Czechoslovakia: the Problem of Soviet Control

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Czechoslovakia: the Problem of Soviet Control APPROVED ,*OR RELEASE DATE: MAY toot bw DIRECTORATE OF INTELLIGENCE Intelligence Memorandum Czechoslovakia: The Problem of Soviet Control L (Refcreme Title: ESAU XLIV) \ Topa ecret W 16 Januarv 1970 Backgrou\ Use Only I .. t CZECHOSLOVAKIA: THE PROEiLEM OF SOVIET CONTROL Table of Contents Page Summary ...................... 1 Mechanisms and Prerequisites ............ 1 January to August 1968: The Dismantling of Soviet Control ..................5 20-26 August: Military Intervention and Political Compromise ...............18 September 1968-March 1969: Creating the Prerequisites ..................25 April-September 1'969: Control Restored ......37 Dramatis Personae .................A-1 CZECHOSLOVAKIA: THE PROBLEM OF SOVIET CONTROL-- - MEMORANDUM FOR RECIPIENTS This Intelligence Re'port analyzes why the Soviet Union lost political control in Czechoslovakia and how that control was restored during 1968 and 1969. All the weapons in the Soviet arsenal for exercising political control over a brother socialist state were employed at one time or another. The Soviet leadership emerges from the story as fallible in its tactics but certain in its objectives and unrelenting in pursuit of them. Moscow paid a political price in bringing Prague again to heel, but the price was almost certainly less than Moscow was prepared to pay. Analysts from the Office of Strategic Research, the Office of Current Intelligence, and the Central w Reference Service contributed to the study and the text has been coordinated with those components. The Sov/Eur Staff of the Office of National Estimates also reviewed the study and is in general agreement with it. The research analyst in charge was James Ogle. hn Kerry Ki W TOP\ CRET~ SUMMARY The story of Czechoslovakia in 1968 can be told from many perspectives~asit reflects on Soviet Politburo decision making and reaction to crisis, for the significance of. the Czechoslovak experiment for world communism, or as an example of "peacefulw military conquest. This report concentrates on the loss and restoration of Soviet control. The Soviet Union's extensive political influence over neighbors with a common ideology cannot be ignored, but this report emphasizes political control in the specific and concrete sense, and the military and political pre- requisites for it. Analysis of the loss and restoration of control is facilitated by distinguishing between mechani$ms of and prerequisites for control. The mechanisms of Soviet con- trol in Eastern European nations include: the presence of advisers, especially in the ministries of interior and national defense; the special role of the Soviet Ambassador who, as representative of the Soviet Politburo, maintains daily contact with the satellite party leader ; the exchange of delegations at all levels; and, at the top, for matters of greatest importance or in case other mechanisms fail, direct com- munication, even hard-nosed confrontation, between the General Secretary of the CPSU and the First Secretary of the satellite party. The Soviets demand a say in major policy decisions and in the appointment of top party and government leaders. If any of the actions of the satellite endager party rule or satellite ties to the Soviet Union, then the Soviets can intensify political, economic, and military pressure-- up to and including military intervention, The resort to such pressure implies a failure of the control mechanisms. In fact, the mechanisms fail if the prerequisites are missing. The major prerequisites are: the Communist Party must hold a monopoly of power ; Soviet willingness to intervene militarily must be credible; the local Party must be alienated from the people; and, the local leadership must be capable of fragmenta- tion. For almost 20 years, Czechoslovakia was a model satellite. However, increasingly dangerous anomalies had begun to weaken Soviet control~therewere no Soviet troops stationed in the country; the Slovak drive for autonomy subjected the Czechoslovak party to unusual stress; Western and democratic traditions retained their vitality; and there was increasing antagonism between the long-time Czech ¥à ruler, Novotny, and the Brezhnev leaderskip. When liberals and Slovaks combined to elect Dubcek parry first secretary in January 1968, he found himself in a precarious domestic political position and without a program or a personal following among the leaders. He turned j or support to the liberals who were then formulating and auvocating popular reform programs. Finding support among !.he liberals and from the populace, he began to bypass mechanisms of Soviet control and instituted reforms which furlher threatened the prerequisites for Soviet control. Soviet maneuvering in the first half of 1968 com- pleted the destruction of the four necessary prerequisites. At the end of March 1968, apparently in response to East German and Polish alarm. the Soviet and IHoc leaders (minus Romania) met to caution the Czechoslovaks-! on their reforms. Consideration of intensified military pressure probably dates from that period; modalities for creating a Soviet ii- sTOP SE ET military presence in Czechoslovakia, without outright invasion, were drawn up by the end of April. In early May, there were indications that the Soviets had hoped for a conservative takeover in Czechoslovakia, but their effort to encourage this or to pressure Dubcek only increased the popularity of the Czechoslovak leadership and elicited support! from liberals and reform-minded Communists around the world. That the Soviet tactics had failed became obvious by mid-May, and at the end of the month an exchange of high-level delegations arranged for Warsaw Pact maneuvers within Czechoslovakia. The "Warsaw Letterw of mid-July made it a matter of public record that Czechoslovakia was the most urgent problem in Soviet policy, a problem which was polarizing the international Communist movement into supporters of the Czechoslovak experiment and supporters of Soviet hegemony. A final SOViet effort to coerce or split the Czechoslovak party and leadership and to recruit pro-Soviet leaders among them was made at Cierna at the end of July. This effort only united them more firmly. The events of the first weeks of August proved that the Czechoslovak leaders would not or could not live up to the Soviet demands put on record at the Bratislava meeting of Bloc leaders (minus Romania) immediately after the Cierna meeting. On the night of 20a21 August 1968, the Warsaw Pact forces which had been building up on the borders for months swiftly and efficiently occupied the country. All lesser pressures having failed, the Soviet Politburo employed the ultima.te argument-military intervention. No longer would the Czechoslovak leaders have reason to doubt Soviet willingness to use force. Although some Czechoslovak officials in the security apparatus and in control of mass media attempted to facili- tate the Soviet occupation, it appears that the Soviets did not have an alternate leadership ready to install. The Soviets may have hoped that the Czechoslovak Presidium would bow to the new reality and oust Dubcek. This did not happen. The Soviets then turned to Czechoslovak President Svoboda, a ltHero of the Soviet Union," to sanction a lrevolutionaryll government -a -la Hungary. Svoboda refused. Soviet and Czechoslovak conservatives then attempted by a rump meeting of the old Central Commiltee to codify the existing situation and head off the E?.traordinary 14th Congress being called for by clandestine radios. The liberals' control of the communications media frustrated this attempt also. The 14th Congress confirmed Dubcek's right to negotiate with the Soviets. Svoboda, in Moscow with a delegation of self-appointed conservatives, demanded and won reinstatement of the old leadership, then in Soviet custody. Faced by a tactical political defeat, the Soviets agreed to the reinstatement of Dubcet.. This and the Soviet promise not to interfere in Czechoslovak internal affairs (a promise kept to the extent of withdrawing most of the Soviet personnel who had occupied key offices at the time of the invasion) were the main Czechoslovak achievements in the negotiations at the end of August. The Soviet leaders won the nullification of the 14th Congress, amnesty fur conservatives, and approval of the occupation until "normalization" was completed. The Soviet achievements created the framework within which thev were eventually able to restore the prerequisites for control. It took seven months to do so, but the Soviets;, whose invasion , could have drowned Czechoslovak liberalism in blood, paid ' less than the price they were prepared to pay. The Soviet moves were studied rind cautiously executed. Despite their pledges of non-interferc'nce, the Soviets immediately began to restore the prerogatives of KGB advisers in the Czechoslovak Ministry of Interior, and they insisted on resurrecting the Sov~etright of vet0 over personnel appointments. Politiciil power centers outside the communist party, the 'fclut~sfland the reborn "bourgeois" parties, were outlawed by the new Minister of Interior. Beginning with the month-long stay of First deputy Foreign Minister Kuznetsov in September, high-level Soviet delegations scouted for and intensively cultivated Czechoslovak leaders who would be responsive to Soviet control. Leading conservatives moved to occupy the middle ground while Soviet-inspired meetings of ultra-conservatives, with whom the Soviets probably had no intention of collab- orating, began a process of polarization of the party. This polarization
Loading...
Loading...
Loading...
Loading...
Loading...

61 pages remaining, click to load more.

Recommended publications
  • Florida Best and Brightest Scholarship ACT Information on ACT Percentile
    Florida Best & Brightest Scholarship ACT Information on ACT Percentile Rank In light of the recent Florida legislation related to Florida teacher scores on The ACT, in order to determine whether a Florida teacher scored “at or above the 80th percentile on The ACT based upon the percentile ranks in effect when the teacher took the assessment”, please refer to the following summary. 1. The best evidence is the original student score report received by the teacher 2. If a teacher needs a replacement score report, a. Those can be ordered either by contacting ACT Student Services at 319.337.1270 or by using the 2014-2015 ACT Additional Score Report (ASR) Request Form at http://www.actstudent.org/pdf/asrform.pdf . Reports for testing that occurred prior to September 2012 have a fee of $34.00 for normal processing and can be requested back to 1966. b. The percentile ranks provided on ASRs reflect current year norms, not the norms in effect at the time of testing. c. The following are the minimum composite scores that were “at or above the 80th percentile” at the time of testing based upon the best available historical norm information from ACT, Inc.’s archives. For the following test date ranges: • September, 2011 through August, 2016 : 26 • September, 1993 through August, 2011 : 25 • September, 1991 through August, 1993 : 24 • September, 1990 through August, 1991 : 25 • September, 1989 through August, 1990 : 24 • September, 1985 through August, 1989 : 25 • September, 1976 through August, 1985 : 24 • September, 1973 through August, 1976 : 25 • September, 1971 through August, 1973 : 24 • September, 1970 through August, 1971 : 25 • September, 1969 through August, 1970 : 24 • September, 1968 through August, 1969 : * • September, 1966 through August, 1968 : 25 *ACT, Inc.
    [Show full text]
  • Open Society Archives
    OSA book OSA / Publications OPEN SOCIETY ARCHIVES Open Society Archives Edited by Leszek Pudlowski and Iván Székely Published by the Open Society Archives at Central European University Budapest 1999 Copyright ©1999 by the Open Society Archives at Central European University, Budapest English Text Editor: Andy Haupert ISBN 963 85230 5 0 Design by Tamás Harsányi Printed by Gábor Rózsa Printing House, Budapest on Niveus acid-free offset printing paper of 90g/m2 produced by Neusiedler Szolnok Paper Mill, Hungary. This paper meets the requirements of ISO9706 standard. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. The coordinates of the Archives The enemy-archives (István Rév) 14 Archival parasailing (Trudy Huskamp Peterson) 20 Access to archives: a political issue (Charles Kecskeméti) 24 The Open Society Archives: a brief history (András Mink) 30 CHAPTER II. The holdings Introduction 38 http://www.osaarchivum.org/files/1999/osabook/BookText.htm[31-Jul-2009 08:07:32] OSA book COMMUNISM AND COLD WAR 39 Records of the Research Institute of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 39 • The Archives in Munich (András Mink) 39 • Archival arrangement and structure of the records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute (Leszek Pud½owski) 46 • The Information Resources Department 49 The East European Archives 49 Records of the Bulgarian Unit (Olga Zaslavskaya) 49 Records of the Czechoslovak Unit (Pavol Salamon) 51 Records of the Hungarian Unit (Csaba Szilágyi) 55 Records of the Polish Unit (Leszek Pud½owski) 58 Records of the Polish Underground Publications Unit
    [Show full text]
  • "I AM a 1968 Memphis Sanitation MAN!": Race, Masculinity, and The
    LaborHistory, Vol. 41, No. 2, 2000 ªIAMA MAN!º: Race,Masculinity, and the 1968 MemphisSanitation Strike STEVEESTES* On March 28, 1968 Martin LutherKing, Jr. directeda march ofthousands of African-American protestersdown Beale Street,one of the major commercial thoroughfares in Memphis,Tennessee. King’ splane had landedlate that morning, and thecrowd was already onthe verge ofcon¯ ict with thepolice whenhe and other members ofthe Southern Christian LeadershipConference (SCLC) took their places at thehead of the march. The marchers weredemonstrating their supportfor 1300 striking sanitation workers,many ofwhom wore placards that proclaimed, ªIAm a Man.ºAs the throng advanceddown Beale Street,some of the younger strike support- ersripped theprotest signs off the the wooden sticks that they carried. Theseyoung men,none of whomwere sanitation workers,used the sticks to smash glass storefronts onboth sidesof the street. Looting ledto violent police retaliation. Troopers lobbed tear gas into groups ofprotesters and sprayed mace at demonstratorsunlucky enough tobe in range. High above thefray in City Hall, Mayor HenryLoeb sat in his of®ce, con®dent that thestrike wasillegal, andthat law andorder wouldbe maintained in Memphis.1 This march wasthe latest engagement in a®ght that had raged in Memphissince the daysof slaveryÐ acon¯ict over African-American freedomsand civil rights. In one sense,the ª IAm aManºslogan wornby thesanitation workersrepresented a demand for recognition oftheir dignity andhumanity. This demandcaught whiteMemphians bysurprise,because they had always prided themselvesas being ªprogressiveºon racial issues.Token integration had quietly replaced public segregation in Memphisby the mid-1960s, butin the1967 mayoral elections,segregationist candidateHenry Loeb rodea waveof white backlash against racial ªmoderationºinto of®ce.
    [Show full text]
  • Pdf Icon[PDF – 369
    U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE Health Services and Mental Health Ministration Washington D.C. 20201 VITAL STATISTICS REPORT HeaZkJJzterview SurveyDaiiz VOL. 18, NO. 9 FROM THE SUPPLEMENT I DECEMBER5, 1869 NATIONAL CENTER FOR HEALTH STATISTICS Cigarette Smoking Status-June 1966, August 1967, and August 1968 For the past 3 years the National Center for former smokers among males than among females, Health Statistics has contracted with the U.S. Bureau the proportion of female former cigarette smokers of the Census to include a supplement to the Current is increasing at a faster rate than that of males. From Population Survey on smoking habits in the United June 1966 to August 1968 the proportion of male former States. The first data were collected as a supplement smokers increased by 12 percent and the proportion of to the Current population Survey of June 1966, the female former smokers increased by 22 percent. In second supplement was added to the questionnaire in addition the increase occurred primarily among males August 1967, and the third in August 1968. Similar in the age group 17-24 years while it was spread data were collected during the period July 1964-July throughout all age categories for females. 1966 as a part of the ongoing Health Interview Sur­ In 1966 an estimated 39.6 percent of the population a vey. (See “Current Estimates from the Health Inter- aged 17 years and over smoked cigarettes; in 1968 the view Survey, United States, 1967,” Vital and Health comparable percentage was 37.7, a drop of 5 percent.
    [Show full text]
  • June 17, 1968 Memorandum from P. Shelest to CPSU CC
    Digital Archive digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org International History Declassified June 17, 1968 Memorandum from P. Shelest to CPSU CC Citation: “Memorandum from P. Shelest to CPSU CC,” June 17, 1968, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, TsDAHOU, F. 1, Op. 25, Spr. 30, Ll. 15-19, original in Russian. Translated for CWIHP by Mark Kramer. https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/117293 Summary: First Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party Shelest reports on the vist of a delegation of workers from Czechoslovakia to Ukraine. There was much discussion of the ongoing Prague Spring, including criticism of the Soviet Union from some delegation members. Credits: This document was made possible with support from the Leon Levy Foundation. Original Language: Russian Contents: English Translation A delegation of workers from the ČSSR was in the city of Uzhhorod and in Kharkiv Oblast from 25 to 29 May. They were visiting our country to exchange tokens of peace and friendship in commemoration of the 23rd anniversary of the liberation of Czechoslovakia from fascist occupiers. The delegation, headed by the KSČ CC Presidium member and acting chairman of the Slovak National Council, Cde. František Barbírek, consisted of 22 representatives of different organizations and departments in Czechoslovakia. There was only one construction worker in the delegation and not a single worker from an agricultural cooperative. During their stay in Kharkiv Oblast and Uzhhorod, the delegation held discussions with officials from party and government organs, visited the museum of Soviet-Czechoslovak friendship in the village of Sokolovo, and stopped at a collective farm, a university, a tractor factory, and a school, where they had meetings and conversations with workers and saw the sights in Kharkiv and Uzhhorod.
    [Show full text]
  • Vol. 73, No. 7JULY/AUGUST 1968 Published•By Conway Hall
    Vol. 73, No. 7JULY/AUGUST 1968 CONTENTS Eurnmum..• 3 "ULYSSES": THE BOOK OF THE FILM . 5 by Ronald Mason THE PHENOMENOLOGY OF RELIGION . 8 by Dr. H. W. Turner JEREMY BENTFIAM .... 10 by Maurice Cranston, MA MAXIM GORKY•••• • 11 by Richard Clements, aRE. BOOK REVIEW: Gown. FORMutEncs. 15 by Leslie Johnson WHO SAID THAT? 15 Rum THE SECRETARY 16 TO THE EDITOR . 17 PEOPLEOUT OF 11113NEWS 19 DO SOMETHINGNICE FOR SOMEONE 19 SOUTH PLACENaws. 20 Published•by Conway Hall Humanist Centre Red Um Square, London, Wel SOUTH PLACE ETHICAL SOCIETY Omens: Secretary: Mr. H. G. Knight Hall Manager and Lettings Secretary: Miss E. Palmer Hon. Registrar: Miss E. Palmer Hon. Treasurer: Mr. W. Bynner Editor, "The Ethical Record": Miss Barbara Smoker Address: Conway Hall Humanist Centre, Red Lion Square, London, W.C.I (Tel.: CHAncery 8032) SUNDAY MORNING MEETINGS, II a.rn. (Admission free) July 7—Lord SORENSEN Ivory Towers Soprano solos: Laura Carr. July 14—J. STEWART COOK. BSc. Politics and Reality Cello and piano: Lilly Phillips and Fiona Cameron July 21—Dr. JOHN LEWIS The Students' Revolt Piano: Joyce Langley SUNDAY MORNING MEETINGS are then suspended until October 6 S.P.E.S. ANNUAL REUNION Sunday, September 29, 1968, 3 p.m. in the Large Hall at CONWAY HUMANIST CENTRE Programme of Music (3 p.m.) Speeches by leaders of Humanist organisations (3.30 P.m.) Guest of Honour: LORD WILLIS Buffet Tea (5 p.m.) Tickets free from General Secretary CONWAY DISCUSSIONS will resume on Tuesdays at 6.45 p.m. from October 1 The 78th season of SOUTH PLACE SUNDAY CONCERTS will open on October 6 at 6.30 p.m.
    [Show full text]
  • The Sino-Soviet Rift and Chinese Policy Toward Vietnam, 19641968
    KBreahooking the Ring of Encirclement Breaking the Ring of Encirclement The Sino-Soviet Rift and Chinese Policy toward Vietnam, 1964–1968 ✣ Nicholas Khoo Introduction The “secret speech” delivered by Nikita Khrushchev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), at the CPSU’s Twentieth Congress in February 1956 was viewed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) as a serious error.1 The disagreements that emerged between Moscow and Beijing on this issue ushered in an extended period in which the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the Soviet Union actively competed for inºuence both inside and outside the Communist world.2 Perhaps the most signiªcant consequence of their rivalry was the de facto termination of the Sino-Soviet alliance, a development that altered global and regional power re- lations.3 How did the failure of the Sino-Soviet alliance affect the triangular rela- tionship between the Chinese, Soviet, and Vietnamese Communist parties 1. A discussion of Mao’s immediate reaction to Khrushchev’s speech can be found in Yang Kuisong, Mao Zedong yu Mosike de enen yuanyuan (Jiangxi, China: Jiangxi renmin chubanshe, 1999), pp. 371– 400. See also, Roderick MacFarquhar, The Origins of the Cultural Revolution, Vol. 1, Contradictions among the People 1956–57 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974), pp. 39–56. For an analysis of the escalating Sino-Soviet conºict before the de facto termination of the alliance, see Donald Zagoria, The Sino-Soviet Conºict, 1956–61 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962). 2. For contemporary analysis of the escalating Sino-Soviet conºict after the de facto termination of the alliance, see Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conºict (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- versity Press, 1967), pp.
    [Show full text]
  • August, 1968 Operating Engineers, AFL-CIO
    ·Master Tech Pact Now Ratified "Serving ·the_men who move the ear!h!" \ * * * 0 ENGINEERS· 'NEWS Union Gains Top PUBLISHED TO PROMOTE THE GENERAL WELFARE OF ALL ENGINEERS AND THEIR FAMILIES • Wage Agreement GUAM, WHERE AMERICA'S DAY BEGINS HAWAII, THE 50T H STATE NORTHERN CAliFORNIA, THE GOLDEN STATE NORTHERN N EVADA, SILVER STATE UTAH. HEART OF THE ROCKIES One of the best Technical Engineer Master Agreements ever ne­ 1, ,.· gotiated went on the books this month following ratification by members of Operating Engineers Local Union No. 3, International Union of Vol. 27-No. 8 SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA ~® August, 1968 Operating Engineers, AFL-CIO. The new agreement will cover mem­ bers working in the forty-six Northern California counties and Northern Nevada. International Vice President and Local 3 Business Manager AI Clem said the new contract went into effect the 1st of August, 1968 and would expire on the 15th of June, 1971. Mr. Clem said he felt both signatories, Bay Counties Civil Engineers & Land Surveyors Associa­ tion, Inc. and the union, had worked hard to hammer out a, fair Master Agreement. "We are satisfied that this is a contract that both the union and the employer can live with," said Clem, "and our main objective now is to • advocate at every level of government and industry the need for non­ stop construction programs that will keep our .economy moving ahead and provide jobs for all our members." Local 3 President Paul Edgecombe worked diligently and on a very short deadline to gain current coverage for the city and county person­ nel working within the jurisdiction of the new technical agreement.
    [Show full text]
  • By P. E. Scbmid Goddurd Space Flight Center Greedelt, Md
    NASA TECHNICAL NOTE NASA TN 0-6822 cv N SURFACE-REFRACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS AT NASA SPACECRAFT TRACKING SITES by P. E. Scbmid Goddurd Space Flight Center Greedelt, Md. 20771 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 0 WASHINGTON, D. C. SEPTEMBER 1972 TReport No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No. NASA IY D-u&?~ 4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date Surface-Refractivity Measurements at SepLernber 19 (2 NASA Spacecraft Tracking Sites 6. Performing Organization Code 7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No. P. E. Schmid G-1052 9. Performing Organization Name and Address IO. Work Unit No. Goddard Space Flight Center - 11. Contract or Grant No. Greenbelt, Maryland 2077 1 13. Type of Report and Period Covered 12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address Technical Note National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, D.C. 20546 14. Sponsoring Agency Code IS. Supplementary Notes 16. Abstract High-accuracy spacecraft tracking requires tropospheric modeling which is generally scaled by either estimated or measured values of surface refractivity. This report summarizes the results of a worldwide surface-refractivity test conducted in 1968 in support of the Apollo program. The results are directly applicable to all NASA radio-tracking systems. I 17. Key Words (Selected by Author(r)) 18. Distribution Statement Troposphere Surface Refractivity Unclassified-Unlimited Meteorological Measurements Unclassified Unclassified 48 *For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22 151. CONTENTS Page I Abstract .................................. i I ~ INTRODUCTION .............................. 1 I CALCULATION OF SURFACE REFRACTIVITY .................. 2 I Scope of Test .............................. 2 I Mathematical Formulation of Refractivity ................... 4 SURFACE-REFRACTIVITY MEASUREMENT RESULTS .............. 5 Monthly Variations ...........................
    [Show full text]
  • Frontier Politics and Sino-Soviet Relations: a Study of Northwestern Xinjiang, 1949-1963
    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations 2017 Frontier Politics And Sino-Soviet Relations: A Study Of Northwestern Xinjiang, 1949-1963 Sheng Mao University of Pennsylvania, maoshengnju@hotmail.com Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations Part of the History Commons Recommended Citation Mao, Sheng, "Frontier Politics And Sino-Soviet Relations: A Study Of Northwestern Xinjiang, 1949-1963" (2017). Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations. 2459. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2459 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2459 For more information, please contact repository@pobox.upenn.edu. Frontier Politics And Sino-Soviet Relations: A Study Of Northwestern Xinjiang, 1949-1963 Abstract This is an ethnopolitical and diplomatic study of the Three Districts, or the former East Turkestan Republic, in China’s northwest frontier in the 1950s and 1960s. It describes how this Muslim borderland between Central Asia and China became today’s Yili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture under the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. The Three Districts had been in the Soviet sphere of influence since the 1930s and remained so even after the Chinese Communist takeover in October 1949. After the Sino- Soviet split in the late 1950s, Beijing transformed a fragile suzerainty into full sovereignty over this region: the transitional population in Xinjiang was demarcated, border defenses were established, and Soviet consulates were forced to withdraw. As a result, the Three Districts changed from a Soviet frontier to a Chinese one, and Xinjiang’s outward focus moved from Soviet Central Asia to China proper. The largely peaceful integration of Xinjiang into PRC China stands in stark contrast to what occurred in Outer Mongolia and Tibet.
    [Show full text]
  • SEA/RC22/2 Paee 292 Annex 10
    SEA/RC22/2 Paee 292 Annex 10 Table 1. Fellcwships Auardcd by thc WHO Scuth-East Asia Rcgicn, by Source of Punds and Country of migin of the Fellow (1August 1968 to 1 AUgUSt 1969)' l~hefigures do not include the extensions of previous years' fellowships, and are broken up into two parts: for the periods 1 August to 31 December 1968 and 1 January to 31 July 1969. Table 2. Fellowships Awarded by the WHO South-Esst Asia Rcaion by Subject of Study and Country of Origin of the Fell:wl (IAwust 1968 - 1 Awust 1969) SEA/RC22/2 Page 294 Amex 10 Table 2 (continued) - - C m (trow C1 m Subject 111 r( m m NO. 2 dddd 5. Other Health Services Mental health 1 - - 3 - - - - - 4 Health education 1 - - 3 - - 1 2 1 8 Industrial hygiene - - 2 - - - - - - 2 Nutrition 1 3 - 1 - - 1511 Health statistios (imluding medical codins) 9 - 6 3 6 - 2 - - 26 Dental health - 1 1 2 - - 1 - 2 7 Physiotherapy - - - - - - 1 - - 1 Control of pharmaceu- tical and biological preparations - - - 3 - - 2 - 1 6 Ocoupational dermatology - - - - - - 1 - - 1 Total 12 1 12 14 7 - 8 3 9 66 6. ~unicableDiseases and Laboratory Malaria - - 4 5 - 1 - - - 10 Venereal diseases and treponematoses - - 1 - - - - - - 1 Tuberculosis - - - - 1 - 1 - 5 7 Epidemiology 1 - - 1 1 - 5 2 - 10 Tropical medicine 1 1 - - - - - - - 2 Fllariaais control - - 1 - 1 - - - - 2 Leprosy control - 1 - - 1 - - 1 1 4 Epidemiology of plague - - - - 1 - - 1 2 Vector-borne diseases - - - - - . - - 1 1 Trachoma control - 3 - - - - - - - 3 Iabcratory 3 4 - 4 - - 3 2 1 17 Virology - - - 2 - - - - - 2 Vaccine production - 4 - 15.
    [Show full text]
  • Weather Note
    April 1971 309 UDC 551.526.6: 551.515.23(263)"1966.08+1968.08" WEATHER NOTE An Apparent Relationship Between the Sea-Surface Temperature of the Tropical Atlantic and the Development of African Disturbances Into Tropical Storms TOBY N. CARLSON National Hurricane Research Laboratory, Environmental Research Laboratories, NOAA, Miami, Fla. ABSTRACT An analysis of sea-surface temperatures over the tropical Atlantic for the past 5 yr shows a correlation between the number of tropical storms formed between July 10 and September 20 and the ocean temperatures over a wide area centered near 10"N and 35OW. In a recent article by Carlson (1969) it was suggested subsequent tabulations will refer primarily to an area that the frequency of tropical storm formation from box located between 10" and 20"N and between 30" and African disturbances is dependent upon the sea-surface 40"W. temperatures over the tropical Atlantic west of the Table 1 is a version of the sea-temperature data for African Continent. Evidence in support of this included the past five Augusts (1965-1969), showing the area a comparison of the August 1968 sea-surface temperatures average and area maximum values over this box. The over the tropical North Atlantic with those of August years of data are listed from bottom to top in the table, 1966. The earlier year was one in which several African in order of the increasing number of African disturbances disturbances developed into tropical storms, whereas 1968 to develop into tropical storms or hurricanes in the was a notably inactive hurricane season.
    [Show full text]