INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION and ADMINISTRATION Subject Code : 18BPA36S Prepared by : DR. P.MAGUDAPATHY Asst.Professor

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION AND ADMINISTRATION

Subject code : 18BPA36S

Prepared By : DR. P.MAGUDAPATHY

Asst.professor

Department : PG & Research Department of Public Administration

Contact No. : 9994672379

The content is prepared according to the text book and reference book given in the syllabus.

Year Subject Title Sub Code Sem. 2018 -19 Skill Based Subject – I: International III 18BPA36S Onwards Organization and Administration

UNIT– I: INTRODUCTION

Meaning Nature Scope of International Organization-First World War and League of Nation -II World War and Emergence of UNO.

UNIT – II: ORGANS AND SPECIALIZED AGENCIES OF UN

General Assembly – Secretariat – The Economic and Social Council – The Trusteeship Council – International court of Justice –UNESCO – UNICEF – FAO – IAFA, UNDP. International Agencies Related To Trade.

UNIT – III: INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES RELATED TO WELFARE

UNCTAD - IMF – IBRD (World Bank) – WTO.

UNIT – IV: ILO –WHO- UNHRC –Amnesty International – International Red Cross SOCIETY.

UNIT – V REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

NATO - NAM - EU -SAARC – ASEAN –BRICS

Reference Books 1. Daniel.SShever& H.FieldHavilandJr – Organising for Peace, - International Organisation in World Affairs.

2. Stephen, Good Speed – The Nature and Functions of International Organisation.

3. Paul Taylor – International Organisation in the Modern World.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION

Degree: II B.A.

Semester: III Subject Code: 18BPA36S

UNIT – I

INTRODUCTION

MEANING:

An international organization can be defined as 'an institutional agreement between members of an international system in order to achieve objectives according to systemic conditions, reflecting attributes, aspirations and concerns of its members'. International organizations generally have States as members, but often other entities can also apply for membership. They both make international law and are governed by it. Yet, the decision-making process of international organizations is often 'less a question of law than one of political judgment'.

An international organization has been defined as a forum of cooperation of sovereign states based on multilateral international organizations and comprising of a relatively stable range of participants and the fundamental features of which is the existence of permanent organs with definite competences and powers for the carrying out of common aims. The first and oldest international organization—being established employing a treaty, and creating a permanent secretariat—is the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (founded in 1815). The first general international organization— addressing a variety of issues—was the League of Nations. The United Nations followed this model after World War II.

The role of international organizations is helping to set the international agenda, mediating political bargaining, providing a place for political initiatives and acting as catalysts for the coalition- formation. They facilitate cooperation and coordination among member nations. In addition, they promote global initiatives aimed at reducing inequality like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10.

• Pitman B. Potter “the aggregate of procedure and organs for expressing the unification of nations”. • Daniel S. Cheever and H. Field Haviland “any cooperative arrangement instituted among states, usually by a basic agreement, to perform some mutually advantageous functions implemented through periodic meetings and staff activities”. • Jacob and Atherton “they have governmental function to perform, but they do not have the powers normally assumed by government”. • Wojeiech Morawiecki “a forum of cooperation of sovereign states, based on multilateral agreement and comprising of a relatively stable range of participants organs with definite competences and powers acting for the carrying out of common aims”. • S.J.R. Bilgrami “exists as an established trends ”.

NATURE:

International organization as formal institutional structures transcending national boundaries which are created by multilateral agreement among nation states. Their nature is to foster international cooperation in areas such as security, law, economic and. social matters, and diplomacy. Its origin is based on multilateral international agreement. The institution has a personality of its own, which is distinct from that of its individual members. It has permanent organs which carry out common aims.

It is widely believed that international organizations should be responsible for the maintenance of international peace and stability, be this economic, social or political, and that they should act in the interest of the international community. Organizations which are independent of government involvement are known as non-governmental organizations or non-government organizations, with NGO as an acronym.

NGOs are a subgroup of organizations founded by citizens, which include clubs and associations that provide services to their members and others. NGOs are usually nonprofit organizations, and many of them are active in humanitarianism or the social sciences. Surveys indicate that NGOs have a high degree of public trust, which can make them a useful proxy for the concerns of society and stakeholders

There are two principal type of international organisation: one the Inter- Governmental Organisation (IGO) or the ‘public’ variety whose members state and two, International Non- Governmental Organisation (INGO) or the ‘private’ variety whose member are private individuals and groups. In 1997-98 there were around 350 IGOs and over 5000 INGOs which followed the conventional criteria governing such organisation. There are some features common to both. Membership is voluntary. The organisations meet at more or less regular intervals; they have specified procedures for arriving at decisions; they usually have a permanent secretariat or headquarters staff though as Oran R. Young points out, not even IGOs enjoy “direct access to many of the material resource normally available to states”.

An international institution has a personality of its own as distinct from its individual members. As compared to the will of its members the organisation is expected to exhibited autonomy of will. More than 95 percent of trans- national organisation at present are non-governmental. However the remaining four-five percent are more important by the fact of their members being states. The most prominent of IGOs is the United Nation, while two well-known NGOs are the International Red Cross and Amnesty International.

The INGOs also differ widely from one another. Their number and diversity renders it even more difficult to characterise and classify them. In 1997 the Union of International Association categories 10 percent of some 5000 INGOs as universal membership organisation. The remaining 90 percent were inter-continental or regional in their membership. Functionally, the INGOs cover a vast variety of fields, in fact every area of modern political, social and economic activity in an increasingly borderless globalised world; their areas of work range from environment to health care and theology, ethics, human rights,security and law.

No single principle can thus be brought in use to classify international organisation beyond the broad categorisation into governmental and non- governmental. Function overlap, and membership overlap (states and individual are member of more than one organisation).

SCOPE:

We should mention the following characteristic features of international organizations: they are in permanent cooperation with the states, based on their association; they are established in accordance with international law and based on international treaties; achieving cooperation in specific fields. There are two types of international organizations, first is the international governmental organizations (IGOs) and international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs). In recent years, multinational corporations (MNCs) have also had a significant impact on the international system.

The ﬁrst and oldest international organization—being established employing a treaty, and creating a permanent secretariat—is the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (founded in 1815). The ﬁrst general international organization—addressing a variety of issues—was the League of Nations. The United Nations followed this model after World War II.

If there is conflit there is generally an attempt to resolve it as well. If two parties to conflict are unable to an amicable solution, it is not unusual for third party to adujudicate. There are negotiation, conferences and finally treaties for settlement of disputes. Self – interest also leads human beings and nations towards cooperation, and again convention and treaties are formulated to govern that cooperation. As mentioned earlier, such negotiation, diplomatic mission and treaties are not new: inter-state relation of some sort existed in many parts of the world even in the ancient past; there were contacts between China, India, Mesopotamia and Egypt.

FIRST WORLD WAR:

World War I was fought between the Allied Powers and the Central Powers. The main members of the Allied Powers were France, Russia, and Britain. The United Stated also fought on the side of the Allies after 1917. The main members of the Central Powers were Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.

The majority of the fighting took plan in Europe along two fronts: the western front and the eastern front. The western front was a long line of trenches that ran from coast of Belgium to Switzerland. A lot of the fighting along this front took place in France and Belgium. The eastern front was between Germany, AustriaHungary, and Bulgaria on one side and Russia and Romania on the other.

Although, there were number of causes for the war, the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the main catalyst for starting the war. After the assassination, Austria declared war on Serbia. Then Russia prepared to defend its ally Serbia. Next, Germany declared war on Russia to invaded Belgium to get to France which caused Britain to declare war on Germany. This all happened in just a few days.

The fighting ended on November 11, 1918 when a general armistice was agreed to by both sides. The war officially ended between Germany and the Allies with the singing of the Treaty of Versailles. it led to the mobilisation of more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, making it one of the largest wars in history. It is also one of the deadliest conflicts in history, with an estimated 9 million combatant deaths and 13 million civilian deaths as a direct result of the war, while resulting genocides and the related 1918 Spanish flu pandemic caused another 17–100 million deaths worldwide, including an estimated 2.64 million Spanish flu deaths in Europe and as many as 675,000 Spanish flu deaths in the United States. 15 August 1917: Peace offer by the Pope, No annexations No indemnities, except to compensate for severe war damage in Belgium and parts of France and of Serbia A solution to the problems of AlsaceLorraine, Trentino and Trieste Restoration of the Kingdom of Poland Germany to pull out of Belgium and France Germany's overseas colonies to be returned to Germany General disarmament A Supreme Court of arbitration to settle future disputes between nations The freedom of the seas Abolish all retaliatory economic conﬂicts No point in ordering reparations, because so much damage had been caused to all belligerents Entry of the United States At the outbreak of the war, the United States pursued a policy of nonintervention, avoiding conﬂict while trying to broker a peace.

When the German Uboat U-20 sank the British liner RMS Lusitania on 7 May 1915 with 128 Americans among the dead, President Woodrow Wilson insisted that America is "too proud to ﬁght" but demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied. Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. However, he also repeatedly warned that the United States would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law. Former president Theodore Roosevelt denounced German acts as "piracy".Wilson was narrowly re-elected in 1916 after campaigning with the slogan "he kept us out of war"

In January 1917, Germany decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare, in the hopes of starving Britain into surrender. Germany did this realising it would mean American entry. The German Foreign Minister, in the Zimmermann Telegram, invited Mexico to join the war as Germany's ally against the United States. In return, the Germans would ﬁnance Mexico's war and help it recover the territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The United Kingdom intercepted the message and presented it President Wilson before Congress, announcing the break in oﬃcial relations with Germany on 3 February 1917 to the US embassy in the UK. From there it made its way to President Wilson who released the Zimmermann note to the public, and Americans saw it as casus belli. Wilson called on anti-war elements to end all wars, by winning this one and eliminating militarism from the globe. He argued that the war was so important that the US had to have a voice in the peace conference. After the sinking of seven US merchant ships by submarines and the publication of the Zimmermann telegram, Wilson called for war on Germany on 2 April 1917, which the US Congress declared 4 days later.

The United States was never formally a member of the Allies but became a selfstyled "Associated Power". The United States had a small army, but, after the passage of the Selective Service Act, it drafted 2.8 million men and, by summer 1918, was sending 10,000 fresh soldiers to France every day. In 1917, the US Congress granted US citizenship to Puerto Ricans to allow them to be drafted to participate in World War I, as part of the Jones–Shafroth Act. German General Staff assumptions that it would be able to defeat the British and French forces before American troops reinforced them were proven incorrect.

The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland, and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of US Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted American units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up American units to be used as ﬁller material. As an exception, he did allow African-American combat regiments to be used in French divisions. The Harlem Hellﬁghters fought as part of the French 16th Division, and earned a unit Croix de Guerre for their actions at Château-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Sechault. AEF doctrine called for the use of frontal assaults, which had long since been discarded by British Empire and French commanders due to the large loss of life that resulted.

A Supreme War Council of Allied forces was created at the Doullens Conference on 5 November 1917. General Foch was appointed as supreme commander of the Allied forces. Haig, Petain, and Pershing retained tactical control of their respective armies; Foch assumed a co-ordinating rather than a directing role, and the British, French, and US commands operated largely independently. General Foch pressed to use the arriving American troops as individual replacements, whereas Pershing still sought to ﬁeld American units as an independent force. These units were assigned to the depleted French and British Empire commands on 28 March 1918.

The Aftermath of World War I saw drastic political, cultural, economic, and social change across Eurasia, Africa, and even in areas outside those that were directly involved. Four empires collapsed due to the war, old countries were abolished, new ones were formed, boundaries were redrawn, international organizations were established, and many new and old ideologies took a firm hold in people's minds. World War I also had the effect of bringing political transformation to most of the principal parties involved in the conflict, transforming them into electoral democracies by bringing near-universal suffrage for the first time in history, as in Germany (1919 German federal election), Great Britain (1918 United Kingdom general election), and Turkey (1923 Turkish general election).

LEAGUE OF NATIONS:

The League of Nations was an international diplomatic group developed after World War I as a way to solve disputes between countries. A precursor to the United Nations, the League achieved some victories. The League of Nations has its origins in the Fourteen Points speech of President Woodrow Wilson, a presentation given in January 1918 outlining of his ideas for peace. By December of the same year, Wilson left for Paris to transform his 14 Points into what would become the Treaty of Versailles. In 1919 the structure and process of the League were laid out in a covenant developed by all the countries taking part in the Paris Peace Conference. The League began organizational work in 1919, spending its first 10 months with a headquarters in London before moving to Geneva. When World War II broke out, most members of the League were not involved and claimed neutrality.

In 1940, League members Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands and France all fell to Hitler. Switzerland became nervous about hosting an organization perceived as an Allied one, and the League began to dismantle its offices. Soon the Allies endorsed the idea of the United Nations, which held its first planning conference in San Francisco in 1944, effectively ending any need for the League of Nations to make a post-war return.

World War I was a significant turning point in the political, cultural, economic, and social climate of the world. The war and its immediate aftermath sparked numerous revolutions and uprisings. The Big Four (Britain, France, the United States, and Italy) imposed their terms on the defeated powers in a series of treaties agreed at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, the most well known being the German peace treaty: the Treaty of Versailles. Ultimately, as a result of the war, the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian Empires ceased to exist, and numerous new states were created from their remains. However, despite the conclusive Allied victory (and the creation of the

League of Nations during the Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Other issues in this and related treaties included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global United Nations. The headquarters were based from 1 November 1920 in the Palais Wilson in Geneva, Switzerland, and from 17 February 1936 in the purpose built Palace of Nations also in Geneva. health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe. The Covenant of the League of Nations was signed on 28 June 1919 as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, and it became effective together with the rest of the Treaty on 10 January 1920. The first meeting of the Council of the League took place on 16 January 1920, and the first meeting of Assembly of the League took place on 15 November 1920. In 1919 U.S. president Woodrow Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role as the leading architect of the League.

The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious First World War Allies (France, the United Kingdom, Italy and Japan were the permanent members of the Executive Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out." At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. The credibility of the organization was weakened by the fact that the United States never joined the League and the Soviet Union joined late and was soon expelled after invading Finland. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain and others. The onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it after the end of the Second World War and inherited several agencies and organisations founded by the League.

At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Wilson, Cecil and Smuts all put forward their draft proposals. After lengthy negotiations between the delegates, the Hurst–Miller draft was finally produced as a basis for the Covenant.[45] After more negotiation and compromise, the delegates finally approved of the proposal to create the League of Nations (French:The first meeting of the Council of the League of Nations took place on 16 January 1920 in the Salle de l'Horloge at the Quai d'Orsay in Paris The first meeting of the Assembly of the League of Nations took place on 15 November 1920 at the Salle de la Réformation in Geneva Société des Nations, German: Völkerbund) on 25 January 1919. The final Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles.

On 28 June 1919, 44 states signed the Covenant, including 31 states which had taken part in the war on the side of the Triple Entente or joined it during the conflict.French women's rights advocates invited international feminists to participate in a parallel conference to the Paris Conference in hopes that they could gain permission to participate in the official conference. The Inter-Allied Women's Conference asked to be allowed to submit suggestions to the peace negotiations and commissions and were granted the right to sit on commissions dealing specifically with women and children. Though they asked for enfranchisement and full legal protection under the law equal with men, those rights were ignored. Women won the right to serve in all capacities, including as staff or delegates in the League of Nations organization. They also won a declaration that member nations should prevent trafficking of women and children and should equally support humane conditions for children, women and men labourers.

At the Zürich Peace Conference held between 17–19 May 1919, the women of the WILPF condemned the terms of the Treaty of Versailles for both its punitive measures, as well as its failure to provide for condemnation of violence and exclusion of women from civil and political participation. Upon reading the Rules of Procedure for the League of Nations, Catherine Marshall, a British suffragist, discovered that the guidelines were completely undemocratic and they were modiﬁed based on her suggestion.

The League would be made up of a General Assembly (representing all member states), an Executive Council (with membership limited to major powers), and a permanent secretariat. Member states were expected to "respect and preserve as against external aggression" the territorial integrity of other members and to disarm "to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety." All states were required to submit complaints for arbitration or judicial inquiry before going to war. The Executive Council would create a Permanent Court of International Justice to make judgements on the disputes.

Despite Wilson's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in October 1919, the United States never joined. Senate Republicans led by Henry Cabot Lodge wanted a League with the reservation that only Congress could take the U.S. into war. Lodge gained a majority.

In 1924, the headquarters of the League was named "Palais Wilson", after former US President Woodrow Wilson, who was credited in the memorial outside the building as the "Founder of the League of Nations"of Senators. Wilson refused to allow a compromise and the needed 2/3 majority was lacking.

The League held its first council meeting in Paris on 16 January 1920, six days after the Versailles Treaty and the Covenant of the League of Nations came into force. On 1 November 1920, the headquarters of the League was moved from London to Geneva, where the first General Assembly was held on 15 November 1920. The Palais Wilson on Geneva's western lakeshore, named after US President Woodrow Wilson in recognition of his efforts towards the establishment of the League, was the League's first permanent home.

SECOND WORLD WAR:

World War II, also called Second World War, was a conflict that involved virtually every part of the world during the years 1939–45. It involved Axis powers -Germany, Italy, and Japan and the Allies - France, Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and, to a lesser extent, China. It was the biggest conflict in history that had lasted almost six years. Nearly some 100 million people had been militarized, and 50 million had been killed, around 3% of the world's population.

The major causes of World War II were numerous. They include the impact of the Treaty of Versailles following WWI, the worldwide economic depression, failure of appeasement, the rise of militarism in Germany and Japan, and the failure of the League of Nations. The League of Nations was a good idea, but ultimately a failure, as not all countries joined the league. Also, the League had no army. The worldwide economic depression of the 1930s took its toll in different ways in Europe and Asia. Benito Mussolini established the first Fascist, European dictatorship during the interwar period in Italy in 1922.

Adolf Hitler, the Leader of the German National Socialist (Nazi) party, preached a racist brand of fascism. Hitler openly denounced the Treaty of Versailles and began secretly building up Germany’s army and weapons. However, the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 and subsequently two days later, Britain and France declared war on Germany, this marked the beginning of World War II. The Western Europe was very quiet during the first few months of the war. Further, Russia followed Germany into Poland in September and Poland was carved up between the two invaders before the end of the year.

The Japanese, tired of American trade embargoes, mounted a surprise attack on the US Navy base of Pearl Harbor, in Hawaii, on 7 December 1941. Through the Battle of Midway 1942, the US entered World War II. In this battle, US sea-based aircraft destroyed four Japanese carriers and a cruiser, marking the turning point in World War II.

Plans were being prepared for an Allied invasion of Japan, but fears of fierce resistance and massive casualties prompted Harry Truman - the new American president to sanction the use of an atomic bomb against Japan. Such bombs had been in development since 1942, and on 6 August 1945 one of them was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Three days later another was dropped on Nagasaki. No country could withstand such attacks, and the Japanese surrendered on 14 August.

With the surrender of Japan, World War II was finally over. One of the momentous results of the war was the birth of the United Nations Organization. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, with the invasion of Poland by Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom on the 3rd. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan, along with other countries later on. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours: Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. Following the onset of campaigns in North Africa and East Africa, and the fall of France in mid-1940, the war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the British Empire, with war in the Balkans, the aerial Battle of Britain, the Blitz, and the Battle of the Atlantic.

On 22 June 1941, Germany led the European Axis powers in an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front, the largest land theatre of war in history and trapping the Axis, crucially the German Wehrmacht, in a war of attrition.

Japan, which aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific, was at war with the Republic of China by 1937. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific including an attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor. Following a US declaration of war against Japan, which followed one from the UK, the European Axis powers declared war on the United States in solidarity with their ally. Japan soon captured much of the Western Pacific, but its advances were halted in 1942 after losing the critical Battle of Midway; later, Germany and Italy were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasions of Sicily and the Italian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis its initiative and forced it into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained its territorial losses and turned towards Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key Western Pacific islands.

The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories, and the invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, the suicide of Adolf Hitler and the German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender on its terms, the United States dropped the first atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima, on 6 August 6, 1945, and Nagasaki, on 9 August. Faced with an imminent invasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of additional atomic bombings, and the Soviet entry into the war against Japan and its invasion of Manchuria on 9 August, Japan announced its intention to surrender on 15 August 1945, cementing total victory in Asia for the Allies.

In the wake of the war, Germany and Japan were occupied, and war crimes tribunals were conducted against German and Japanese leaders. Despite their well documented war crimes, mainly perpetrated in Greece and Yugoslavia, Italian leaders and generals were often pardoned, thanks to diplomatic activities.

On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false ﬂag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. The ﬁrst German attack of the war came against the Polish defenses at Westerplatte. The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, France and Britain declared war on Germany, followed by Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Canada. The alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French border crossing into Poland, 1 September 1939 probe into the Saarland. The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and the war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic.

On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw. The Polish counter offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outﬂanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw.

On 17 September 1939, after signing a cease-ﬁre with Japan, the Soviet Union invaded Eastern Poland under a pretext that the Polish state had ostensibly ceased to exist. On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. A signiﬁcant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war.

Germany annexed the western and occupied the central part of Poland, and the Soviet Union annexed its eastern part; small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected, and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. The Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries—Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, Finnish machine gun nest aimed at Soviet Red Army positions during the Winter War, February 1940which were in the Soviet "sphere of inﬂuence" under the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact—to sign "mutual assistance pacts" that stipulated stationing Soviet troops in these countries. Soon after, signiﬁcant Soviet military contingents were moved there. Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, and the Soviet Union was expelled from the League of Nations. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success was modest, and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 with minimal Finnish concessions.

In June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the disputed Romanian regions of Bessarabia, northern Bukovina and Hertza. Meanwhile, Nazi-Soviet political rapprochement and economic cooperation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war.

The aftermath of World War II was the beginning of a new era for all countries involved, defined by the decline of all European colonial empires and simultaneous rise of two superpowers: the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (USA). Allies during World War II, the US and the USSR became competitors on the world stage and engaged in the Cold War, so called because it never resulted in overt, declared total war between the two powers but was instead characterized by espionage, political subversion and proxy wars. Western Europe and Japan were rebuilt through the American Marshall Plan whereas Central and Eastern Europe fell under the Soviet sphere of influence and eventually behind an "Iron Curtain". Europe was divided into a US-led Western Bloc and a Soviet-led Eastern Bloc. Internationally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through the Non-Aligned Movement. The War also saw a nuclear arms race between the two superpowers; part of the reason that the Cold War never became a "hot" war was that the Soviet Union and the United States had nuclear deterrents against each other, leading to a mutually assured destruction standoff.

As a consequence of the war, the Allies created the United Nations, an organization for international cooperation and diplomacy, similar to the League of Nations. Members of the United Nations agreed to outlaw wars of aggression in an attempt to avoid a third world war. The devastated great powers of Western Europe formed the European Coal and Steel Community, which later evolved into the European Economic Community and ultimately into the current European Union. This effort primarily began as an attempt to avoid another war between Germany and France by economic cooperation and integration, and a common market for important natural resources.

The end of the war also increased the rate of decolonization from the great powers with independence being granted to India (from the United Kingdom), Indonesia (from the Netherlands), the Philippines (from the US) and a number of Arab nations, primarily from specific rights which had been granted to great powers from League of Nations Mandates in the post World War I-era but often having existed de facto well before this time. Independence for the nations of Sub-Saharan Africa came more slowly.

The aftermath of World War II also saw the rise of communist influence in Southeast Asia, with the People's Republic of China, as the Chinese Communist Party emerged victorious from the Chinese Civil War in 1949.

EMERGENCE OF UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION (UNO)

The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945 after the Second World War by 51 countries committed to maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations and promoting social progress, better living standards and human rights.

The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter had been ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and by a majority of other signatories. United Nations Day is celebrated on 24 October each year.

United Nations involved in maintaining international peace and security; Develop friendly relations among nations; Achieve international cooperation in solving international problems; and be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends. The name “ United Nation” coined by united States President Franklin D. Rooselvelt was first used in the Declaration by united Nation of 1 January 1942, during the Second world war when representative of 26 nation pledged their government to continue fighting together against the axis power.

In 1945 representative of 50 countries met in San Francisco at the United Nation conference on International Organisation to draw up the United Nation Charter. Those delegates deliberated on the basis of proposal worked out by the representative of China, the soviet union the united kingdom and the united states at Dumbarton Oaks united states in August- October 1944.The charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the representative of the 50 countries. Poland, which was not represented at the conference signed it later and became one of the original 51 member states. In the century prior to the UN's creation, several international organizations such as the International Committee of the Red Cross were formed to ensure protection and assistance for victims of armed conﬂict and strife.

In 1914, a political assassination in Sarajevo set off a chain of events that led to the outbreak of World War I. As more and more young men were sent down into the trenches, inﬂuential voices in Britain and the United States began calling for the establishment of a permanent international body to maintain peace in the postwar world. President Woodrow Wilson became a vocal advocate of this concept, and in 1918 he included a sketch of the international body in his Fourteen Points to end the war.

In November 1918, the Central Powers agreed to an armistice to halt the killing in World War I. Two months later, the Allies met to hammer out formal peace terms at the Paris Peace Conference. The League of Nations was approved, and in the summer of 1919 Wilson presented the Treaty of Versailles and the Covenant of the League of Nations to the US Senate which refused to consent to the ratiﬁcation. On 10 January 1920, the League of Nations formally came into being when the Covenant of the League of Nations, ratiﬁed by 42 nations in 1919, took effect. Although the United States never joined the League, the country did support its economic and social missions through the work of private philanthropies and by sending representatives to committees.

After some successes and some failures during the 1920s, the League proved ineffective in the 1930s. It failed to act against the Japanese invasion of Manchuria as in February 1933. Forty nations voted for Japan to withdraw from Manchuria but Japan voted against it and walked out of the League instead of withdrawing from Manchuria. It also failed against the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, despite trying to talk to Benito Mussolini, but he used the time to send an army to Africa. The League had a plan for Mussolini to just take a part of Ethiopia, but he ignored the League and invaded Ethiopia. The League tried putting sanctions on Italy, but Italy had already conquered Ethiopia and the League had failed. After Italy conquered Ethiopia, Italy and other nations left the league. But all of them realized that it had failed and they began to re-arm as fast as possible.

During 1938, Britain and France tried negotiating directly with Hitler but this failed in 1939 when Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia. When war broke out in 1939, the League closed down and its headquarters in Geneva, which remained empty throughout the war.

The first specific step towards the establishment of the United Nations was the Inter-Allied conference that led to the Declaration of St James's Palace on 12 June 1941. By August 1941, American President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill had drafted the Atlantic Charter to define goals for the post-war world. At the subsequent meeting of the Inter- Allied Council in London on 24 September 1941, the eight governments in exile of countries under Axis occupation, 1943 sketch by Franklin Roosevelt of the UN original three branches: The Four Policemen, an executive branch, and an international assembly of forty UN member states together with the Soviet Union and representatives of the Free French Forces, unanimously adopted adherence to the common principles of policy set forth by Britain and United States.

President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill met at the White House in December 1941 for the Arcadia Conference. Roosevelt coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries. He suggested it as an alternative to "Associated Powers", which the U.S. used in World War I (the U.S. was never formally a member of the Allies of World War I but entered the war in 1917 as a self-styled "Associated Power"). The British Prime Minister accepted it, noting its use by Lord Byron in the poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. The text of the Declaration by United Nations was drafted on 29 December 1941, by Roosevelt, Churchill, and Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins. It incorporated Soviet suggestions but included no role for France. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, which Stalin approved after Roosevelt insisted.

Roosevelt's idea of the "Four Powers", referring to the four major Allied countries, the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and Republic of China, emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. On New Year's Day 1942, President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill, Maxim Litvinov, of the USSR, and T. V. Soong, of China, signed the "Declaration of The United Nations", and the next day the representatives of twenty two other nations added their signatures.

During the war, "the United Nations" became the oﬃcial term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis powers. By 1 March 1945, 21 additional states had signed the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt's envoy Wendell Willkie played a key role in promoting the idea of the United States joining the new organization, publishing One World (book) in April 1943.

In September 1943, 81 percent of Americans up from 63 percent in February - supported joining a "union of nations" after the war. The October 1943 Moscow Conference resulted in the Moscow Declarations, including the Four Power Declaration on General Security which aimed for the creation "at the earliest possible date of a general international organization". This was the ﬁrst public announcement that a new international organization was being contemplated to replace the League of Nations. The Tehran Conference followed shortly afterwards at which Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin met and discussed the idea of a post-war international organization.