The Origins of the Vietnam War from the East- and West German Perspective, 1960-1965 Steven Crawford Grundy Christ’s College, University of Cambridge April 2019 This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. i This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It is not substantially the same as any work that I have submitted, or is being concurrently submitted, for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my dissertation has already been submitted, or is being concurrently submitted, for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. This thesis is 80.000 words in length and does not exceed the prescribed word limit for the History Degree Committee. ii Acknowledgements I have, over these past four years, accumulated many outstanding debts. First and foremost, I would like to thank both the University of Cambridge and Christ’s College, not only for their offer of admission, but also for their generous scholarship and bursaries. I am likewise grateful to the History Department of the University of Cambridge, the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum, as well as the Stapley Trust for their travel grants, which helped enormously during my time in the United States. I would also like to express my appreciation to University College Cork, as well as the Institut für Zeitgeschichte, for allowing me to present a paper on my thesis and discuss myriad aspects of it with fellow historians. If I had to list the amount of staff members at archives, libraries and museums, which assisted me throughout my project, it would require several pages. Needless to say, every single one of them deserves my unreserved gratitude. I want to express a special thank you, however, to Birgit Kmezik and Ulrich Geyer at the Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes, John Wilson at the LBJ Library and Museum, as well as David Fort at the National Archives, whose unfailing support and kind assistance were simply marvellous. To go beyond the call of duty can never be taken for granted. And yet, these benevolent individuals went much further than I ever dared imagine. I am truly grateful for their guidance as well as their advice. I was moreover fortunate that, from January 2016 onwards, the German state permitted chroniclers to take pictures of archival documents. Whoever sanctioned this decision made my project much easier and far more enjoyable. Occasionally, it is the unknown, who deserve our appreciation. At the same time, I would like to voice my unreserved joy in being allowed to conduct research in all of the former GDR archives. They are, without a shadow of doubt, the greatest archives that I have ever visited. Anyone who has conducted research inside those walls will know how special they are. History is, above all, about understanding. And the GDR archives are an invaluable starting point to plunge the depths of the past. Throughout my journey, I was very fortunate to meet several participants in the Vietnam War. I would like to express my gratitude to Eckhart Bibow, David Philipp, Rolf Berthold, Kurt Schumann, Karl Lippard and Rufus Phillips for taking the time to answer my questions on the conflict’s origins and confront the historical event from their particular vantage point. I appreciate that reliving such a harrowing experience can be difficult and I am very grateful that they were more than happy to share their experiences with me, as well as debate nothing and everything. The fact that these conversations usually lasted two or three hours is testament to their kindness. iii The amount of scholars and historians who were kind enough to offer advice and suggestions are far too numerous to list. But I want to express my sincere appreciation (in no particular order) to Andy Gawthorpe, Martin Großheim, Mark Atwood Lawrence, Mark Moyar, Sergey Radchenko, Pierre Asselin, Lorenz Lüthi, Hermann Wentker, Marc Trachtenberg, Tuong Vu, Balazs Szalontai, George Herring, Edwin Moïse and Suzanne Brown-Fleming. There was no obligation to write back. They were not duty-bound to share either their pensive thoughts or declassified documents. I will always appreciate that they took seriously the ideas and queries of a young scholar, that they treated me with respect and understanding. For what it is worth: Thank you. I count myself lucky to have friends and relatives, who were willing to make sacrifices for me. I am especially indebted to Anne and Brian Grundy, Chris and Kyra Jacques-Grundy, Daniella De Franco, Tomáš Kudláč, Alan Taylor and Jennifer Grundy, Mark and Nikki Daniel, Lingyu Wu, Amena Begum, Xingyu Lan, Katharina Jochum, Stephen and Mathuros Robertson-Dunn, Diogo Guerrero, Alexander and Svetlana Schwarz, Jan-Mike Singer, Tham Nguyen, Ilaria Bernardi and Rosanne Elisabeth Hirst. All of them, in their own way, helped with my research. Furthermore, it is because of their kindness and generosity that I was able to spend so many countless hours in multi-national archives and pour over primary sources across the United States, Great Britain and continental Europe. At a time when we are witnessing the building of walls, the spread of populism and the inability to compromise in any way, shape, or form, it is lovely to know that there is still goodwill and compassion in this world. I will always be grateful that they opened a door to walk into and I hope that they know what their help means to me. Finally, I would like to dedicate this thesis to the three most important people in my life: Anne, Brian and Chris. I wish to thank them for being so patient these past years and finding strong words of encouragement when I needed them most. All four of us know that this was not an easy time for me. The situation was complicated by the fact that tragedy struck our wee family not once, but twice. I cannot describe in words how much you three mean to me and how much I treasure you. I appreciate, above all, that you understood just how much I wanted to reach the finish line. I am truly sorry that I have neglected my duties as a family member for far too long. The greatest writer in modern times once wrote that life without love is like a sunless garden. Our garden is still shining. And, whatever happens, it will shine forever. Christ’s College, Cambridge April 2019 iv Contents Declaration ii Acknowledgements iii Abbreviations vi Introduction 1 Chapter 1, Setting the Stage: 1960 12 Chapter 2, Towards Open Warfare: 1961 45 Chapter 3, The Break-up of the Post-War Order: 1962 76 Chapter 4, The New Global Order: 1963 117 Chapter 5, Inside the Polycentric World: January–October 1964 159 Chapter 6, Choices and Escalation: October 1964–July 1965 204 Conclusion 248 Bibliography 263 v Abbreviations ADN General German News Service ARVN Army of the Republic of Vietnam CCP Chinese Communist Party CDU/CSU Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union CIA Central Intelligence Agency CPSU Communist Party of the Soviet Union DRV Democratic Republic of Vietnam FAZ Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung FRG Federal Republic of Germany GDR German Democratic Republic ICC International Control Commission JFK John Fitzgerald Kennedy LBJ Lyndon Baines Johnson MAAG Military Assistance Advisory Group MfAA Ministry for Foreign Affairs NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization NLF National Liberation Front of South Vietnam NSDAP The National Socialist German Workers' Party PLA Party of Labour of Albania PRC People’s Republic of China PTBT Partial Test-Ban Treaty RVN Republic of Vietnam SEATO Southeast Asia Treaty Organization SED Socialist Unity Party UN United Nations U.S. The United States of America VWP Vietnamese Workers’ Party USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics vi We live in a wondrous time, in which the strong is weak because of his scruples and the weak grows strong because of his audacity. – Otto von Bismarck vii Introduction On 30 November 1977, the leader of the German Democratic Republic and General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party, Erich Honecker, boarded an Interflug aircraft to embark upon his tour of the Far East. His first port of call was the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Neues Deutschland, the party press organ, proudly informed its readers that Hanoi had put on a “festive dress” for the occasion. An atmosphere of friendship and camaraderie was palpable. All the way from Gia-Lam Airport to the presidential palace, the streets were draped with multi- coloured flags and banners. National newspapers cited Honecker’s mantra “Solidarity with Vietnam - Now More Than Ever!” and reminded readers of East Berlin’s fraternal assistance during the American War.1 After a brief layover in Tashkent, the GDR delegation landed in Hanoi the next day. Waiting for his guests, flanked by several central committee members, was Le Duan, the principal figure of the newly-created Vietnamese nation. Embraces were exchanged and, after the traditional military ceremony, both statesmen made their way to the presidential palace. Looking out of the motorcade, Honecker saw tens of thousands of beaming Hanoians waving enthusiastically back at him. The convoy drove over the historic Long-Bien Bridge, a symbol of Vietnamese resilience; past the “hospital of GDR-Vietnamese friendship,” built by German engineers; and, finally, reaching Ba-Dinh Square, the spot where Ho Chi Minh had proclaimed national independence thirty-two years before.