessment. Hegazedupat Abhimanyu transfixed, whileaseaofyoungerfaceslookedon ally testtheyoungspectator’stheory. Oneelderlymanseatedbehindmeseemedtocorroborate of Abhimanyu wasunderway, Iagainturnedaroundtosurveytheaudienceperiodically, tovisu- ment, onlymomentarilywithdrawingtheireyesfromthedancersonstage. Oncethestory play. Onlyoldpeopleactuallylikereligiousplaysthis.” Otheryoungfacesnoddedinagree- tator summedupthesituation: “Young peoplepreferthesesong-and-dancenumberstothe dance number, Iturnedtonearbyaudiencemembersforanexplanation. A youngmalespec- were notentirelyonsacredtheatricalterrainofRa\m-kathathatnight. Duringonesong-and- with theconspicuousabsenceofRa\mcaritmanasonstagetogethersignaledthatwe aged toperformslightlylessthanhalfoftheplay. The preponderanceofsong-and-dance, along bers atregularintervalssuchthatwhentheplayendedaround2:15a.m., theyhadonlyman- cosmic ocean(paintedonabackdrop). ps of Vishnu andLakshmi, seatedinacutoutofthecelestialserpent Sheshnagsetagainstthe song-and-dance tothereligiousplaneofHeroicAbhimanyu .a\ratı This long enoughtochangethedramaticmoodandferryaudiencefromworldlyplaneof a storyfromtheMaha\bharata the Parsitheater, andthekindofeverydayinter-religiosity thatisnotuncommoninIndia. of theplay. Buttheformerexamplepointstoculturalsyncretismthatwascharacteristicof by companymanagement(61). Clearlytheintentofbothritualswastoensureasuccessfulrun telling andsermonizingaboutthegod Vishnu andhisincarnations, thoughitwasnotorganized Later thatdaytherewasanotherritualcalledSatyana \ra tumes andpaintedbackdropswere thesameonestroupeusedtoenactstoryofRam. ing in. Finally, ataboutmidnight, thetroupeperformedanothera\ratı cuted bythecrossdressersdancingandlip-synchingtofilmı na\c-ga\na. This involvedalongseriesoflooselychoreographed, Bollywood-stylenumbers, exe - would beaspecialnr≈tya aurgı is deartothegodsandinstillsprideindevotionnation!” Butfirst, hesaid, there Every timethestageclearedandna\c-garesumed, theaudienceseemedtobecome However, aftertheplaypropergotunderway, therewereevenmoresong-and-dance num- Visually, theproductionatLavela ChowklookedverymuchlikeRa\mlı After thea\ratı Retinue). ([1957]2004:60–61) Abhimanyu proprietor performedalloftheseritualshimself. That daytheprayerwasfromHeroic Of course, themorerituallyheighteneda\ratı

—

Jy Gan≥pati, Gan≥na\yak” “Jay ceremonyattheJhaproduction, anactorannouncedtheywereabouttostage \ la\, whichbringsusbacktoConquergood’snotionofco-performance. \

— t ka\ryakram (song-and-danceprogram) \

“That’s right, thebeautiful ‘drama’ ofHeroicAbhimanyu, which la\). \ (Victory toGanesh, LordandHerooftheDivine ceremonymoredirectlydissolvesthefourth \ \yan ∫-katha\, aHinduoneinvolvingstory- music, onemalepartneralsojoin- \ la\s beyondLavelaChowk, \

ceremony, whichwasjust \ tableaufeaturedthesvaru\ — \

in colloquialHindi, la\. Indeedthecos- \ platteriscirculated \ - Parsi Theatre 27 \ la\s tend a standard rep-

—

(2007), Kathryn Hansen’s Kathryn(2007), Hansen’s \ la\ backdrops such as these \ as featured in the historic \ fashion at the back of the la\ fashion at the back of \ s all over North India. Two Two la\s all over North India. These banners point to the profound cul- 20 \ s today. They were pure Indo-Victoriana, with They were pure Indo-Victoriana, la\s today. bearing a garland, standing atop a lotus. The standing atop a lotus. bearing a garland,

pants below and long tunics or and long tunics or \jama pants below pa blousy,

—

—

\ ceremony. Each of these mirror images showed Each of these mirror images ceremony. two-dimensional, kaleidoscopic, animated, and deeply animated, kaleidoscopic, two-dimensional,

—

\ s: the king seated on his throne (often a high seat or bench cov- la\s: the king seated on his throne (often a high The Court of Indar and the Rebirth of Indian Drama Drama Indian Rebirth of the and Indar CourtThe of (1992:73–79), and Gupt (2005:183–90). Gupt and (1992:73–79), India North of Theatre kī anæ a beguiling mythic figure

—

see Afroz Taj’s Taj’s Afroz see some in brocade, some with glittery “gems,” sequins, and fringe. There were There were and fringe. sequins, “gems,” glittery some with some in brocade,

—

\ backdrops are generally pulled horizontally across the stage, or more rarely pulled horizontally across the stage, la\ backdrops are generally were similar to those one can see at stage Ra\mlıwere similar to those one can see at stage

—

Indar Sabhā Indar \ , but they looked rather hurriedly put together and applied. Costuming and makeup hurriedly put together and applied. but they looked rather la\,

Painted backdrops were used widely in the Parsi theatre to effect scenery, and in fact a dozen and Painted backdrops were used widely in the Parsi theatre to effect scenery, Grounds of Play: The Naut∫ The Play: of Grounds On On Although less sophisticated than those in the Parsi theatre, Ra\mlı the Parsi theatre, Although less sophisticated than those in As for the painted backdrops, they were hung in typical Ra\mlıAs for the painted backdrops, Chowk The backdrops at Lavela

\ and Persian parı apsara nymph appeared to be a fusion of the Indic [1853] by Saiyad Agha Hasan “Amanat,” an Urdu opera that was widely imitated “Amanat,” Agha Hasan Indar Sabha\ [1853] by Saiyad 2007:88–104). and adapted in the Parsi theatre (Taj tural synthesis that was possible in the Parsi theatre, one that drew on Hindu, Indo-Islamicate, Indo-Islamicate, one that drew on Hindu, theatre, tural synthesis that was possible in the Parsi and Zoroastrian traditions. stationed at the front might be used for just one scene” “drop or more backdrops with one chief - their relatively bigger bud With vertically via pulleys. They were generally manipulated play. vying to get the artists to paint their backdrops, companies typically hired professional gets, backdrops in the Parsi theatre were generally more However, best painters (Gupt 2005:176–79). elaborate and sophisticated than those in Ra\mlı antiquity as well as India’s mythic past, Western a dreamy naturalism that could conjure both The backdrops in Ra\mlı Varma. inviting comparison with the syncretic landscapes of 20. outlined displayed a long The palace backdrop and the jungle or forest. depicted stock scenes: the palace, It was adorned with seemed to lead to infinity. due to an extreme use of perspective, hall that, a chandelier and a domed ceiling, floor, a checkered marble curtains, columns, his retinue seated lower, sometimes with his queen) at the back of the stage, ered with a sheet, Two and a sunset. mountains, scene featured a lake, The jungle in diagonal lines on either side. Arjun which Krishna and one with a chariot and two horses, more backdrops were also used, was used for sev- showing an anachronistic street scene, The other, rode in on in the first scene. with a jet flying overhead, It evoked Mumbai’s Marine Drive, eral scenes and dance numbers. metonymically signaling modernity. a winged nymph jackets above as makeup, and flashy jewelry, costume long wigs, ∫s (crowns), bejeweled mukut also the classic wore a long white Arjun head wraps. and simple vests and cummerbunds, well as decorated elabo- were the most Abhimanyu and Arjun, Krishna, one. a black Duryodhan, and cloak, for looked appropriate costumes and makeup the In general, Feet were bare. rately bedecked. Ra\mlı help frame the action on three banners and panels were also used to Smaller painted stage. Ra\mlısides. the whole stage setup used with this backdrop was In fact, resentation for royal court scenes. one that is common to Ra\mlı The backdrop with the jet was perhaps inspired by owe an aesthetic debt to the Parsi theatre. especially for were used widely, according to Gupt, street scenes in the Parsi theatre which, of ban- I also detected a direct lineage in a pair invocatory prayers and farces (2005:176–77). ners flanking the divinities during the a\ratı The costumes were of various bright colors were of various The costumes and perhaps showed more have been more carefully executed, in the Parsi theatre would Greco-Roman flourishes. A front curtain use at Lavela Chowk. Both means of manipulation were in by hand. hoisted up, backdrops are changed as needed. while generally closed between scenes, (or one of several) is the work of anonymous artisans. Their designs are typically Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

28 Pamela Lothspeich with suchadmonitionsas, “Hey, whyarelookingoverthere? Where isthe public?” and Shahjahanpur, directorsandmentorsurgingactors tofacetheaudiencewhilespeaking, gaze meetingtheaudiencedirectly. Herethe “middle ground” literallyisjustthis locales, livekingsandgodsstationedagainstdeeplyoutlined, vibrantpaintedbackdrops, their face the audience. (Photo by Pamela Lothspeich) Heroic Abhimanyu (17 October 2010). Besides the anachronistic backdrop, note that all of the characters production of Figure at the Rāmlīlā Duhshasan, and Dronacharya Karn, 8. Left to right: Duryodhan, exchanges.) Infact, Ihave notedonmorethanoneoccasionatRa\mlı from thenearestmicstand. (Mywirelessmiccapturedsomeofthesehushedprompts and sionally promptedeachotherwhile activelyengagedinascene, discreetlyshiftingaway troupe wascarefultokeeptheirbodiesdirectedtowardtheaudience, evenwhenactorsocca- (2007:34). NowimagineatRa\mlı a lushmythiclandscapeoranonymousdecorativebackground withverylittlemiddleground” “They alsosharea ‘frontality’ andcentralityofcomposition: afigureintheforegroundagainst Varma, Jainnotesthattheimagesnotonlysharecommonvisualelementsandiconic features, visual andperformingartsintendedformassconsumptionin India. “centrality ofcomposition” areconventionsthatseemto havepermeatedboththeseformsof cal spaceonthestagebetweenactorandbackdrop. Inshort, touseJain’sterms, “frontality” and observed atmanystageRa\mlı infantilized imagessetagainstidyllicandotherworldlybackgrounds. the directionofpopularcommercialart, whereweoftenfindbrightlycolored, softened, even not todisplaythesamelevelofstudiedrealismasthoseinParsitheatre, insteadveeringin In keepingwithaconventionfromtheParsitheatreandcommon tostageRa\mlı What KajriJainsaysaboutHinduposterorbazaarartisakintotheartisticeffectIhave la\s. ComparingfourpopularimagesofSaraswatialongsideoneby \ la\ ratherthantwo-dimensionalpaintingsofdeitiesinidyllic \ la\ rehearsalsinBareilly \

—

the physi- la\s, Jha’s \ Parsi Theatre 29 \ la\ \ la\s help but probably

—

22 \ production were also in keeping with those of la\ production were also in keeping with those (court) scenes, because it allows the audience to see the (court) scenes, Meanwhile, the proscenium stage, although physically although physically stage, the proscenium Meanwhile, 21 \ s, the actors at Lavela Chowk spoke with great bombast, their the actors at Lavela Chowk spoke with great bombast, la\s, (2004:8–9) for a a for India (2004:8–9) Struggle in Political and Image Printed The Gods: the of Photos \ the audience is much further away and also, assembled out-of-doors. assembled out-of-doors. la\ the audience is much further away and also, \ actors often rely on dramatic facial expressions, arm flourishes, and regu- arm flourishes, la\ actors often rely on dramatic facial expressions, arms now akimbo, now sweeping upwards to the heavens; fingers suddenly arms now akimbo,

— \ in Shahjahanpur (and Jayadrath in our production), explained that in Ra\mlıla\ in Shahjahanpur (and Jayadrath in our production),

\ la\s

discussion of darśan and popular print media. print popular and darśan of discussion 2010. in Abhimanyu of Heroic production a directed Drama, of School National the at professor a Singh, Hema considers She 2013). and (2006 students acting second-year her with work scene for script the used also has She play. greatest Kathavachak’s Abhimanyu Heroic See also Christopher Pinney’s Pinney’s Christopher also See This frontal mode of address developed in the Parsi theatre not only to facilitate vocal theatre not only to in the Parsi mode of address developed This frontal The actors’ body movements in the Ra\mlı Typical of many stage Ra\mlı Typical (circular array), the fron- the \h (circular array), in the pivotal scene involving the cakravyu At Lavela Chowk, \mlı I should add that the stand mics widely utilized in neighborhood Ra As an aside,

22. amplification, but also to allow actors to maintain a visual connection with spectators in a kind with spectators in a kind a visual connection actors to maintain but also to allow amplification, In mode of the genre. plotting and melodramatic was critical to the which dars;an, of reciprocal visual as found in Indian of the frontal address “In the case that Kapur states plainly this regard, col- to the audience to an open invitation signal is unambiguous, the traditions, and performing (2006:220). the actor” laborate with 21. emotional tenor mostly unchanging and set to maximum shock-and-awe capacity. This was set to maximum shock-and-awe capacity. emotional tenor mostly unchanging and and pac- which was generally more varied in mood in contrast to oration in the Parsi theatre, As Hema Singh dramatic starts and stops being conducive to a subtler brand of melodrama. ing, oration from the different venues, of Heroic Abhimanyu explained when I showed her some clips finesse, but it also involved or even grandiloquent, in the Parsi theatre may have been dramatic of their dialogue (Singh 2013). with actors often drawing out the last words lar sideways glances to their addressee(s), even while keeping their torsos fairly stationary. even while keeping their torsos fairly stationary. lar sideways glances to their addressee(s), to facilitate this frontal mode of address. A typical setup, as at Lavela Chowk, is to place a pair as at Lavela Chowk, A typical setup, to facilitate this frontal mode of address. that principle Such a configuration almost necessitates of stand mics downstage right and left. which can be while delivering verbal exchanges, actors (often two) remain stationed downstage \r This is very useful in darba quite long. their body movements With behind the speakers. which is generally seated upstage, full court, Ra\mlıthus limited, impeding, was still able to foster “new mimetic possibilities,” particularly as it was often coupled particularly as it was often coupled “new mimetic possibilities,” able to foster was still impeding, the most significant adaptation “by far Therefore Kapur calls it with perspectival backdrops. But of course the (220). conventions that Parsi theatre appropriated” performing Western of across India too. been adopted in various regional theatres proscenium has Western into the array with seemingly inviting the audience in full force, tal mode of address was as a kind of vortex or spiral, this formation is often depicted and art, In literature Abhimanyu. on either side by a line of Kauravs, flanked Abhimanyu stand, by having but here it was effected moved into this linear cakravyu\h The actors their arms linked. audience, all of them facing the plot element (Duryodhan’s feigned This Abhimanyu into his arms. called just after Duryodhan but it worked to great , Abhimanyu) is not unique to Heroic Abhimanyu rapprochement with struggling and jostling in a Abhimanyu delivered his last lines, melodramatic effect here as Kathavachak’s stage directions are minimal and do not indicate how the linear cakravyu\h. but I suspect that this is how it was handled in the Parsi theatre cakravyu\h should be formed, front-facing visual engagement with the audience. because it allowed actors to maintain their it is necessary for actors to exaggerate their body gestures and oration more than in the Parsi it is necessary for actors to exaggerate their body gestures and oration more than “If I move this much,” he stated [wildly raising his arm], “only this much reaches the audience he stated [wildly raising his arm], “If I move this much,” ­theatre because in Ra\mlı thrust upward to make a point; slow, high steps placed methodically on the stage thrust upward to make a point; slow, stage Ra\mlı the Ravan at the Ordinance Ankit Saxena, more exaggerated than in Parsi theatre productions. Factory Ra\mlı Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

30 Pamela Lothspeich photo in suchasafaricostume, asasignforEuropeanimperialism. Think ofthemanycolonial-era sion thattheNew Alfred itselfmighthaveinitiatedtheconventionofdressingRajabahadur moustache. And althoughthetrouperegisterednoculturalmemoryofthis, Ihadtheimpres- wore typicalRa\mlı the costumingofRajabahadur, playedbyarathershortactor. While theothermalecharacters a caricatureofclichédgenderroles. The mostinterestingelementofthefarce, however, was ward oftheKauravs, andhisbrowbeating “modern” wifeSundari, butitmostlyjustpresented The productiondidshowsomeoftheintriguesandhijinksbetweenRajabahadur, ahypocritcal and leftoutmuchofitsbitingsociopoliticalcommentaryonthearistocraticclasszamı that thestyleofhisownRa\mlı didn’t havetoexaggerate]” (Saxena2013). Despitethis, Saxenadidnothesitatetoacknowledge [than Ra\mlı [moving hisarmimperceptibly]. [...]OurproductionofHeroicAbhimanyu lookedmorerealistic 23. often felltoanordinaryperson” (Mishra2012). of aroyalhero, whereasthecomicroleinKathavachak’splays[andParsitheatregenerally] theatre: “The Parsi the BritishandclassicalIndianexamples, itwastheformerthathadgreaterinfluenceon (Upadhyay 2012). Ourdirector, Mishra, addedtoKumar’scomments, statingthatbetween made theplaysmorebeautiful. Itwaslikeanice ‘kat∫ piece’ comedy intheParsitheatretouseofdecorative “patches” onIndianclothes: “Comic scenes theatre. Ashok KumarUpadhyay, aHindiprofessorfromBareillyCollege, comparedtheuseof farces wouldbringlevitytoseriousdramas, justastheyhadinbothShakespeareanandSanskrit main drama, andonlylatercametobeincorporatedintothemaindrama(Singh2013). These British administrators. (verse) fromtheBhagavad-Gı place ofthesongindicatedinKathavachak’sscript. The recordedtrackfeaturedafamouss;lok scene openedwithatrackfromB.R. andRaviChopra’sMaha\bharat the originalsongsinKathavachak’sscript, despiteafewlyricaldigressions, aswhenthefirst is itsincorporationofsongs. Ofthethreeproductions, itmadethegreatestefforttoreproduce center, anarratorexplained: Then asKrishnaand Arjun disembarkedfromtheirtwo-dimensional chariotandmoveddown

While Jha’stroupewastheonlyoneofthreetoretainfarce, theyseverelyeditedit Comedy hadalwaysbeenpartoftheParsitheatre, butatfirstfarceswerestagedafterthe (serious) action on the stage. One lines. does not generally find independent farces with developed story productions, where clowns appear onstage to mimic and parody the main of some Rāmlīlā Comedy is also a part भगवान �ीकृ�ण केसामने �� कररहाह ै। औरवेशंखाएँअब शंखाएँहैं क�ओर��थान �कये परंतुअजु�न �दयमें के मै॑ समय�ँ । इस समय �ीकृ�णचं� अजु�न संस�कों धम� सं�थापनाथा�यसंभवािमयुगे॥ च दु�कृताम्। साधूनां िवनाशाय पिर�ाणाय तदा�मानं सृजा�यहम् अ�ु�थानम् अधम��य॥ भारत । �लािनभ�वित यदा हीधम��य One finalelementoftheRa\mlı age after(52). men ofvirtueanddestroywhodoevil, tosetthestandard ofsacredduty, Iappearin Whenever sacreddutydecaysandchaosprevails, then, Icreatemyself, Arjuna. To protect ­graphs ofalifelessBengaltigerringedbyIndianzamı la\] becauseitwasinahallandtheaudienceseatedveryclosetostage[sowe \ la\ costumes, healonedonnedakhakisafarisuitandhat, andaChaplinesque \ vidus∫ak (jester)inSanskritplaystypicallywasaministerorcloseassociate ta\\, translatedherebyBarbaraStolerMiller: \ ([1986]2004:7–8) la\ wasbasedonthatoftheParsitheatre. \ (act1, scene1) la\ productionthatgivesevidenceofitsParsi-theatrepedigree \ 23

— nda\rs androyals, andstiff, starched \

a decorativepatch[onclothing]” TV series(1988–1990), in nda\rs. \ Parsi Theatre 31 ­ understated . g V ina\yak stages æ क� in place of place in a coed troupe founded का 25 \ one, but excelled in its applica- la\ one, g” means stage or the dramatic arts.dramatic the or stage means g” (act 1, scene 4). (act 1, माला । 24 (act 1, scene 3) (act 1, yak Production yak (both Mumbai). Normally, Ran Normally, and Aparn≥a\ (both Mumbai). Ans;, \ (Kolkata), Charitable Trust (Lalsa 2011). In this capacity, he’s brought a number of dis- In this capacity, (Lalsa 2011). Trust Charitable \ g Vina æ

(Hero in [keeping] vows, go, go! Hero in battle, go, go! go, go! Hero in battle, go, (Hero in [keeping] vows, go! go, hero of the lineage, hero of the battalion, Hero in strength, delight and gladden [us]! Attain victory in battle, and strike up the battle drum!) Dispel [your] doubt, I have corrected where the singer, a native Maithili speaker, mistakenly sang mistakenly speaker, Maithili native a singer, the where corrected have I देखो �ेम का पंथ िनराला । चल अिभम�यु �ेम-मंिदर म�, िलये �ेम क� �णवीर जाओ जाओ, रणवीर रणवीर । जाओ जाओ �णवीर जाओ जाओ, बलवीर, ॥ दलवीर, कुलवीर, जाओ जाओ, । हुलसाओ रण म� िवजय पाओ, हष�ाओ, ॥ कुछ लाओ, डंका बजा आओ शंका न (I am Time. At this time Shri Krishna and Arjun were on their way to [battle] the were on their Arjun Shri Krishna and At this time Time. (I am to convey these doubts And now he’ll doubts in his heart. Arjun has some but Samsaptaks, Lord Krishna.) included two songs from the performance TV series, from the Subsequent to this sampling �ेम-देव जब रीझ जाय�गे, तब होगा उिजयाला �ेम-देव जब रीझ जाय�गे, ॥ (Look, the path of love is strange. (Look, with a garland of love. Abhimanyu, Enter the temple of love, it will light up.) When the lord of love is pleased, “Vināyak” is another name for the Hindu god Ganesh, while “Ranæ Ganesh, god Hindu the for name another is “Vināyak” \yak, was Ranæg Vina The group performing the play that night This production lacked the masa\la quality of the Ramlı

The second song occurred at the end of the following scene, when Abhimanyu is conflicted by when following scene, The second song occurred at the end of the and truncated Although delivered without much tenderness, the ties of love and the call to duty. Abhimanyu’s bittersweet mood: it was a lovely song that captured by two verses, Bhimani as Samay where Harish series, TV feature of the mimicked an iconic This of course to each episode. a narrative introduction famously provided (Time), song sung by a Pandav chorus just The first was a rousing battle script. Kathavachak’s original A charming ditty array. blessing to enter the circular Yudhishthir’s Abhimanyu received after song had been performed in the it may have been reflective of how the with a lively drumbeat, Parsi theatre. 24. Delhi Cosmopolitanism who informed me that a I got a call from a friend October 2012, on 6 About two years later, that very night. going to perform Heroic Abhimanyu community-theatre group in Bareilly was I took the next train to Bareilly. Although I was 50 miles away in Shahjahanpur, The Ran 25. by a local orthopedic surgeon, Dr. Brijeshwar Singh. Since 2007 Singh has been organiz- Brijeshwar Singh. Dr. by a local orthopedic surgeon, modeled Theatre Fest, the Daya\dr≈s≥ti Ranægvinayak ing an annual theatre festival in Bareilly, and sponsored by Bha\rat Ranæg Mahotsav, on the National School of Drama’s annual festival, the Daya\dr≈s≥ti Company tinguished troupes to Bareilly including the National School of Drama Repertory Ranægkarmı (Delhi), the troupe decided to go but in 2010, , plays that are more contemporary than Heroic Abhimanyu in a mythological direction. tion of the modern style associated with the National School of Drama. In fact, the In fact, tion of the modern style associated with the National School of Drama. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

32 Pamela Lothspeich 27. 26. the firstrowonbendedknee. ThenDron, frontandcenter, dramaticallyannouncedhisplot ended withastrikingjha\nækı tion. The secondscene, inwhichtheKauravsconfrontDronabouthispartialitytoPandavs, symbols broughtthesongtoaclose. strobe lightcontributedtothecosmicatmosphere, whiletheblastofaconchandclash in theair, createdtheillusionofholdingaloftaspinningcakra Krishna wavedabluesashover Arjun, humblybentdownononeknee, thencirclingafinger of thisscenewhensingersoffstagechantedaportionthesecondtwosongs. Meanwhile, a drumset, dholak, harmonium, andba\nsurı chariot aslivebassdrummingmimickedthehorsesclopping. (Instrumentationwasprovidedby they frozeupstage, strikingfierceposes, whileKrishnaand Arjunentered, mimingridingina matically marchedsidewaysontothestage, fourfromeachwing, theirswordsupraised. Then from theaudience. stomping andtwisting. Itshouldbealsonotedthattheactorsheredidnoteschewturningaway Pamela Lothspeich) of Abhimanyuæ at the Ran into his arms Figure (second from right) calling 9. Left to right: Duryodhan darkened toonlyasinglelampon Abhimanyu whorelayedhis linesploddingly: described howhelearnedtobreakthecakravyu\harraywhilestillinutero. The stagefirst times, thenfrozeasthelightsfadedout. —

Heroic Abhimanyu (6 October 2012). (Photo by

as hethrusthisbowskywards. Pumpingtheirfists, theKauravs repeated, “cakravyu\h!” three Two moreisolatedexamplesshouldgiveafullerpictureoftheoverallstylethisproduc- To getatasteofthestyleproduction, consideract1, scene1, whereeightsoldiersdra- Cf. “ Cf. pointed this fact out to me, and provided helpful information for this article. Both Kapur, former director of the National School of Drama (2007–13), and Hema Singh, independently वह बड़ीपरानीबातहै । कर सुनो और कानखोल । आज म� सेना का वह�ूह बनाऊँगा िजस का नामहोगा“च��ूह” scene 2:20). (It’s averyoldstory.) Another interestingandcatharticmomentoccurredinthefollowing scenewhen Abhimanyu (And listenup! Today I’mgoingtomakethebattleformationcalled “cakravyu\h”!) अ��ा सुनोे औरकानखोलकरसुनो ।आजम�सेना कावह�ूहबनाऊँ गा िजसकानाम ‘च��ूह’ है। (act1, scene3) . Forthis, theKauravsstationedthemselvestogetherintworows, \ g Vināyak production g Vināyak orflute.) Anotableeffectwascreatedneartheend \ (Vishnu’s divinediscus). A slow 2013). Cakravyu\h Thiyam’s 1984productionof very muchevocativeofRatan aesthetic oftheproductionwas soldiers marchedontothestage collectively, deliberately, aswhen lated, stylizedgestureormoved occasionally insertedacalcu- ing andmovement, thoughthey than spectacleintheirspeak- strove forverisimilituderather a settingsun. Ingeneral, actors the end, tocreatetheeffectof cn changes scene curtains, wasusedtodesignate very minimalist. Lighting, not Vina\yak’s productionwereall ery andcostuminginRanæg

26 । (act1, scene2) The earth-tonedscen- ” ([1916] 1937:act 1, (Kapur 2013;Singh

—

n towards and 27

—

Parsi Theatre 33 - ” ([1916] ([1916] ” g Vināyak Vināyak g at the Ranthe at æ by the “gem-of-a-poet” by “gem-of-a-poet” the \ ceremony, in keeping with the ceremony, cakravyūh ), and would thus be of benefit to ), \ra (6 October 2012). (Photo by by (Photo 2012). October (6 Abhimanyu Heroic \ ) playfully entered, one from either side, spinning and one from either side, ) playfully entered, Figure 10. Abhimanyu in the in Abhimanyu 10. Figure production of production Lothspeich) Pamela ” (Beneficent Lord Shiva), chanted by the assembled cast, with by the assembled cast, chanted (Beneficent Lord Shiva), ” ), rather than [sexual] love (s;r≈næga ), \ ra

28 \ replied: ≥ı (prologue)

अिभम�यु? कौन अिभम�यु? (कुछ सोचकर) महाभारत के यु� म� जब भारत-भूिम वीरा� के पिव� र� से धुल रही थी, भाई के िलये भाई क� थी, भाई के िलये भाई क� धुल रही के यु� म� जब भारत-भूिम वीरा� के पिव� र� से अिभम�यु? (कुछ सोचकर) महाभारत अिभम�यु? कौन

Cf. Cf. “ अिभम�यु? कौन अिभम�यु? (कुछ सोचकर) महाभारत के म� जब भारत-भूिम यु� वीरोंअिभम�यु? कौन अिभम�यु? (कुछ सोचकर) महाभारत के भर गई थी, और भाई के के र� से िलये समय भगवान �ोणाचाय� को तो蔼नेवाला, �ित�ा पर �ाण छो蔼नेवाला, भाई क� त�वार तुल रही थी, उस के “च��ूह” अिभम�यु? (Abhimanyu? Which Abhimanyu? The one who broke through [Thinking for a moment.] and gave up his life to fulfill a promise dur the circular array of esteemed Dronacharya, rata war, when India’s earth was filled with the blood of noble heroes, when India’s earth was filled with the blood of noble heroes, ing the Maha\bharata war, and brothers raised swords against brothers?) त�वार तुल रही थी, उस समय भगवान् �ोणाचा�य� के बनाये हुए ‘च��ूह’ को तो蔼ने वाला, �ित�ा पर �ाण छो蔼ने वाला, अिभम�यु? ‘च��ूह’ भगवान् �ोणाचा�य� के बनाये हुए त�वार तुल रही थी, उस समय 1937:prologue:3). One of the most noteworthy Here an actor (nat∫) and actress (natı To this the nat To

28. the men standing and the women kneeling. (There was no a\ratı the men standing and the women kneeling. - \yak pro parts of the Ranæg Vina prayer It commenced with a two-minute prologue. duction was that it included Kathavachak’s ∫ Mahes; “Manægal-karan to Shiva, of his day, like other playwrights Kathavachak, more secular orientation of this production.) Plays of conventions from classical Sanskrit drama. included a prayer and prologue in imitation followed by verse in praise of a Hindu deity, in that tradition typically open with a benedictory of the play and sometimes also the benefits to be a stylized prologue that introduces the subject “the direc- like often relayed through a conversation between stock characters derived from it, “the actress.” and tor” He then lay down in the fetal He then lay illuminated, barely position, how he learned and described of the cakravyu\h,of the secrets his father to his imparted by she carried him in mother as he got to a When her womb. \h description of the cakravyu and mimed he stood up itself, Yudhishthir But as fighting in it. he would be questioned whether lights \h, able to exit the cakravyu him were illuminated to reveal stand- and the other Pandavs No, Abhimanyu. ing behind exit the he wouldn’t be able to cakravyu\h. pumping their arms in a lively folk manner, with simple attire to match. Meeting in the cen- with simple attire to match. pumping their arms in a lively folk manner, replete as it was with state of [Parsi] theatre in India, the pair discussed the deplorable ter, espe- nothing to educate and inspire theatregoers, lewdness and titillating stage tricks that do Heroic Abhimanyu The nat≥ then proposed staging cially India’s youth. with reference he claimed, The play, (kaviratna) Pandit Radheshyam Kathavachak of Bareilly. the rasas of compassion (aesthetic mood in drama) is imbued with to the classical theory of rasa (karun∫a) and heroism (vı the nation. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

34 Pamela Lothspeich excised. Intheoriginalscript, thenat≥instructs apathetic, shesaid, andthewholecountryisonadownwardcourse(prologue:4–5). turned thecountryintoalandofcowardsandisholdingbackitsprogress. Eventheireldersare sive action. The nat from BharatenduHarishchandratomakethepointthatwhatisneededinpresentdeci- the nat≥bemoanspresentconditionofIndiaandapathyhercitizens, citingaverse Vina\yak’s light-heartedpresentationofitperhapsalsodidnothelp. Intheexciseddialogue, to theplay’sagendaofnationalawakeninganditspromotionHinditheatre. Ranæg tioned revisions, andalsothelossofabout50percentdialogue, includinglinesrelating versive, anticolonialnatureinherentintheoriginalprintedscriptduetoabove-men- updates thelanguage. gesting thatRanægVina\yak hadbeenworkingfromapost-independenceeditionoftheplaythat 1937 editionoftheplayrefersinsteadto “Britain’s enemies” and “the Britishgovernment,” sug- Note thatwhiletheactressherereferredto “India’s enemies” and “the Indiangovernment,” the 30. The nat Yes, that’sright, thenat 29. lamenting theformergloriesofIndia out theprologuewithasong, “Bha\rat-vı The nat ( The songconcludesbycensuringIndiansfortheira\lasya formed onopeningnightin1916([1957]2004:61). ­prologue:5). Although omittedhere, significantly, thissongelicitedthreeovationswhenper

The lastcriticalpartoftheprologueimpartingaferventHindi-Hindunationalismwasalso Although RanægVina\yak’s prologuestruckanationalisttone, itfailedtoconveythesub- nin government Indian comes tothebattlefield[English]breakfacesofIndia’senemiesonbehalf अपनी ि�टेन सरकार क� ओर से ि�टेन के श�ुओं कामुँह तो蔼ने केिलए“बै�टल फ̣��ड अपनी ि�टेनसरकारक�ओरसेकेश�ुओं function of art, and more­function of art, concerned with personal indulgence than with public welfare. Kathavachak’s implication is that a rasik The term “rasik written in Braj Bhasha. poetry ethos surrounding” here courtly alludes to the literary 1937:prologue:3–4). होकर अपनीभारतसरकारक�ओरसे भारत केश�ुआ� का मुँह तो蔼ने “बै�टल 괼��ड” म�आजायेे के िलए का गुणगान जो आ�ा।य�दबलवान सुनकर हमारे वीर दश�का� म�वीर-रसझलकआये,और यह रिसक समाज, वीर समाज Cf. “ Cf. म� िह�दी और उ�ारणिह�दू का �यान का गौरव�दखानाहै...। आज रहे। जाित क��ित�ा �या��क आ�य� वीरा� और सुनो, (नती ठहर जाती है) यह िह�दू नाटक है। इस म� िह�दीही�धानहै। भाषा पा�ा�कोसमझा देना �क हावभावम� gestures anddictionbecausewehavetoshowthegloryof Aryan heroestoday[...]) it. ExplaintotheactorsthattheyshouldbesurehonorbothHindiandHindusintheir (And listen[thenat∫ı 1937:prologue:5) imbued withvı (Indeed. Ifthespectatorshearussingpraisesofourmightyheroes, andbecome जो आ�ा।य�दहमारेवीरबलवान्कागुणगान सुनकर �ोताजना�म�वीर-रस झलकआय,औरयह रिसक समाज,वीरसमाज होकर ≥ı ≥≥ reinforceshispointinfourmorecouplets, andthenthetwoactorsothersround waspleased: \ r ras \ ≥ı thendeliveredaninvectiveaboutthehorribledemonofapathy, whichhas \

— pauses]. This isaHinduplay. The Hindilanguageispredominantin \ — ≥ toldher, theveryonewhosenamehasbeenimmortalizedinbattle.

) if thispleasure-loving(rasik) society is one more than with the concerned with the beauty of art

—

intellectually, spiritually, physically, and materially. rom≥ kı \ ya\dmem≥” (InmemoryofIndia’sheroes), \ 30 ≥ı : \ societybecomesaheroiconeand (apathy) andunma\d ” (Battle field) म� पहुँच जाय... (intoxication)

(prologue) — ” ([1916] ([1916] 29 -

Parsi Theatre 35 \ la\ fes- \ . In fact, he denied that In fact, la\. going back to the 1960s, but were not not going back to the 1960s, but were Abhimanyu Heroic The last production, in 2005, took place on the in 2005, The last production, 31 \ still had any clear memories of the productions, and perhaps only la\ still had any clear memories of the productions, of emotional upheaval, particularly in the fateful scene in which his wife particularly in the of emotional upheaval, (10 December 2012). (Photo by Sanjeev Gupta, Atul Studio, Bareilly) Studio, Atul Gupta, Sanjeev by (Photo 2012). December (10 Abhimanyu Heroic

as clear as Mishra on dates. Prasad, who is now retired, played Ravan for 36 years at the Subhashnagar Rāmlīlā.the at years 36 for Ravan played retired, now is who Prasad, dates. on as Mishra clear as Kashyap and Prasad both confirmed past productions of productions past confirmed both Prasad and Kashyap Even though the play had once been a regular affair, only a few of the 30 to 40 actors active affair, Even though the play had once been a regular

31. tival only one year earlier. In fact, according to senior actors, the play had been staged there according to senior actors, fact, In tival only one year earlier. 2005 (Mishra the last production occurring in that, from 1962–64 and then intermittently after 2013a; Kashyap 2013; Prasad 2013). 2009, The Mishra Production The Mishra Theatre of the Parsi A Momentary Revival that an amateur team in the to my dismay, I discovered, On my first visit to Bareilly in 2006, in its annual Ra\mlı Heroic Abhimanyu neighborhood of Subhashnagar had performed Figure 11. The Kauravs moving in for the kill, led by Duryodhan (Jitendra Sharma, far right) at the Mishra Mishra Sharma, the at right) far Duryodhanby led kill, the for in moving (Jitendra Kauravs The 11. Figure of production night of Ram’s wedding. However, the fact that the team ended the production after just two the fact that the team ended the However, night of Ram’s wedding. The audience was why they have not staged it since. scenes (Mishra 2015) should make it plain quickly dissipating. in the Subhashnagar Ra\mlı Abhimanyu Mishra himself had played Mishra had any reliable knowledge of the Parsi theatre. Also curious was the fact that even a senior actor like Arjun in 2005 (Mishra 2010). in 1995 and and whose style of regularly since the 1960s, who has been performing Omprakash Kashyap, was not cognizant of any overlap acting most conjures images of the Parsi theatre in my mind, between the style of the late Parsi theatre and that of his own Ra\mlı there was any correspondence between his style of acting and that of the Parsi theatre (Kashyap there was any correspondence between his style of acting and that of the Parsi theatre And this is a man whose regular role as King Dasharath strikes me as a Parsi-theatre- 2013). inspired tour de force Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

36 Pamela Lothspeich all veteranRa\mlı established himselfastheirDasharathandMeghanad. Both of thewomen, Kirti Yaduvanshi at theirRa\mlı (Duryodhan), andSudhirSaxena(Krishna), remembered seeingHeroicAbhimanyu is stillthenormatmanyvenues. men. Although itisbecomingmorecommontoseewomen ontheRa\mlı (Arshad Azad, aMuslim). Women alsoplaymostofthefemaleroles, demonessesstillfallingto from thatRa\mlı major rolesoftenfalltonon-brahminsandsometimesevennon-Hindus. Two non-Hindus gious affiliation. Castingtherefunctionslargelyaccordingtoameritocracy, suchthatthe eral intheirsocialoutlook, havingadiversecastintermsofclass, caste, gender, andevenreli- prohibit theuseofprompting(amainstayatmanyamateurRa\mlı mal tryouts, keepregularlyscheduledrehearsals, maintainstrictrulesofdecorumonset, and Ordinance FactoryRa\mlı in bothRa\mlı leading actorsfromShahjahanpuralsobroughtconsiderableacting experience, havingworked roles hehasplayed. Sharmatoohasplayedmanyroles, andoncespecializedinMeghanad. The grandeur andepicpassion takes tothestageinhispsychedelicRa\mlı Kaikeyi demandshebanishRam. Although inhis60sandweatheredbylife, whenKashyap 33. 32. Na\rad ate steps it stillregularlyincorporatestwoofhisothermythologicalplays, S:ravan∫kuma\r Parambhakt Prahla\d Ra\mlı general. The organizersoftheFactoryRa\mlı same time, theformerhasbeenmoreinfluencedbycinematicmythologicalsandBollywoodin Ra\mlı The styleofboththesestageRa\mlı amateur Ra\mlı atre. GivenhislongassociationwithRa\mlı cally, MishraconcentratedhiseffortsonevincingtheactingstyleassociatedwithParsi- the Parsitheatre. into theRa\mlı fall of2012, hewasdeterminedtostagetheplaythatveryyear. Abhimanyu sincemyfirstvisitin2006, sowhenIarrivedinBareillyonaresearchleavethe Ra\mlı that Likewise inShahjahanpur, twoseniorRa\mlı cursed tolosehisson, andDevars∫i Na \rad because theytieintothemainstoryofRam. S:ravan∫kuma\r explainshowKingDasharathwas

Helpfully, thethreeactorsfromBareilly, Mishra(Dronand Arjun), JitendraSharma Although theSubhashnagarRa\mlı Since wehadneitherthetimenorresourcestodojusticethatstyle, visuallyormusi- Mishra, myprimaryresearchcolleagueinBareilly, hadbeenawareofmyinterestinHeroic senior research fellowship in 2012–13. I must credit the United States–India Education Foundation for generously funding this research leave via a itself utilizes the Kathavachak’sperformance play program as “Nārad-moh” appears in the This story Subhashnagar Rāmlīlā (The Delusion of Narad), even though Heroic Abhimanyu andothermythologicalplaysusedtobeperformedregularlyattheir . la\, whiletheother17camefromOrdinanceFactoryRa\mlı la\ hasmovedawayfromthatmediummorethantheSubhashnagarRamlı la\ (Saxena2013;Mahendru2011). \ \ \ 32 ItmakessensethattheseplaysshowuphereandsometimesatotherRa\mlı

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his everywordandgesturecarefullycalculatedformaximumeffect. la\, andMishraSharmahadevenplayedrolesinit. What ismore, theywere adcmuiytete ni aea(Jayadrath)hasplayedRavanatthe la\ andcommunitytheatre. Ankit Saxena( \ \ la\ festival, hehadanambitiousplantoperformitindependently, inthestyleof \ la\ teams. Three oftheactors(includingMishra)werefromSubhashnagar \ la\ workedinourproduction: Yudhishthir (PatrickDas, aChristian)andBhim \ la\ actors. MishraisaformerLakshmanandHanuman, amongmany \ ) fromitsprogram, duetoalackoftimeandenthusiasm(Mishra2010), la\ since2007, whileDas, with25yearsofexperience inRa\mlı \

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trembling hands, atremulousvoice, anguishedtears, slowdeliber la\ committeegraduallydroppedHeroicAbhimanyu \ la\s owesmuchtotheParsitheatre, thoughtheFactory \ , how Vishnu, asRam, wascursedtolosehisbeloved. la\ garb, heistransformed, projectinganauraofroyal \ la\, itwasnaturalthathedrewhiscastfromtwolocal \ Devars∫ la\ actors(oneretired)thereseparatelyconfirmed \ la\ areprofessionalintheirmethods:theyholdfor \ i Nārad i . 33 Butratherthanincorporateit la\s). They arealsoquitelib- \ la\ inShahjahanpur. \ la\ stage, cross-dressing \ and la\. Butatthe \ performed Devars∫i la\ festivals \ other ­ la\, has \ (and - - Parsi Theatre 37 at the the at - cakravyūh As was the (up to). \ ; both have played a la\; both have \ stage in Subhashnagar, plus two plus la\ stage in Subhashnagar, (10 December 2012). The colored colored The 2012). December (10 Abhimanyu Heroic \ and community theatre or film seemed theatre or film la\ and community \ served them well in our production. But in general But in general well in our production. la\ served them \ for eight years. la\ for eight years. Figure 12. Abhimanyu (Manish Muni) preparing to die in the in die to preparing Muni) (Manish Abhimanyu 12. Figure of production Mishra Bareilly) Studio, Atul Gupta, Sanjeev by (Photo arrows. of showers suggest lasers \ s, and hint at the elaborate tricks once used in the Parsi the- and hint at the elaborate tricks once la\s, -

\ and applied some of it in proper measure here, and they were able to quickly memo- and they were it in proper measure here, la\ and applied some of

\mlı experience in Ra All of the cast’s There was no sound equip- Mishra’s original plan had been to use the simple Ra\mlıMishra’s original plan had been to use the number of roles including Sita, and Yaduvanshi has been working in the film industry since in the film industry has been working Yaduvanshi and roles including Sita, number of he had though theatre, in local community similarly works Munish (Abhimanyu) Manish 2006. Ra\mlı Ordinance Factory acted in the (Subhadra) and Shikha Kashyap (Uttara), also had experience in Ra\mlı also had experience (Uttara), and Shikha Kashyap (Subhadra) atre. Our sound system was also minimal: two shin-high stand mics downstage, a few wireless two shin-high stand mics downstage, Our sound system was also minimal: atre. tains and facades featuring the latest architectural styles. ment or theatrical lighting in only a few lights over the hall, It and just one curtain. the stage, pack- arranged for a lighting We was expected that renters would bring whatever was required. two laser lamps (red and of floor lighting (six lamps), a strip age that included a strobe light, The footlights inadvertently cast eerie shadows throughout the and a smoke machine. green), and smoke were used intermittently to create effects dur lasers, while the strobe, production, those actors who had experience with both Ra\mlı who had experience those actors the emotional tenor of They already understood most effectively. to adjust and perform Ra\mlı would be no prompting here. there troupes of the Parsi theatre, tradition in the celebrated a play script was not Alfred blanched at prompting; notes that the New Kathavachak proudly some potential can- this issue, Because of to 1930 ([1957] 2004:47). even allowed on set prior those who did, And among it through auditions. didates from the Ra\mlila stage did not make of histrionics and bombast to have difficulty ratcheting down their level some still seemed to accustomed as they the hundreds, space for spectators numbering in suit an enclosed theatrical before thousands. were to working outdoors rapid scene Light would then be used to effect side. more temporary stages erected on either such as But all of this would have required more logistics, changes between the three stages. canopies and temporary seat- ing for an audience mostly unac- customed to watching theatre In the seated on the ground. Mishra settled on IMA end, the same venue used by Hall, which houses a \yak, Ranæg Vina bare-bones stage and fixed seat- It provided a min- ing for 400. but it was imal proscenium, hardly reminiscent of the gran- diose stages once used by trav- eling companies in the Parsi These would have theatre. and much been relatively wider, much with easily twice as deeper, and more elaborate cur seating, vows were made and warriors slain; the colored lasers such as when ing dramatic high points, Such simple special effects were used to produce linear streaks to suggest showers of arrows. are quite common at stage Ra\mlı rize and deliver long passages of dialogue, ones that included rhyming couplets and occasional ones that included passages of dialogue, rize and deliver long tak the Braj talak for the standard Hindi for example, noncolloquial forms, Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021 (Photo by Sanjeev Gupta, Atul Studio, Bareilly) 2012). The backdrop used throughout represents the blood-red sky of sunset. Yaduvanshi) in the Mishra production of Figure 13. Abhimanyu (Manish Muni) and his mother Subhadra (Kirti 38 Pamela Lothspeich aces werebuiltattheoppositeendofIndialeast2,000yearsafteranyMaha\bharatawarcould Falaknuma Palace(Hyderabad), and Thanjavur Palace(Thanjavur). Nevermindthatthesepal- Indian tlefield. HeconsideredtheornateinteriorsofgreatearlymodernpalacesbuiltbySouth sheeting. Firsthescouredtheinternetforimagessuitabletoconnotepalaceandbat- ing. Hisplanwastomakebackdropsbyprintingdigitalimagesontolargepiecesofpolythene the question, Mishraturnedtomoderntechnologies, namelytheinternetand “flexy” print- the thousands. powerful amplificationisgenerallyrequiredinoutdoorspaceswithaudiencesoftenrunning Ram andLakshmanattheSubhashnagar Ra\mlı ishly bedeckedinhissparklygold jacketandredsatinpa\jama around theirnecks, waists, upperarms, andwrists. Krishnawasthe mostresplendentandlav- male actorsworeheavymakeup, andwereadornedwithdecorative patchesandbeadedtassels expected thatclassicalwarriorsshouldbebeautiful, andgods evenmoreso. To thatend, the tery crownstothegleamingwhitesocks, wasreminiscentof Ra\mlı borrowed fromthestoreroomatSubhashnagarRa\mlı cals. Infact, manyofthecrowns, wigs, ornaments, weapons, andKrishna’sentirecostumewere styles wasinkeepingwiththecreativespiritofParsitheatre. theatre, thefactthatMishradrewonallavailabletechnologies andjudiciouslymixeddifferent other red sky, asilhouetteofscrubintheforeground. It wasatouchofrealismonanotherwiseepic, backdrop fortheentireproduction. The imagehechosewasasettingsunagainstblood- costuming wasmuchmoreconservative. The pa\jama chested, somethingthat wouldhavebeenunexpected, ifnotshockingin Victorian Indiawhen mics, andonecordedmic. Ra\mlı Since hiringpainterstoreplicatetheextravagantbackdropsofParsitheatrewasout The costumesinourproductionblendedthestylingofRa\mlı But inkeepingwithRamanand Sagar’sneo-epicstyle, thewarriorsappearedonstage bare- ­worldly stage. Butalthoughthisbackdropwasoutofstep withtheaestheticsofParsi niza\ms and maha\ra Heroic Abhimanyu (10 December \jas: JaganmohanPalace(Mysore), ChowmahallaPalace(Hyderabad), la\s toohavemodestsoundconfigurations, thoughtheremore \ la\. \ pants, cummerbunds, andsasheswehad la\. Almost everything, fromtheglit- \ pants, thesameonesworn by their setsandcostumes. Western andIndiandesignsinto often freelyblendedclassical designers fortheParsitheatre should berememberedthatset for aplaysetinancientIndia, it this allmightseemveryodd of BuckinghamPalace. While hotel lobbyandtheinteriors a Versace-inspiredconsidered Indian palace. Hebrieflyeven not necessarilylookingforan sical Europe. ButMishrawas and hintsofinfluencefromclas- regional architecturalfeatures, sumptuous interiors, exhibiting have takenplace. They allhad finally decidedtouseonlyone and escalatingcosts, Mishra more difficult. Becauseofthis Roman soldiersprovedmuch tlefield strewnwithGreekor la\ andcinematicmythologi- \ Finding animageofabat- la\. Inthismedium, itis \ Parsi Theatre 39 - \ la\ \ la\s: all wore

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\ , both of which , \ s. In the first tab- s. (warrior) husband, in confor (warrior) husband, \ ya \ ) on the forehead. Most wore ka\s) on the forehead. \ la\-esque designs on their faces that looked

34 \ , they wore heavy makeup and plenty of costume jewelry. and plenty of costume jewelry. they wore heavy makeup la\, \ saris for which Bareilly is famous. In a style befitting brides In a style befitting brides is famous. saris for which Bareilly

([1916] 1937:act 1, scene 7:66) 7:66) scene 1, 1937:act ([1916] (act 1, scene 7) (act 1, \ -zardozı pants; the heroic Pandavs and Guru Dron meanwhile mostly wore light mostly wore light Dron meanwhile heroic Pandavs and Guru pants; the (a double-headed drum from South India) and the ba\nsurı (a double-headed drum from South India) \ utilized at the Jha production. After two speeches, dignitaries lit a large brass speeches, After two ta\ utilized at the Jha production. theatre this could well have been done with an actual chariot and live animals. an actual chariot and live animals. ­theatre this could well have been done with \ s, though a couple wore solar ones; Jayadrath wore a Shaiva one, designating though a couple wore solar ones; Jayadrath wore a Shaiva one, ka\s,

the very type of za\rı  इसी जगह आजाय� य�द, वह पांडव चारा� । इसी जगह आजाय� य�द, वह तो मेरे बाण� पर नाच�, तांडव चारा� ॥

\ \ where Ravan’s son Meghanad bids farewell to his wife Sulochana. In both, a tearful In both, la\ where Ravan’s son Meghanad bids farewell to his wife Sulochana. . Women had heavy makeup, their eyes framed with brilliant dots above their eyebrows. their eyes framed with brilliant dots above their eyebrows. had heavy makeup, Women la\.

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The two camp scenes in the first act both concluded with stirring jha\nækı The two camp scenes in the first act both The scene in which Abhimanyu bids farewell to his wife Uttara called to mind the scene in Abhimanyu bids farewell to his wife Uttara called to mind the The scene in which h scene opened with Jayadrath down on all fours, then slowly rising, his then slowly rising, The long cakravyu\h scene opened with Jayadrath down on all fours, Cf. इसी, इसी जगह आ जाय� य�द, पांडव चारा� जाय� य�द, । आ जगह इसी इसी, तो मेरे बाणा� पर नाच�, तांडव चारा� ॥ (If the four Pandavs [Yudhishthir, Bhim, Nakul, and Sahadev] come this way, Nakul, Bhim, (If the four Pandavs [Yudhishthir, ≥dav dance on my arrows!) Tan They’ll dance Shiva’s On reflection, costuming in the Jha production in Badaun was probably closer to that in in the Jha production in Badaun costuming On reflection, seen in many Ra\mlı was very characteristic of that The makeup in our production In place of live music, Mishra utilized recorded music, most of it classical instrumental pieces Mishra utilized recorded music, In place of live music, Below are some of the noteworthy moments in the production: Below are some of the noteworthy moments used mime to show Krishna riding in on a chariot. \yak, like the director of Ranæg Vina Mishra,

leau, Dron was bent on one knee with his bow upraised, surrounded by the assembled Kauravs. surrounded by the assembled Kauravs. Dron was bent on one knee with his bow upraised, leau, and Nakul Sahadev, held his sword skyward as his brothers Bhim, Yudhishthir In the second, looked on appreciatively. Ra\mlı young woman must reluctantly give her blessing to her ks∫atrı mity with a woman’s dharma. mity with a woman’s dharma. Lord Shiva: as he described his boon from eyes bloodshot and his voice trembling with fury, 34. stage. There was not much variation in these pieces except with respect to color. The evil to color. except with respect in these pieces was not much variation There stage. Jayadrath Duhshasan and dark tones; Duryodhan, mostly dressed in Kauravs were pa\jama black or brown TV and in Ra\mlı on and princesses, but it was also and glittery, It too was colorful than ours was. Alfred’s 1916 production New If surviving pho- upper bodies. Long blousy tunics fully covered the actors’ much more modest. a good deal of the body. costumes in the Parsi theatre covered tographs are any indication, subdued in historical plays (2005:180). but more they were also quite glitzy, According to Gupt, black brows and moustaches (except young heavily painted bright red lipstick, for men, and glittery markings (tı colorful eye shadow, Abhimanyu), sewn for the production also looked like they’d be just as at home on TV as on the Ra\mlıTV as at home on like they’d be just production also looked sewn for the shades. Arjun wore deep orange, suiting his intense emotional moods in the play, while his son while in the play, emotional moods suiting his intense Arjun wore deep orange, shades. cot- Dron had pink All the men except suggesting his purity. wore white Abhimanyu young The female characters Uttara and designs draped around their necks. ton sashes with printed sequins and embroi- beads, heavy with in fancy pink and red saris, Subhadra were dressed dery Vaishnava tı Vaishnava small Ra\mlı And they had his affiliation with Shiva. the long locks associated with were also part of the costuming for men, Wigs like small gems. Ra\mlı featuring the mr≈d∫anæg were well suited to the performance. However, the playback of recorded sound simply didn’t the playback of recorded However, were well suited to the performance. Following a live music in the other two productions. feel as interpretive and anticipatory as the Mishra opened his production with same track of which he intoned offstage, prayer to Ganesh, the Bhagavad-Gı oil lamp onstage to signal the ceremonial start of our play. start of our play. oil lamp onstage to signal the ceremonial In the Parsi Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

40 Pamela Lothspeich 35. Ra\mayan the basicidea. Comparehisdialoguefromtheproduction andlanguagefromtheRa\dhes;ya Although Mishra, as Arjun, heredeviatedfrom theprintedscript, henonethelessmaintained loyalty ofthesortwefindinKathavachak’sRa\mayan≥aandindeedmanyiterationsthatepic. having sent Abhimanyu tohisdeath. The script herecontainsastrongendorsementoffraternal tortured effortstosparethefeelingsofhiselderbrother Yudhishthir, whoisguilt-riddenover (Photo by Sanjeev Gupta, Atul Studio, Bareilly) Lakshman at the Ordinance in Shahjahanpur. Factory Rāmlīlā of the news that Abhimanyu has just died, in the Mishra production Figure 14. Nakul (Devendrapal Singh) is overcome while relaying Heroic Abhimanyu (10 December 2012). Singh regularly plays

Cf. these thingsareeasytoattain;difficultattainisarealbrother.) cannot behadagainandagain. Onemayacquiresuccess, respect, andeverycomfort. All (Your Majesty, onecanhavesonsmanytimes, but a brotherlikeyou, abrotherbybirth, सुखदायी ।यह सब व�तु,महान सुलभ, दुल�भ हैै एक सहोदर भाई ॥ महाराज पु�तोअनेकबारिमलजातेह� । परंतुतु�हाराजैसा भाई, मा-ँ। �ापारिमले,स�मान, िमलता सव�था जाया भाईनहीं

यह सब व�तु,महानसुलभ, दुल�भहै एकसहोदर भाई॥ िम� िमल�,औरपु�सेवक िमलजाँयबड़ेसुखदाई । कोष िमले,�ापारप�रवारिमलजाय लुगाई॥ िव� म�धनिमलजायबहुत,महीपित क�ठकुराई।  ∫, respectively: ([1916] 1937:act 2, scene 3:105–06)

(act2, scene3) stage, Duryodhan As Abhimanyu slumpedtothe moved intoslaytheirquarry. laughing evillywhiletheothers then felled Abhimanyu withit, tarily heldalofthistrident, and stretched, Duryodhanmomen- Abhimanyu withhisarmsout- pacing andlouddeclamationsby the side. After muchdramatic a shame-facedDronhungoffto Abhimanyu, trappinghim, while the Kauravsencircled with Abhimanyu,prochement After Duryodhan’sfeignedrap- than theothertwodirectors. cakravyu\h morerealistically scene, Mishrarenderedthe onstage. Herewesaw Arjun’s for greatemotionalupheaval Abhimanyu’s death, allowed Pandavs cometotermswith track offast-paceddrumming. ing, afewblastsofsmoke, anda the useofstrobeandlaserlight- was furthergeneratedthrough scene 7). Tension inthisscene ances of “Peace!” (S:a\nti! esque laughwithironicutter teeth andalternatingaRavan- it intohisheart, clenchinghis raised itagain, thenplunged 35 Moving totheendof Act 2, inwhichthe ­dramatically ) (act 1, \m - Parsi Theatre 41

- Heroic Abhimanyu Heroic \ , cinematic mythologicals, and cinematic mythologicals, la\, contested and undermined is no more. But for contested and undermined is no more. \ production in Badaun, also humble, perhaps also humble, la\ production in Badaun, staged almost 100 years after that of the New staged almost 100 years after that of the New

Figure 15. Arjun (Anil Mishra) embraces Krishna (Sudhir Saxena) as he mentally mentally he as Saxena) (Sudhir Krishna embraces Mishra) (Anil Arjun 15. Figure of production Mishra the in suicide, commit to prepares (10 December 2012). (Photo by Sanjeev Gupta, Atul Studio, Bareilly) Studio, Atul Gupta, Sanjeev by (10 December(Photo 2012). (Kathavachak and Sharmma [1908–24?] 1959–60: and Sharmma [1908–24?] (Kathavachak to

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was obscured

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book 6, ch. 2:22) ch. book 6,

(In life one may get sons and wives by the thousand. may get sons and wives (In life one again and again.) not gain a brother But one does sister Subhadra (and not scene 7: Krishna comforted only his 2, Jumping ahead to act The last act in which िमल जाते ह� िव� म�—पु� कल� हज़ार । कल� हज़ार िव� म�—पु� िमल जाते ह� ले�कन िमलता नहींहै बार�बार भाई ॥ There seemed to be a palimpsestic quality to the Jha and Mishra productions especially, and There seemed to be a palimpsestic quality to the Jha and Mishra productions especially, convince Uttara not to com- convince Uttara not mit suicide Uttara too, as indicated in the script, in the interest of time), and explained the mystical rea- in the interest of time), in the script, as indicated Uttara too, death. Abhimanyu’s son behind Varcha, of (He was really the son and curse, now released from a become his son is destined to However, the Pandav heir.) the point of the dialogue since she was not onstage. Also, Also, since she was not onstage. Abhimanyu was supposed to be shown aloft in heaven signal- ing to Uttara to go on living for something the sake of their son, which was probably enacted in the Parsi theatre. Jayadrath dies only lasted about Afterwards Mishra a half hour. explained to me that during he had noticed that the act 3, audience was starting to depart, so he signaled to the cast to Arjun slayed Jayadrath and by the time Unfortunately, skip over dialogue and hurry to the end. more than half of the audience had already exited. Duryodhan delivered the last lines, Heroic Abhimanyu, Our humble production of Heroic Abhimanyu, The Spectre of the Parsi Theatre, Theatre, The Spectre of the Parsi New Hybridities, and Community Theatre in India and Community Hybridities, New par conveyed something of the style of that original production, Theatrical Company, Alfred our team actually veered away from that style, in some ways, However, ticularly in its acting. from Ra\mlıdrawing on conventions and aesthetics borrowed modern Indian theatre. Meanwhile, the Ra\mlı Meanwhile, modern Indian theatre. preserved more elements of the Parsi theatre overall, and it did so reflexively and organically; preserved more elements of the Parsi theatre overall, I suspect many would rank it the least successful of the three. as theatre, however, of British yet both are now so far removed from the hybrid Parsi theatre and the colonial world all three productions demonstrated to me the real- Perhaps more than anything else, India. irrevocably ity that sociopolitical conditions and performance styles in North India have moved the imperialist appara- Of course, beyond the space of the historic and historical Parsi theatre. tus that anticolonial plays like Heroic Abhimanyu epic content via live theatre do not work today as the old ways of delivering other reasons too, they did in the past. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

42 Pamela Lothspeich India. It’snotthatthereisalackofwillorshortage talent theatre apparentlywasnotbignewsinthebirthplaceofPandit RadheshyamKathavachak. in thelocalnewspapersafterwardswerealsounderwhelming. A momentaryrevivaloftheParsi affiliated withcastmembers. Thelengthandtoneof the generallypositivereviewspublished saw thatatleasthalftheseatswereempty, andthat mostofthosewhohadcomeweresomehow for mythologicaldramaandeventhetheatreofRa\mlı trates thatashareoftheIndianaudience, especiallytheyoungergeneration, islosingitstaste style oftheatrehastakenholdinIndia. The exampleoftheJhaproduction, bycontrast, illus- theatre andeverydayacts. it has, Iwouldargue, openedupnewchannelsofco-performance, particularlyonthelevelsof rare theatricalinterventionsin this cityofsomeonemillionpeople. Bareilly. Singh’sRan æg Vina\yak troupeandannualtheatre festival areencouragingsigns, butare of patronage, eitherpublic orprivate, tosupportarobusttheatreinmedium-sizedcities like the promotionofcommunitytheatre inIndia. Oneofthebiggestproblemsseemstobealack tural andsocioculturalconditionsthatcanstymiethebesttheatrical intentionsandworkagainst trators, professors, andprincipals invitation cardstodozensofshopkeepersandthecity’selites tions charged admission. with comfortableseating, yetcouldonlydrawafewhundredspectators. Noneoftheproduc- Meanwhile, theothertwoproductionswereheldatreasonablehours, insideinanauditorium four hoursoftheatreanddance, untilaround2:15a.m., wasbetweentwoandthreethousand. I wouldestimatethatthenumberofspectatorswhosatongroundorstoodthroughover tion thanattheothertwo, despiteitsbeingstagedinacityaboutonefourththesizeofBareilly. Apparently, thisstrategyworked. There weremanymorespectatorsattheRa\mlı the restwasmostlysonganddancestrategicallydesignedtoholdaudience’sattention. the wholefour-hour performancewasactuallydedicatedtothestagingofHeroicAbhimanyu ; Chowk, entertainmenttrumpedreligiousedificationandritual. Hereonlyaboutathirdof though theprosceniuminsomewaysmayhaveattenuatedaudienceinvolvementRa\mlı sometimes evenphysicallyengagewithritualandaestheticactsontheRa\mlı gate thiseffect;inanycase, wehavenotedthataudiencesstillfindwaystovisuallypartakeand However, aswehaveseen, themanipulationofperspectiveinpaintedbackdropscouldmiti- tor andperformercurtailingtheaudience’sownactiveparticipationinperformance. nacular stylesoftheatrelikeRa\mlı through theirconstantreplication, circulation, andconsumptioninsociety(2007:18). popular visualart, suchthat, asJainhasobserved, imagesnowderivevalueandmeaning lel development, moderntechnologies(andexigenciesofthemarketplace)alsogreatlyimpacted moting andconsumingtheatrealsofiercecompetitionamongrivalcompanies. Inaparal- base inwesternIndia. Inthenewmarketeconomyoftheatre, theredevelopednewwaysofpro- became easier, whichfacilitatedtravelingtheatreandhelpedtheParsimovebeyondits and moredependentonacontrolledrepetitionofacts. Travel andcommunicationsmeanwhile ing risetonewcanonsandunderstandingsoftheatre, someofthemlessimprovisational made scriptsreadilyavailableinthebazaarandsubjecttoseamlessreplicationonstage, giv- electronic lighting, amplifiedandrecordedsound, specialeffects, andthelike. Printingpresses acter anddeliveryofdramaticcontentinIndia, andnotjustinobviousways, byallowingfor But thistheatricalexperimentalsotaughtmethatcommunity theatreisnoeasybusinessin The exampleoftheRanægVina\yak productionindicatesthatacosmopolitan, urban, hybrid Even thoughwehadblanketedthecitywithpromotionalbanners, personallyhandedout In thecolonialperioderuptionofmoderntechnologiesirrecoverablychangedchar Even theadoptionofphysicalstructureprosceniumhadaprofoundeffectonver

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Modern Asian 2:381–40. Studies 37, \ : The Audience Experience.” In la\: The Audience Experience.” \ , audiences nowadays often seem to come to be entertained as much or more as much or to come to be entertained nowadays often seem audiences la\, \ s with a preponderance of dramatic fight sequences and bawdy Bollywood-style of dramatic fight sequences and bawdy la\s with a preponderance

by Monika Thiel-Horstmann, 171–94. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer. 171–94. Thiel-Horstmann, by Monika Press. University Press. Seagull Books. California Press. 2:127–47. 51, Journal Theatre Nineteenth-Century Parsi Theatre.” As for Ra\mlı Although there were vestiges of the Parsi theatre in the productions discussed above, none theatre in the productions discussed above, Although there were vestiges of the Parsi Heroic Abhimanyu. Heroic Abhimanyu. the shifting receptions of and na\c-gana alone cannot explain Technology . Durham, NC: Duke University Durham, Art. Calendar The Economies of Indian Gods in the Bazaar: 2007. Kajri. Jain, than to partake in the ritual aspects of the performance. At the same time, the medium has suf- the medium has At the same time, of the performance. in the ritual aspects than to partake views Ra\mlı class increasingly as the urban middle in the past 20 years, fered a decline religious content delivered prefer to have their would it seems, Many, lower class. and “rustic” by than those afforded circumstances under more hospitable at least or if live, electronically, unpleas- and sometimes in seating or facilities, often with no ritual performances, outdoor long, Ra\mlı Some participants report that whereas ant weather. pitched more to young men adays it seems to be those Ra\mlı mythologicals still proliferate cinematic After all, Hindu audiences. well suited to contemporary very responsive to the at the three productions did not seem audiences However, TV. on Indian aren’t familiar with the fusion It’s not that audiences in the play. nationalist message encoded some found the nationalism in the but perhaps and Hindu sacred stories, of nationalist rhetoric found its ideology irrelevant to their perhaps some just Alternately, play too dated or tempered. own worldview and circumstances. overall grandeur or the fervent nationalism that was of them could quite conjure up either the of them One telling sign of this was that none so palpable when the play debuted in 1916. \h scene All ended the cakravyu Abhimanyu to the extent that the original production had. feted showed the None pages of dialogue in the script. foregoing the last two-and-a-half abruptly, a as is indicated in the script, Abhimanyu’s corpse, gods in heaven raining down flowers on Abhimanyu When and pulleys in the Parsi theatre. trick that was likely effected through ropes or the , Aryan devas were rallying against the asuras Vedic it was as though the fell onstage then, in his mem- As Kathavachak recalls revolutionary. British Raj had smote down a lone Indian and rained down the gods got out of their vehicles in 1916, Abhimanyu died onstage when oirs, could receive and the audience had the curtain raised again and again so they flowers on him, Abhimanyu (Kathavachak [1957] 2004:62). more dars;an of dance numbers. Heroic Abhimanyu and devotionalism, classicism, its blend of nationalism, With References London: Routledge. . The Location of Culture 1994. Homi K. Bhabha, Oxford York: New ed. 2nd. Asian Democracy. The Origins of an Modern India: 1994. (1985) Judith M. Brown, 2:179–94. 58, Communication Monographs “Rethinking Ethnography.” 1991. Dwight. Conquergood, Kolkata: translated by Kathryn Hansen. , Its Origins and Development Theatre: The Parsi 2005. Somnath. Gupt, The Naut∫anækı Grounds for Play: 1992. Kathryn. Hansen, Theatre.” Gender and Race Cross-Dressing in the Parsi Visible: Women “Making 1999. Kathryn. Hansen, in “Languages on Stage: Linguistic Pluralism and Community Formation 2003. Kathryn. Hansen, London: Anthem Press. Autobiographies. Theatre of Life: Indian Stages 2011. and trans. ed. Kathryn, Hansen, “Ra\m Lı 1983. Linda. Hess, Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00447 by guest on 30September 2021

44 Pamela Lothspeich Kathavachak, Radheshyam. (1916)1937. Vı Kashyap, Omprakash. 2013. Personalinterviewwithauthor. Bareilly, UttarPradesh, 30September. Kapur, Anuradha. 2013. Personalinterviewwithauthor. Delhi, 10September. Kapur, Anuradha. 2006. “Love inthe Time oftheParsi Theatre.” InLove inSouth Asia: A Cultural, History Kapur, Anuradha.1990. Pritchett, Frances. 1983. “S:ı Prasad, Mahavir. 2013. Personal interviewwithauthor. Bareilly, UttarPradesh, 30September. Pinney, Christopher. 2004. PhotosoftheGods: The PrintedImage andPolitical inIndia. Struggle London: Orsini, Francesca. 2002. TheHindiPublicSphere: 1920–1940:Language andLiterature inthe Age of Mishra, Anil. 2015. Phoneinterviewwith author. Bareilly, UttarPradeshandPittsboro, NC, 23January. Mishra, Anil. 2013b. Personalinterviewwithauthor. Bisalpur, UttarPradesh, 12October. Mishra, Anil. 2013a. Personalinterviewwithauthor. Bareilly, UttarPradesh, 30September. Mishra, Anil. 2012. Personalinterviewwithauthor. Bareilly, UttarPradesh, 5December. Mishra, Anil. 2010. Personalinterviewwithauthor. Bareilly, UttarPradesh, 8October. Mishra, Anil. 2009. Personalinterviewwithauthor. Bareilly, UttarPradesh, 13July. Miller, BarbaraStoler, trans. (1986)2004. TheBhagavad-Gita: Krishna’sCounselin Time of War.New York: Metcalf, BarbaraD., and Thomas R. Metcalf. 2001. India. ofModern AConciseHistory Cambridge: Mahendru, Chandramohan. 2011. Personalinterviewwithauthor. Shahjahanpur, UttarPradesh, 15May. Lutgendorf, Philip. 1991. TheLifeofa Text:of Tulsidas PerformingRa\mcaritmanas the . Berkeley:University Lothspeich, Pamela. 2009. EpicNation:Reimagining theMahabharata inthe Age ofEmpire. Delhi:Oxford Lothspeich, Pamela. 2007. “Unspeakable OutragesandUnbearableDefilements:RapeNarrativesinthe Lalsa, Ghanshyam. 2011. Small Town Big Theatre: Theatre Fest ofBareilly Since2007. Bareilly:Dayadrishti King, ChristopherR. 1994. OneLanguage, Two Scripts: The HindiMovement North inNineteenthCentury Kathavachak, Radheshyam, andMadanmohanlalSharmma. (1908–24?)1959–60. Ra\dhes;ya Kathavachak, Radheshyam. (1957)2004. Mera \ nat∫ak-kal. Schechner Richard. 1985. “Ramlila ofRamnagar.”and Anthropology, 151–211. InBetween Theater Saxena, Ankit. 2013. Personalinterviewwithauthor. Shahjahanpur, UttarPradesh, 26September. Sax, William S. 1990. “The RamnagarRa\mlı Rai, Alok.2001. edited byFrancescaOrsini, 211–27. Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress. Reaktion Books. Nationalism. Bantam. Cambridge UniversityPress. of CaliforniaPress. University Press. /view/14. Literature ofColonialIndia.” Postcolonial Text 3, 1:1–19. http://journals.sfu.ca/pocol/index.php/pct/issue Charitable Trust. India. Bareilly: RadheshyamPustakalay. Radheshyam Pustakalay. Philadelphia: UniversityofPennsylvania Press. 1:129–53. Mumbai: OxfordUniversityPress. London: OxfordUniversityPress. Hindi Nationalism. EditedbyNeeladriBhattacharya. Delhi:OrientLongman. Actors, Pilgrims, KingsandGods: The Ra\mlı t-Basant: Oral Tale, S:anægı \ r Abhimanyu \ la\: \ Text, Pilgrimage, Performance.” of Religions29, History .” t andKissa\.” \ [Heroic Abhimanyu]. Delhi: BahavalpurHouse. la\ atRamnagar. Kolkata:SeagullBooks. \ Asian Folklore Studies42, 1:45–62. Bareilly, UttarPradesh: \m Ra\maya \n∫.

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