Report on Samoa

South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

SOUTH PACIFIC GEOSCIENCE COMMISSION (SOPAC)

NATIONAL CONSULTANT REPORT ON PROMOTION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION IN THE PACIFIC ISLANDS

REPORT ON SAMOA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

GLOSSARY ...... I EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 1 REPORT ON METHODOLOGY ...... 3 1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 4 1.1 Environmentally Sustainable Transport...... 4 1.2 Towards Achieving Environmental Sustainable Transport ...... 6 1.3 Sustainable Transport - Changing Our Way of Thinking...... 9 1.4 Global Warming, Greenhouse Gases and Pollution...... 12 1.5 The Pacific Context ...... 15 1.6 Samoa – A Background ...... 16 1.7 Previous and Current Studies on Transport in Samoa...... 19 2.0 TRANSPORT SECTOR INSTITUTIONS, POLICIES AND LEGISLATION ...... 21 2.1 The Framework...... 21 2.2 Efficient Transport Management in PICs...... 22 2.3 The Land Transport and Road Sectors in Samoa ...... 22 2.4 Ministry of Works, Transport and Infrastructure...... 23 2.5 The Infrastructure Asset Management Programme ...... 24 2.6 Continuing Efforts in the Area of Institutional Strengthening (TISRSS)...... 26 2.7 Legislative Review ...... 28 2.8 Transport Control Board ...... 28 2.9 Role of Planning and Urban Management Agency ...... 32 2.10 Ministry of Police, Prisons and Fire Services...... 34 2.11 Ministry of Revenue...... 37 2.12 Ministry of Finance ...... 37

(i) IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

2.13 Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment and Meteorology...... 40 2.14 Transport Related State-Owned Enterprises...... 41 2.15 Accident Compensation Corporation ...... 41 2.16 Electric Power Corporation...... 42 2.17 Samoa Shipping Corporation...... 42 2.18 Polynesian Airlines...... 42 2.19 Other Transport-Related Organizations...... 43 2.19.1 Petroleum Products Supplies...... 43 2.19.2 Public Service Vehicle Associations ...... 43 3.0 LANDS TRANSPORTATION ISSUES AND CONCERNS ...... 44 3.1 A World-Wide Problem...... 44 3.2 Road Fatalities and Injuries are Preventable ...... 47 3.3 Accidents by Vehicle Type...... 51 3.4 Accident Locality...... 54 3.5 Environmental Impacts ...... 57 4.0 THE SAMOAN TRANSPORT SYSTEM ...... 60 4.1 Right Hand Drive Vehicles ...... 61 4.2 Heavy Vehicles and Goods Transport ...... 61 4.3 Public Transport ...... 66 4.3.1 Buses...... 66 4.3.2 Taxis ...... 69 4.4 Private Transport...... 70 4.5 Pedestrians, Cyclists and the Disabled ...... 72 4.6 Ferry Transport...... 75 4.7 Air Service...... 77 5.0 FUEL SUPPLY AND DEMAND ...... 78 5.1 Overview of Fuel Situation in Samoa ...... 78 5.2 Fuel Supply Arrangements for Samoa ...... 80 5.3 Fuel Costs...... 82 5.4 Fuel quantity and Quality...... 85 5.5 Aviation Fuels ...... 88 5.6 Liquid Petroleum Gas...... 88 5.7 Offshore Oil Exploration ...... 89 5.9 Energy Efficiency in Transport...... 90

(ii) IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

5.9 Alternative Fuel Sources...... 91 5.10 Biofuels...... 92 6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 95 6.1 Transport Sector Institutions, Policies and Legislation ...... 95 6.2 The Samoan Transport System...... 99 6.3 Road Safety...... 100 6.4 Fuel Supply and Demand...... 102 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 103 WEBSITES ...... 108

APPENDICES:

APPENDIX A List of Persons Interviewed

APPENDIX B Vehicle Inspection Form

APPENDIX C Police Report of Motor Vehicle Accident

APPENDIX D Draft GoS Policies and Strategies that Relate to Energy in Samoa

(iii) IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

GLOSSARY

4WD Four Wheel Drive vehicle ACB Accident Compensation Corporation ADB Asian Development Bank ADF Automotive Diesel Fuel ADO Automotive Diesel Oil ATSB Australian Transport Safety Bureau AusAID Australian Assistance International Development AvGas High-octane gasoline used by piston-engined aircraft BBL Barrel (of oil = 42 gallons) CBD Central Business District CC Climate Change CEO Chief Executive Officer CFC Chlorofluorocarbon (air pollutant) CIF Cost, Insurance, and Freight CNG Compressed Natural Gas (mostly methane derived from underground sources) CNO Coconut Oil (as a fuel source) CO2 Carbon Dioxide CPL Cents per litre (US) CROP Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific CSO Community Service Obligations DFO Diesel Fuel Oil DOE Department of Energy (US) DPK Dual Purpose Kerosene (Domestic and Jet) EE Energy Efficiency EPC Electric Power Corporation EPS Economic & Policy Services Pty Ltd (‘Samoa Transport Sector Review 2003’) ES Environmental Sustainability EST Environmentally Sustainable Transport EU Energy Unit (of Ministry of Finance) EWG Energy Working Group FOB Free on Board GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environmental Facility GHG Greenhouse Gas GoS Government of Samoa GRSP Global Road Safety Partnership GVW Gross Vehicle Weight IAMP Infrastructure Asset Management Project ISP Infrastructure Strengthening Project IRTAD International Road Traffic and Accident Database (part of OECD) JET A-1 A keosene-based fuel used in jet and turbine aircraft engines LDC Least Developed Country LHD Left Hand Drive LIC Low Income Country LNG Liquified Natural Gas LPG Liquid Petroleum Gas

LTA Land Transport Authority MDG Millennium Development Goal(s) MNREM Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment and Meteorology MoF Ministry of Finance MPP Ministry of Police and Prisons MWTI Ministry of Works, Transport and Infrastructure MOT Ministry of Transport MPPS Ministry for Police, Prisons and Fire Service MOW Ministry of Works MTI Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure MWCSD Ministry of Women, Community and Social Development NEC National Energy Committee NGO Non Government Organisation NRSC National Road Safety Council (Fiji) OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OPCV Overseas Projects Corporation of Victoria (part of VicRoads, Australia) OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries OPUS International Consultants (based in Wellington, New Zealand) PDMCs Pacific Developing Member Countries PESTRAN Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands PIEPSAP Pacific Islands Energy Policy and Strategic Action Plan PIREP Pacific Islands Renewable Energy Project PICs Pacific Island Countries PIF Pacific Islands Forum PIFS Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat PPS Petroleum Products Supplies PREGA Promotion of Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas Abatement PRISM Pacific Regional Information System PUMA Planning and Urban Management Agency PWD Public Works Department RAM Road Asset Management REEGA Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas Abatement REEP Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Programme (ADB programme) RHD Right Hand Drive RUM Road Use Management SAMS Samoa Asset Management System SAT Samoan Tala ($SAT) SDS Strategy for the Development of Samoa SIAM Samoa Infrastructure Asset Management Project (= SIAM-2) SIDS Small Island Developing States SMEC Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation (also referred to as SMEC International) SOE State-owned enterprise SOPAC South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community SPA Samoa Ports Authority SPREP Secretariat for the Pacific Regional Environment Programme

SSC Samoa Shipping Corporation Ltd SUV Sport Utility Vehicle (or four-wheel-drive vehicle) SWA Samoa Water Authority TCB Transport Control Board TISRSS Transport and Infrastructure Sector Reform Strengthening Services Project ULP Unleaded Petrol (= Mogas = Motor Gasoline in the US) UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific UNFCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNCHS United National Center for Human Settlements (Habitat), now known as UNHSP or United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) USD United States Dollar VMT Vehicle-Miles-of-Travel VRU Vulnerable road user VTPI Victoria Transport Policy Institute (Canada) WHO World Health Organization

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report uses the definition for Environmentally Sustainable Transport (EST) from the 1996 OECD report, being:

“Transportation that does not endanger public health or ecosystems and meets mobility needs consistent with (a) use of renewable resources at below their rates of regeneration and (b) use of non-renewable resources at below the rates of development of renewable substitutes”.

Efficient and effective energy use in the transport sector is a measure of a country’s attainment of sustainable development. Samoa is totally dependent on imported fossil fuels for transport. This reliance on fossil fuels is likely to increase. It is projected that the demand for such fuels in the Pacific Island Countries (PICs) will be likely to rise by some 2-3% per year as vehicle ownership increases. It has been estimated that within the PICs that the transportation sector accounts for about 50% of total use of fossil fuels (i.e. energy consumption). It is now appropriate that efforts be made to reduce this increasing use of fossil fuels for both the transport and electricity production sectors.

One of the key strategies of the Government of Samoa’s ‘Strategy for the Development of Samoa’ for 2005-2007 is ‘Strengthening the Enabling Environment’ with an ‘efficient and effective utility service and infrastructure provision’ (including ‘transport’). With this in mind the Government has set up an Energy Unit within its Ministry of Finance, partly to encourage greater efficiencies in the energy and transport sectors and to search for suitable alternative fuel sources to current imported fossil fuels.

Inefficiencies in the current transport system in Samoa make environmental sustainability a seemingly distant goal. There is concern at the disproportionate number of vehicle accidents and associated injuries and fatalities as well as traffic congestion in Apia. There are also significant institutional and technical capacity development needs of the Samoan government to be addressed if the desired goal of reducing energy consumption in the transport sector (and consequent Greenhouse Gas emission reductions) can be achieved. These needs will include appropriate technical assistance to support research and feasibility studies, policy development along with public participation and education.

A better, more efficient transport system is not only desirable but necessary in Samoa given, for instance, health and safety issues. There are a number of aid bodies and Pacific-based non-government organisations (including the World Bank and the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission) which are taking action in an effort to make the Samoan transport sector more efficient and effective. Considerable reporting on the transport sector has already occurred in Samoa in recent years and government ministries have been restructured. But more reforms are still needed before a better transport system can be achieved.

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This country report for Samoa is a ‘snapshot’ of the current situation regarding the transport sector. It forms part of a larger ‘Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transport in the Pacific’ (PESTRAN) project designed to facilitate energy efficiency improvements in the land transportation sector. The PESTRAN project will be an integrated and sustainable programme that will facilitate energy efficiency improvements in land transportation of the PICs to help prevent increased and wasteful fossil fuel consumption. This report also identifies priority land transport sector issues and concerns that need to be further addressed.

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REPORT ON METHODOLOGY

In the preparation of this report the IPA team interviewed key Government officers, consultants and people in the private sector who specialise in the area of transport or related fields. A list of those interviewed is given in Appendix A.

This report has drawn considerably upon previous similar transport sector reports for Samoa which have been completed in the past 11 years. The report also drew on recent international reports on sustainable transport many of which were sourced off the net.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

‘All our efforts to defeat poverty and pursue sustainable development will be in vain if environmental degradation and natural resource depletion continue unabated”

(UN Secretary-General, Kofi Annan)

1.1 Environmentally Sustainable Transport

The concept of ‘sustainable development’ was first seriously considered in the 1987 report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (commonly referred to as the ‘Brundtland Commission’). The Brundtland Commission defined sustainable development as

“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Needs was to mean “in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor”. This definition also had environmental, social and economic aspects (www.oecd.org/dataoecd/28/54/2396815.pdf).

In 1992 ‘Agenda 21’ was adopted by the ‘United Nations Conference on Environment and Development’ (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro. It is an ambitious global partnership for sustainable development, in the form of action on environmental and development issues which states that the various sectors of human activity should develop in a sustainable manner. It reads:

“We must spare no effort to free all of humanity, and above all our children and grandchildren, from the threat of living on a planet irredeemably spoilt by human activities, and whose resources would no longer be sufficient for their needs”.

‘Sustainable transportation’ in Agenda 21 is seen as an expression of sustainable development within the transportation sector.

The concept of Environmental Sustainability was further strengthened by the United Nations Millennium Declaration in September 2000. The Declaration calls for halving, by the year 2015, the number of people who live on less than one dollar a day. This involves finding solutions to hunger, malnutrition and disease, promoting gender equality and the empowerment of women, guaranteeing a basic education for everyone, and supporting the Agenda 21 principles of sustainable development. To assist in tracking the progress of the Declaration, the United Nations Secretariat and its specialized agencies, as well as representatives of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), defined a set of eight time-bound and measurable Millennium

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Development Goals (MDGs) and 18 corresponding targets combating poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation and discrimination against women.

One of the goals for implementing the Millennium Declaration is Goal 7 which aims to:

“Ensure environmental sustainability” and contains, amongst other matters, Target 9, which states :

“Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and reverse the loss of environmental resources”

(http://ddp-ext.worldbank.org/ext/MDG/homePages.do, www.unmillenniumproject.org/goals/index.htm and www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.pdf).

‘Environmentally Sustainable Transport’ (EST) came to the fore at the 1996 OECD Vancouver Conference titled ‘Towards Sustainable Transportation’, where it was defined as:

“Transportation that does not endanger public health or ecosystems and meets mobility needs consistent with

(a) use of renewable resources at below their rates of regeneration; and; (b) use of non-renewable resources at below the rates of development of renewable substitutes”

The 1996 OECD paper set out six criteria for the attainment of EST in the target year of 2030:

1) Transport-related emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) have been reduced to the extent that the objectives for ambient nitrogen dioxide and for ozone levels as well as for nitrogen deposition are achieved. 2) Emissions of ‘volatile organic compounds’ (VOCs) have been reduced to the extent that excessive ozone levels are avoided, and emissions of carcinogenic VOCs from all movement of all vehicles have been reduced to meet acceptable risk levels. 3) Climate change is being prevented by achieving per-capita carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel use for transportation consistent with the global protection goals for the atmosphere. 4) Emissions of particulates have been reduced to the extent that harmful ambient air levels are avoided. 5) Land surface in urban areas is used for the movement, maintenance, and storage of motorised vehicles, including public transport vehicles such that the objectives for ecosystem protection are met. 6) Noise caused by transportation should not result in outdoor noise levels that present a health concern or serious nuisance (www.oecd.org/dataoecd/28/54/2396815.pdf).

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According to the OECD a sustainable transport system is one where:

a) generally accepted objectives for environmental quality (such as those set by the WHO concerning air pollutants) are met; b) ecosystem integrity is not significantly threatened; and c) potentially adverse global phenomena, such as climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion are not aggravated.

Sustainability tends to reflect a ‘conservation ethic’ (rather than a ‘consumption ethic’) that minimizes resource consumption and waste generation. This requires an alteration to commonly used economic policies that encourage production and consumption. For example, many countries minimize energy prices in order to keep transport utilities affordable. A conservation ethic might increase energy prices while implementing programmes to increase vehicle fuel efficiency, improve alternative modes of transport, and increase industrial efficiency, so that manufacturers and consumers can meet their needs with less resource consumption (Litman and Burwell, 2003, p.2).

While it is somewhat difficult to give an unambiguous definition of sustainable transport, it can nonetheless be argued that current trends in the transport sector world-wide are environmentally, and therefore economically and socially, unsustainable. Increased transport activity is accompanied by increased environmental, social, and health impacts. Conventional motor vehicles cause air quality problems with toxic emissions and generate noise and dust causing real health and safety concerns.

1.2 Towards Achieving Environmental Sustainable Transport

In order to work towards EST, the OECD is attempting to define minimum standards in respect of certain criteria related, among others, to the control of carbon emissions, nitrogen dispositions, reducing the emission of particulates, and abatement of noise (UNESCAP, 2001, p.10-11).

When discussing excessive environmental harm caused by various forms of transport, it is important to remember that this is an excess above the optimal level of pollution, zero pollution or some perceived ‘pure’ environment is realistically not achievable. Economic measures, such as charging and pricing systems have a significant role to play in securing improved sustainability (UNESCAP, 2001, p. 12).

Reducing loss of life and health threats should be one of the highest priorities when striving for y. Cost- effective technology is necessary, but not sufficient, for transport to be environmentally sustainable. Strategic actions are required in the form of better directed land-use planning, stricter demand management, and greater incentives to use public transport. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia (UNESCAP) has listed three policy objectives for environmentally sustainable transport along with methods for achieving them (refer to Table 1 below).

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Table 1 Policy Measures Contributing to Environmental Sustainability

Policy Objective Methods

• Develop road/transport safety programmes. 1. Improve health and • Introduce cleaner fuel standards to eliminate lead and sulphur safety in transport emissions, combined with fuel supply and pricing policies to encourage use of cleaner fuels. • Develop systematic methods for estimating the impact of transport on 2. Integrate safety and air pollution, including monetary valuations in economic environmental and rate of return calculations. economic dimensions • Provide protection against adverse environmental impact of road in transport planning construction and other activities related to transport development on and development forests, wetlands, natural habitats, non-motorized transport and heritage sites. • Develop local standards for the provision of environmentally sensitive/non-motorized transport. • Develop responsive urban mass transport plans that respond to changing land use. 3. Develop an • Establish road user charges that reflect externalities (road damage, air environmentally and noise pollution, congestion and safety), using fuel taxation. sensitive strategic framework • Ensure that the fare, service and finance policies related to public transport services reflect the need to maintain these services as also the true economic benefits of public relative to private transport. • Structure transport funding to maintain optimal modal balance.

Source: UNESCAP, 2001, p.14

In essence, sustainable development is the achievement of continued economic development without detriment to the environment and natural resources – a definition which inextricably links the environment, ecosystems and economic development. Thus, sustainability in this context is difficult to achieve. Lee (2001) points out, from his experience in Korea with regards to policy measures to achieve a more sustainable transport system, that “the transport sector has been recognized as one of the most difficult areas where environmental sustainability can be ensured owing to ever-increasing demand and its extremely heavy reliance on non-renewable fossil fuels” (2001, p.30).

Sustainability should not be considered narrowly (egg resource depletion and air pollution). There is a danger with a narrowly defined sustainability which tends to overlook many relationships between issues and opportunities for coordinated solutions. It is important to recognise that there are three aspects (economic, social and environmental) to the definition. Table 2 below outlines some of these issues.

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Table 2 Sustainability Issues

Economic Social Environmental • Business activity • Equity • Pollution prevention • Employment • Human health • Climate protection • Productivity • Community Livability • Biodiversity • Tax burden • Cultural and Historic Values • Habitat preservation • Trade • Public involvement • Aesthetics

Source: Litman and Burwell, 2003, p.3

Although the above table implies that each issue fits neatly into a specific category, in practice they frequently overlap. Planning for sustainability recognises that impacts and objectives often interact, so solutions must reflect integrated analysis.

Lee (2001) noted that the traditional approach to reduce energy consumption in the transport sector has focused on regulatory aspects and technical development involving the improvement of vehicle fuel efficiency. However, recent evidence suggests that the increase in travel demand will often overwhelm any gains made through improvements in vehicle fuel efficiency. He further noted that, as a consequence, “the overall energy consumption in the transport sector increases in almost all countries regardless of their socio-economic conditions. In view of this, the importance of traffic demand management policies is receiving greater attention in most developed as well as many developing countries” (Lee, 2001, p.30-31).

Transport demand management measures can be effective policy instruments in promoting an environmentally sustainable transport sector. However, frequently, any gains made through technological improvements or new environmental standards are more than offset by the increase in new transport demand. Increased passenger car use is the most important cause of increased traffic congestion and energy consumption and subsequent environmental deterioration in urban centres of the world. In response, various policy measures have been employed in order to discourage passenger car usage. These measures towards environmental sustainability in the transport sector which may be relevant to Samoa include:

• Fuel pricing - The most common instrument for transport demand management in many countries. The Government of Samoa already fixes the prices of fuel and derives an excise tax from all fuel brought into the country and sold. • A Parking Policy - The core of a parking policy has traditionally been to provide adequate parking space for every building and facility. However, this may need to be rethought with serious consideration being given to a reduction of parking spaces in the CBD area to reduce private passenger car usage. This should be implemented along

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with other measures, such as ‘park and ride’, limited time parking and parking meters (together with public education and enforcement). • Car Pooling - Where space (and funding) permits a separate lane for buses and people car pooling can provide a road priority and thus increase the attractiveness of public transit and consequently its modal share and the better use of private vehicles. • Efficient Mass Movement Systems – such as making buses regular and dependable. • Economic Incentives – These are a preferred means of government intervention as they are the most cost effective. Economic incentives can encourage the development of fuel- efficient and low-emission vehicles (egg. by promoting energy efficient vehicles with smaller engines with exemptions from certain taxes, lower registration fees, lower taxes and charges and reduced parking charges) (adapted from Lee, 2001, p.43-44).

Transport demand will continue to increase in the future. The bottom line is that the current world-wide trends of exponential growth in private vehicle ownership and its usage in passenger transport, and the dominance of energy inefficient road transport in freight transport are incompatible with the necessary sustainable development in the transport sector. The huge amount of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from transport activities need to be contained. Mitigation policies, including technological improvement, regulations and measures to manage transport demand need to be pursued to address the problem (Lee, 2001).

But, fortunately, there is a tendency for traffic congestion to maintain a self-limiting equilibrium, which is often ignored by traffic modelers. As roadways become more congested, motorists will adjust by shifting their travel times and destinations, if capacity is expanded motorists take more peak period trips (Litman, 2003, p.8).

"A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it."

Max Planck, German Physicist and considered to be the inventor of Quantum Theory

1.3 Sustainable Transport - Changing Our Way of Thinking

Sustainable transportation requires fundamental changes in our transportation planning practices. It demands a more comprehensive analysis of impacts (including consideration of indirect and cumulative impacts) and consideration of a broader range of solutions than usually occurs in the conventional planning process (Table 3 below illustrates the differences between the two types of planning). Planning for sustainable transport also requires that the public be involved in determining alternatives to be considered and evaluation criteria. These are principles of good planning that are particularly necessary for sustainability planning.

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Table 3 Conventional vs. Sustainable Transportation Planning

Conventional Planning Sustainable Planning Defines and measures transportation Defines and measures transportation in Transportation primarily in terms of vehicle travel. terms of access. Maximize road and parking capacity Uses economic analysis to determine Objectives to meet predicted traffic demand. optimal policies and investments. Modest to moderate public Moderate to high public involvement. involvement. Public is invited to Public Involvement Public is involved at many points in the comment at specific points in the planning process. planning process. Considers all facility costs, including costs Considers costs to a specific agency Facility Costs to other levels of government and costs to or level of government. businesses (such as parking). Considers user time, vehicle Considers user time, vehicle operating and User Costs operating costs, and fares or tolls. ownership costs, fares and tolls. Considers local and global air pollution, May consider local air pollution down-stream congestion, uncompensated External Costs costs. accident damages, impacts on other road users, and other identified impacts. Considers a wide range of equity issues. Considers a limited range of equity Favors transportation policies that improve Equity issues. Addresses equity primarily by access for non-drivers and disadvantaged subsidizing transit. populations. Defines travel demand based on Defines travel demand as a function, based Travel Demand existing user costs. on various levels of user costs. Ignores altogether, or may Takes generated traffic into account in Generated Traffic/ incorporate limited feedback into modeling and economic evaluation of Induced Travel modeling. alternative policies and investments. Individual transportation decisions are Considers community land use plans Integration With selected to support community’s strategic as an input to transportation Strategic Planning vision. Transportation decisions are modeling. recognized as having land use impacts. Based on existing funding Least-cost planning allows resources to be Investment Policy mechanisms that target money by used for the most cost-effective solution. mode. Road and parking facilities are priced for Road and parking facilities are free, Pricing cost recovery and based on marginal costs or priced for cost recovery. to encourage economic efficiency. Uses TDM only where increasing Implements TDM wherever possible. Transportation roadway or parking capacity is Capacity expansion only occurs where Demand considered infeasible (i.e., large TDM is not cost effective. Considers a Management (TDM) cities and central business districts). wide range of TDM strategies. Source: Litman, 2003, p.9

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Sustainable development requires significant changes in our transportation system to increase economic efficiency, equity, and environmental security (a change that is so significant that it has been called a ‘paradigm shift’- refer to the box below).

A Paradigm Shift in Transportation Planning

Sustainable transport cannot be simply achieved by improving traffic flow or changing vehicle designs. It also requires changing the way transportation professionals approach problems, and how individuals behave as citizens and consumers. This radical change is what some call a ‘paradigm shift’. A ‘paradigm’ refers to how people think about problems and develop solutions. Famous paradigm shifts include Darwin’s development of the theory of evolution by natural selection, which overturned Lamarckian theories and the acceptance of Plate tectonics as the explanation for large- scale geological changes. The common management clichés, “Work smarter, not harder” and “Think outside the box” are admonitions to consider new approaches to problem solving, i.e. a paradigm shift. The term has been unfortunately overused in inappropriate ways in applying to many other realms of human experience. A recent interesting paper by Litman (2003) explores the paradigm shifts needed to achieve more sustainable transport.

The paper can be found on the net at: www.vtpi.org/reinvent.pdf.

Sustainable transportation planning requires public involvement for two reasons. Firstly, because sustainable development reflects a community’s values, the public must be effectively involved at every stage of the planning process. Secondly, because sustainable transportation often involves changes in community design and residents’ behavior, residents need to feel a stake in decisions if they are to be implemented effectively (Litman, 2003, p.4).

There are barriers to these changes to achieve sustainable transport. One is the obvious resistance to change the transport system, which, for all its faults, currently provides a high degree of mobility to most users, particularly those classes of people who are most influential in public decision-making or have a vested interested in no change (Litman, 2003, p.11). However, there is hope in achieving a more sustainable transportation system. Litman has observed that the marginal benefits of increased driving are diminishing. Few people are interested in spending more time in their cars, driving further, or devoting more resources to vehicles, roads and parking than is necessary. Improving road capacity is also increasingly expensive. It is now possible to justify significant progress toward more sustainable transportation based on conventional economic arguments and informed self-interest (p.11).

Transportation professionals need to work on changes towards a sustainable transportation system with other stakeholders, such as local officials, businesses, neighborhoods, public health advocates, social equity activists, and environmentalists (Litman, 2003, p.11). This is similar to what Bliss (2004) saw in the need to share the responsibility of road safety between the government, industry, non-governmental organizations and international agencies, along with participation by people from many disciplines and the wider community (p.2). Thus the planning is not being done by the planners alone.

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1.4 Global Warming, Greenhouse Gases and Pollution

Global warming describes an increase in the average temperature of the world’s atmosphere and oceans. The term global warming is also used to describe the theory that increasing temperatures (that is, ‘Climate Change’ (CC)) are the result of a rising ‘Greenhouse’ effect caused mainly by man-made increases in carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHG) from burning fossil fuels and land clearing.

The ‘United Nations Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change’ (IPCC) has expressed a scientific opinion on climate change that the average global temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2° C since the late nineteenth century, and that “most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities”, especially the emission of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Based on the climate models referenced by the IPCC, temperatures are predicted to increase by 1.4 to 5.8°C between 1990 and 2100. This is expected to result in other climate changes including a rise in sea level and changes in the amount and pattern of rainfall. Such changes may increase extreme weather events such as flooding, droughts, heat waves and cyclones, reduce agricultural production and cause biological extinctions (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming). There are uncertainities with regards to global warming, the principal being its rapidity and the local impacts of these climate changes. It is therefore strategic to use the ‘precautionary principle’ in efforts to lessen the impact. Small island states (such as Samoa) are recognised as among the most vulnerable to climate change (Orlando and Klein, 2000, p.9).

It is estimated that 75 to 80 per cent of the world’s total air pollution is due to road vehicle emissions. There is a little reliable data on the levels of gaseous pollutants for Samoa and what there is over a short time frame. It is therefore not possible to determine precisely the amounts of pollution attributable to transport vehicles. Despite the rapid growth of the vehicle population in Samoa, compared to many other countries, the problem of air pollution in the capital of Apia is really not severe, to the extent that most would not consider it an issue that needs to be dealt with. Nonetheless, Samoa is contributing to the global warming and has a responsibility to reduce emissions.

It is beyond doubt that air pollution from traffic is increasing in Samoa. Limited statistics are available for carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions measured in Samoa (for the years 2000 and 2002 respectively) and these measurements are listed in Table 4 below. The table has been made up with MDG Goal Seven in mind (‘ensure environmental sustainability). The GoS has previously recognised the important role that the MDGs play in the country’s national development. As no earlier figures appear to exist it is presumed that these values will be the baseline figures used to measure any improvements and whether MDG Goal Seven is being achieved. Table 4 Indicators for Emissions in Samoa (in relation to MDG Goal Seven: ensure environmental sustainability)

Indicators Year Value Unit Note Source Carbon dioxide Energy Information Metric Carbon dioxide emissions emissions (CO ), Administration, 2 2002 0.81 tons per from the consumption and metric tons, per International Energy capita flaring of fossil fuels capita Annual 2002 Source: Extracted from Samoa Ministry of Finance (Statistical Services Division) Table www.spc.int/prism/Country/WS/stats/mdgs/mdgs.htm

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Carbon dioxide (CO2), which is the most important greenhouse gas and which is produced by emissions from the transport sector, is seen to be rising world-wide (refer to Table 5 below). The CO2 emission figures for Samoa shown in Tables 5 and 6 below are small, especially when seen alongside the four other PICs and also New Zealand, Australia, China and the US for comparison. The figures for ‘carbon dioxide emissions per thousand metric tons’ (Table 5 below) are nonetheless climbing and this is an environmentally unsustainable trend. Table 5 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (CO2), thousand metric tons of CO2 (CDIAC)

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Samoa 126 126 129 129 123 132 132 132 132 138 138 144 144 Fiji 816 674 737 772 828 891 924 927 912 1029 1198 1353 1353 Tonga 77 92 89 101 108 111 111 114 111 111 129 108 108 Vanuatu 68 65 61 61 61 65 83 86 80 80 80 86 86 Solomons 163 163 160 157 154 160 160 160 160 160 166 172 172 New Zealand 23642 24744 26155 25404 26281 26882 30341 31744 30197 31941 33103 34631 33964 Australia 272678 262878 273091 280468 289513 296633 315261 317010 329956 345009 348339 367496 356342 China 2402788 2523279 2647255 2790894 2962916 3202835 3345058 329375 3112036 2814756 2771929 3007016 3513103 United States 4820473 4830852 4837788 5086337 5180292 5216075 5299406 5558102 5545725 5640663 5833528 5790376 5838118

Source: UNEP-Ozone Secretariat on United Nations Statistics Division website http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_series_results.asp?rowID=749

Table 6 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (CO2), metric tons of CO2 per capita (CDIAC)

Country 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Samoa 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 Fiji 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.6 Tonga 0.8 1.0 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.1 Vanuatu 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 Solomons 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 New 6.9 7.2 7.5 7.1 7.3 7.3 8.2 8.5 8.0 8.4 8.7 9.0 8.7 Zealand Australia 16.2 15.4 15.8 16.0 16.3 16.5 17.4 17.2 17.7 18.3 18.3 19.0 18.3 China 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.5 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.7 United 18.9 18.7 18.5 19.3 19.4 19.3 19.4 20.2 19.9 20.1 20.5 20.2 20.1 States

Source: UNEP-Ozone Secretariat United Nations Statistics Division website: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_series_results.asp?rowId=751

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In it’s ‘Key Environmental Indicators’ for air quality, the OECD (2004) states that its concerns relate to the effects of air pollution on human health, ecosystems and buildings, and their economic and social consequences. Human exposure is particularly high in urban areas where economic activities and road traffic are concentrated. Causes of growing concern are the concentrations of fine particulates, NO2, toxic air pollutants and acute ground-level ozone pollution episodes in both urban and rural areas. SOx emissions have decreased significantly in many countries and have often been successfully ‘de-coupled’ from fossil fuel use and economic growth. The OECD go on to state “The main challenges are to further reduce emissions of NOx and other local and regional air pollutants in order to achieve a strong de- coupling of emissions from GDP and to limit the exposure of the population to air pollution. This implies implementing appropriate pollution control policies, technological progress, energy savings and environmentally sustainable transport policies” (OECD website: www.oecd.org/dataoecd/32/20/315 58547.pdf).

Samoa has joined the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and in 1999 submitted its first national communication. Although Samoa’s GHG emissions are insignificant by world standards (as can be seen in Tables 5 and 6), it still needs to be thoroughly examined because of the recorded increasing trend (by volume) from 1994 to 1997. The second national communication is underway with a detailed GHG inventory to be prepared with the aid two systems, one being the Samoa Forestry Resource Inventory System (SAMFRIS), a computer programme for mapping and identifying forest types (ADB, 2004, p.30).

A National Climate Change Country Team (NCCCT) has been formed comprising of Samoan government Ministers, State owned enterprises (SOEs) (such as the Samoa Water Authority (SWA) and the Electric Power Corporation (EPC)), Non-government Organisations (NGOs) (such as SUNGO, METI and OLSSI) and community members (such as Saoluafata/Lano mayors). The committee discusses CC and GHG issues, coordinates the activities of major organisations and Ministries in the environment sector and make decisions on major environmental issues and initiatives. While the Meteorological Section of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment and Meteorology (MNREM) has recently taken on the CC role it is not responsible for GHG measurements (to fulfill the ultimate objectives of the UNFCCC to reduce the atmospheric concentration of GHG to a stable level within a specific timeframe to ensure no adverse human-induced interference with the climate system). Officers at the MNREM’s Waste Management Centre are understood to now be responsible for GHG measurement. The Planning and Urban Management Agency (PUMA) (now under MWTI) is also in the process of developing standards for emissions (such as CO and CO2) from transport and industry. The standards require considerable work before being adopted and, to be enforceable, will need the back-up of the PUM Regulations or similar (ADB, 2004, p.30, PUMA and MNREM Meteorological Division).

In the ADB’s ‘Samoa Country Report’, dated October 2004, there was a call for the GoS to take a “more serious stance to create an enabling environment” for the promotion of ‘Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas Abatement’ (REGA) (ADB, 2004, p.2). The GoS’ current plan of action is mainly focused on adaptation to climate change threats. The GoS is yet to formulate a GHG emission

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factor for any of the key sources for Samoa. In terms of controlling GHG emissions, while there has been some work done on the initial inventory, Samoa has done very little. The Meteorological Division’s recently acquired CC role is still being formulated with limited resources. The Division currently acts in a technical advisory role within the energy sector with the MoF being the key player. Two draft policies (the ‘National Policy for the Protection of the Atmosphere’ and the ‘National Climate Change Policy’) have been prepared but are yet to be adopted by Cabinet as government policy (MNREM Meteorological Division).

The issue of GHG mitigation is currently being looked at regionally by the PICs. In June 2005 the ‘Global Environment Facility’ (GEF) Council approved USD $26.025 million funding for the ‘Pacific Islands Greenhouse Gas Abatement through Renewable Energy Project’ (PIGGAREP). This is now a UNDP Project with its implementation being a collaboration between SOPAC and other Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific Energy Working Group (CROP-EWG) members. SPREP, UNDP,

GEF and the PICs are also involved. It is the aim of PIGGAREP to achieve a cumulative CO2 emission reduction of at least two million tons by 2015 (SPREP website: www.sprep.org.ws/Newsletter/SPREP Newsletter3_ed.htm).

A National Energy Policy was formulated by the GoS and put up to Cabinet in 1996 but is yet to be adopted with this reflecting (what the ADB feels is) the ad hoc attitude of the government with respect to energy matters. In 2003, the development of a new national energy policy began and is expected to be completed and adopted by 2006. The main objective of the policy will be to increase contributions of the energy sector to the welfare of the nation in an efficient, equitable, and sustainable manner, while working in concert with other national economic and social development policies. Renewable energy use and the efficient use of energy efficiency are core components of the policy and will help to mitigate any GHG effects (ADB, 2004, p.30 and MNREM Meteorological Division).

1.5 The Pacific Context

The Pacific Island Countries (PICs) are located in the South Pacific Ocean and consist of 22 countries (excluding Australia, New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands) with some 7,500 islands with a total land mass of only some 500,000 square kilometers in an ocean of some 30 million sq kms. They include the Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu and Samoa. The PICs are almost always excluded from references to the Asia-Pacific region. Kumarasuriyar and Burke (1998) state that the reasons for the PICs exclusion include: • they are small in size (as individual countries as well as a group of nations); • they are culturally, politically and economically diverse (coupled with the vast distances between the small island nations) so much so that they are rarely identified as a cohesive group; and • They tend to lack economic vitality (in sharp contrast to Asia’s economic dynamism).

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The Pacific island nations have been experiencing remarkable urbanisation trends, some with rates faster than the Asian nations. This has occurred partly due to the 'push factor' of gross under-development in rural outer islands and the unreliable, at best, and primitive, at worst, transport and communication linkages, and partly due to the 'pull factor' of modernizing cities and towns (Kumarasuriyar and Burke, 1998).

1.6 Samoa – A Background

Samoa has a land area of 2,935 sq kms. At the 2001 census Samoa was found to have a population of 176,710 people (Census are held every 10 years in Samoa with 2001 being the most recent). In mid 2003 it had an estimated population of 182,700 people (Secretariat of the Pacific Community website at www.spc.int/index.html). Samoans living at home are out-numbered by those living overseas (an estimated 180,000 lived overseas in 2001, mostly in New Zealand and Australia). Although Savai’i, the bigger island, has 60 percent of Samoa’s land area it has only some 24% of the population, compared to Upolu with 39% of land and 76% of the population. The capital and main industry center for Samoa is Apia (refer to map at Figure 1 below). Similar to many developing countries Samoa’s population is becoming increasingly urbanized (an estimated 22%).

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) in it’s 2004 ‘Development Outlook for Samoa’ stated that Samoa’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth increased to an estimated 5.0% in 2003 from 2.8% in 2002 being led by the services sector, particularly commerce, public administration, transport and communications. Some manufacturing activities also grew strongly as the strengthening of the world economy stimulated the manufacturing of automotive components (Yazaki, a Japanese firm and Samoa’s largest manufacturer, has a factory located on the outskirts of Apia which manufactures wiring harnesses for export). Tourist arrivals picked up from the 2002 levels. Remittances were up substantially, being close to 20% of GDP and providing a demand-side stimulus to the economy: (www.adb.org/Documents/Books/ADO/2004/sam.asp)

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Figure 1

Subsequently, in 2003, tourism receipts totaled $158.6 million from 92,440 visitors (up 4% and 3.9% respectively over 2002). Tourism is second only to remittances from abroad in contributing to Samoa's balance of payments and is well above earnings from agricultural and fishery exports. Tourism development has great potential for enhancing Samoa's potential for earning valuable foreign exchange. Tourism also has the potential for generating positive and strong linkages with other sectors of the economy, especially in the creation of employment opportunities that in generating income - particularly in the rural areas (Telefoni, 2004). In fact, ‘ecotourism’ is one of the fastest growing industries in the Pacific sub-region. Tourism holds the greatest promise in Samoa for accomplishing the United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP) sustainable goals of Agenda 21. Tourism has been included in the top eight priority sustainable development areas for the Pacific Island countries (PICs). However, while tourism is increasing yearly, Samoa is yet to become a major tourist destination in the Pacific islands.

In its 2005 development assessment for Samoa, the ADB stated that the GDP over the first three quarters of 2004 came in at 2.3% higher than in the same period of 2003. It noted that agriculture and fishing declined by 9.2% over the same period while industry expanded by 2.6% and services rose by 5.2%. The ADB estimated that growth for the whole year was 2-3%. Construction activity led growth in the industry sector in 2004, supported by several large private and public sector projects, in addition to reconstruction work following Cyclone Heta. Preparations for the hosting of the 2007 South Pacific

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Games continued with the building peak expected in 2005 - 2006. The growth in services was attributed mainly to increased output from financial and business services and from personal and other services. Meanwhile, tourism/visitor arrivals continued to rise in 2004. Arrivals increased from 93,000 in 2003 to 97,000 while total tourism revenues picked up by some 20%: (www.adb.org/Documents/ Books/ADO/2005/sam.asp) and www.adb.org/REACH/samoa-country-report. pdf).

While the ADB characterizes the Samoan economy as the best managed among its 13 Pacific Developing Member Countries (PDMCs) it is nonetheless narrowly based and highly vulnerable to weather-related and other external shocks. For instance, the 1990 and 1991 major cyclones (Ofa and Val respectively) devastated Samoa’s infrastructure and vegetation, the 1993 leaf blight disease outbreak wiped out the economically important taro crop and in 2000 the cost of fuel in Samoa almost doubled following the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries’ (OPEC) decision to increase oil prices.

Samoa, like many PICs has a range of environmental problems. While their relative importance varies according to social, economic, and geographic conditions, these PICs share common concerns such as natural disasters, climate change, depletion of coastal fisheries, destruction of near-shore nursery habitats, loss of biodiversity, supply of freshwater, soil degradation, urbanization, management of wastes, and problems related to tourism, energy, and access to information. While Samoa can be described as ‘wealthy’ in terms of its natural beauty it has limited land resources, minimal or no commercial forests, and no commercial mineral deposits. The people are predominantly agrarian and rural. Samoa has relatively good food security, and receives high levels of remittances from expatriate island communities living in Pacific Rim countries.

Samoa has recognised the important role that the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) play in its national development but is yet to take any significant action. The Samoan Ministry of Finance (MoF) acknowledges that there is much work to be done to come up with a correct and complete MDG status for the country. The MoF does have limited information (i.e. on CO2) sourced from the SPCs website (refer to Table 5 above).

The economy of Samoa has traditionally been dependent on development aid, family remittances from overseas, agriculture, and fishing. As with a number of PICs the Samoan economy is heavily dependent on private remittances to finance consumption, while investment needs are met primarily through official transfers. These private transfers from nationals living abroad, together with tourist receipts, are equivalent to about 75% of total imports (Connell and Brown, 2005). Remittances from expatriates are noted as being one of the most reliable sources of income for Samoa’s economy (the Samoan word for remittance is ‘mealofa’ meaning blessing or gift). When remittances are up they constitute a major stimulus to the economy.

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1.7 Previous and Current Studies on Transport in Samoa

There have been a number of transport sector type studies conducted in Samoa in the past 16 years since the World Bank completed its ‘South Pacific Islands Transport Sector Review’ in 1989 and then its follow-up ‘South Pacific Transport Sector Study’ in 1991 that dealt with transport and the efficiency of the road network.

These studies include:

Beca (2003) – ‘Apia Road Network and Traffic Management Study- Phase 1: Final Report’;

Overseas Projects Corporation of Victoria (OPCV) Ltd (1996) – ‘Institutional Strengthening Study for the Public Works Department’;

Opus and KVA Consult. (2001-2002) – ‘PWD Institutional Reform and Asset Management Services – Road Sector Plan’;

OPCV (2001-2002) - ‘Development of Traffic Administration System and Improvement of Road Safety’;

Economic and Policy Services and Policy Appraisal Services (2003) – ‘Samoa Transport Sector Review: Final Report’(referred to in this study as the ‘EPS’ report)( (refer to the Bibliography for full titles of these later reports); and

SMEC (2005-2007) – ‘Samoa Transport and Infrastructure Sector Reform and Strengthening Services’ (‘TISRSS’). This is a current major study, funded under SIAM-2, for the MWTI which commenced in June 2005 and has a completion date of June 2007.

Many of these previous reports were of major scale and express concerns at the need to achieve a more environmentally sustainable transport sector. For instance the OPCV (2002/3) report for the Samoa Ministry of Transport (MoT) was designed to assist the Government of Samoa in achieving safer roads to reduce the cost and trauma of road accidents and improve revenue collection from vehicle registrations. Its project outputs included the development of a road safety education campaign for primary schools, etc., a computer-based Road Traffic Administration system, driver training and testing manuals, a defensive driving course, vehicle inspection, registration and licensing procedures and on-the-job training for vehicle inspectors. Many of the recommendations and actions given in these report have been partly taken on board, were undertaken but subsequently abandoned or never implemented. These recommendations should be revisited in future work on transport planning given their value to EST in Samoa.

The road network in Samoa has grown marginally in the last two decades having an estimated 2337 kilometres total length. Paved roads comprise some 30% of the total network with the MWTI being responsible for maintaining the primary road network (857 kms), most of which is sealed. The remaining roads are plantation or village access roads (some 1480 kms), which tend to be narrow unpaved motorable

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tracks. The latter type of road falls under the jurisdiction of the villages, managed by the Ministry of Women, Community and Social Development (MWCSD) (MWTI 2005 figures).

A number of previous studies on transport in Samoa have quoted the statistics for registered vehicles as an indicator or the growth in transport. One study implied from its figures that between 1990 and 2000 that vehicle numbers had doubled. This may or may not be the case given that the figures quoted from the various government and consultant reports appear to vary. It is therefore important that such figures be used with great caution. Ideally, the figures need to be rechecked from the primary source (such as the Police and the Transport Control Board (TCB) records). More transport related statistics are given in the following sections.

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2.0 TRANSPORT SECTOR INSTITUTIONS, POLICIES AND LEGISLATION

"We have spent the last seventy years making driving convenient and life inconvenient. Well… what has been built can be unbuilt, and something new put in its place… If we begin, little by little, making driving less convenient, eventually we will get around to making human life more convenient - and we might at last put the civility back into civilization"

Richard Risemberg in ‘Cars, Culture, Concrete, and Convenience’

2.1 The Framework

The 2003 Environmental and Policy Services (EPS) Report reviewed Samoa’s transport sector for the World Bank and the Ministry of Works Transport and Infrastructure (MWTI). EPS reported that “an effective transport system needs to be sustainable, which in turn depends upon the provision of an optimal amount of infrastructure, efficient provision of services, and sufficient and stable revenue” (p.29).

This section gives an overview of the institutions with a role in the transport sector; they include Government ministries, State-owned enterprises (SOEs) and the key private sector players.

The Government of Samoa (GoS) is striving to continue with its current reform of government. The Vision for government for 2002-2004 was: “For every Samoan to enjoy an improved quality of life premised on a competitive economy with sustained economic growth, improved education, enhanced health standards and strengthened cultural and traditional values” (Strategy for the Development of Samoa 2002-2004, undated (a), p.1) This set the framework for economic and social development in Samoa in the government’s ‘Strategy for the Development of Samoa 2002-2004’ (SDS). The three strategic directions in the 2002-2004 SDS which affect the Transport Sector are: i. To improve infrastructure and services; ii. To enhance public sector efficiency; and iii. To improve road transport services.

The government made a commitment in the 2002-2004 SDS that:

As an outcome of the reform currently underway, a Land Transport Authority will be established to manage all land transport services – to take over the transport functions of Public Works Department (PWD) and the MOT.

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The 2005-2007 Vision SDS carries on the theme from the previous with a simpler: “Improved Quality of Life for All” (SDS, undated (b), p.2)

In the 2005-2007 SDS the strategies and priorities that relate to the Transport Sector include: i. To strengthen the enabling environment; ii. To develop and improve infrastructure and services; and iii. To enhance public sector efficiency.

2.2 Efficient Transport Management in PICs

The PICs are a number of small Pacific islands with individually low populations and relatively low incomes. There is a need for an umbrella organisation for the PICs to deal with all major transport issues. Such an organisation could be a regional driving force (similar to the Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)) so that transport issues can be dealt with in a regional context when appropriate (such as the need for the island nations transport systems to be more environmentally sustainable). The establishment of an ‘Integrated Transport Energy Management Centre’ in one of the Pacific countries would serve this purpose. The Centre could have an aim to promote energy efficiency and management in the transport sector and to reduce GHG gas emissions in the Region.

2.3 The Land Transport and Road Sectors in Samoa

The Government of Samoa has for several years pursued a reform programme to improve economic performance and the functioning of its Ministries, including those in the transport sector. Recently there have been considerable changes to the structure of the transport sector agencies. Given below are some details on the institutions within the transport sector in Samoa. It includes the roles of the various government Ministries as well as other key players. Transport is currently the responsibility of two Ministries – the MWTI and the Ministry for Police, Prisons and Fire Service (MPPS). Current legislation relating to the transport sector includes the following: Accident Compensation Act 1989 Accident Compensation Amendment Act 1997 Accident Compensation Amendment Act 2003 Ministry of Transport Act 1978 Ministry of Works Act 2002 Planning and Urban Management Act 2004 Road Traffic Ordinance 1960 Road Traffic Regulations 1961 Road Traffic Ordinance Amendment Act 2002 Road Traffic Amendment Act 2003 Road Transport and Traffic Control Act 1990

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Other Acts relating to the Transport Sector: Airport Authority Act 1984 Airport Authority Amendment Act 1988 Civil Aviation Act 1998 Carriage By Air Act 1964 Carriers Act 1975 Customs Act 1977 Customs Tariff Act 1975 Excise Tax (Domestic Administration) Act 1984 Excise Tax (Import Administration) Act 1984 Excise Tax Rates Act 1984 Fatal Accidents Act 1974 Insurance Act 1976 Land and Titles Act 1981 Land Survey and Environment Act 1989 Measures Ordinance 1960 Ministerial and Departmental Arrangements 2003 Ministerial Portfolios Act 1976 Occupational Safety and Health Act 2002 Oil Fuel Supply Act 1974 Omnibus Charges and Fees Amendment Act 1983 Omnibus Charges and Fees Amendment Act. 1991 Omnibus Fees and Charges Amendment Act. 1988 Omnibus Rates and Exemptions Amendment Act 1986 Petroleum Act 1984 Petroleum (Protection of National Interest) Amendment Act 2003 Public Finance Management Act 2001 Police Service Act 1977 Road Closing Ordinance 1941 Road Closing Ordinance 1942 Road Traffic Ordinance 1960 Shipping Act 1998 Stamp Duty Ordinance 1932 Statistics Act 1971 Survey Ordinance 1961 Taking of Land Act 1964

2.4 Ministry of Works, Transport and Infrastructure

The Ministry of Works, Transport and Infrastructure (MWTI) was established in 2003. It is a rationalised version of a ‘slimmed down’ Public Works Department (PWD) which resulted from the contracting out of road works to the private sector. The PWD then in turn became the Ministry of Works (MoW) in 2002. The rationalisation involved a dramatic staff down-sizing, the privatisation of some assets and the

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outsourcing of its construction and maintenance programmes. In May 2003, the MoW was amalgamated with the Ministry of Transport and some functions of the Ministry of Police and Prisons to create the MWTI. There have also been changes to improve the management of State-owned Enterprises (SOEs), of which there are several in the transport sector.

The amalgamation served to incorporate the activities of the respective departments into one Ministry but no structural changes were made to the section of each department were done. The stated Vision of the MWTI is: “To ensure national safe transport and infrastructure system that is affordable and sustainable” (MWTI, 2004, p.2).

One of the major roles of MWTI is to look after road transport matters within Samoa. These responsibilities cover the policy, planning, regulations, enforcement, programme management, and operations while the service delivery responsibility is carried out by the private sector.

2.5 The Infrastructure Asset Management Programme

The ‘Infrastructure Asset Management Programme’ (IAMP) is significant to the future of the transport sector in Samoa. It consists of a 9 year, two-stage programme of funding support for major initiatives directed at public service reform, disaster management and adaptation to climate change, and sustainable management of infrastructure assets. The Programme is funded principally with finance provided by the International Development Association (IDA), the World Bank’s concessional lending window. AusAID has also provided joint financing of certain technical assistance in association with the loan. IAMP-1 commenced in 1999 and was completed in mid 2003. IAMP-2 (now termed ‘SIAM-2’, being the IAM Project in the Second Phase) is continuing the programme for a further five years, the completion date being December 2008. The TISRSS project (mentioned earlier) is one part of SIAM-2. The two phases are defined as:

IAM-1: Meeting Vital Priorities and Strengthening Management (completion 2003); and IAM-2: Investing for Sustainable Growth and Protection (completion 2008).

The goal of the IAMP Programme is to have: “Key infrastructure assets perform satisfactorily with sustainable resilience to natural risks”

The purpose o f the Infrastructure Asset Management Programme (IAMP) is to: “Enhance the economic, environmental and social sustainability of transport and coastal infrastructure assets, and to manage those assets, natural resources and disaster risks through an effective partnership with private sector stakeholders”

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The IAMP’s objectives are to support the GoS:

1. In the management and cost effective maintenance of basic infrastructure; 2. To assist its public sector reform efforts through strengthening the capacities of key agencies in the public sector; 3. To ensure safe, reliable and efficient operation of key infrastructure such as air and land transport and coastal activities that are vital to Samoa’s economy; 4. To improve the physical and financial management of the infrastructure assets so as to make efficient use of scarce resources and to minimise future financial dependence on external support; and 5. To support public sector reform and increased private sector participation in the provision of infrastructure

The key elements to SIAM-2 include:

Priority capacity and safety improvements to road infrastructure identified in 2003 Road Sector Plan (71%); Strengthening of environment, risk and natural resource management (11%); Priority coastal protection works and non-structural measures for mitigation of disaster risks (11%); and Completing the current institutional reform in transport and infrastructure, with an emphasis on land transport and cost recovery (7%).

The SIAM-2 project has three implementing agencies; the MWTI, the MNREM and the Samoa Airport Authority (SAA). A major component of the project are the large road networks (including new road construction) and public safety improvements (for instance, the upgrading of Vaitele and Fugalei Streets in Apia involve road widening, footpath construction, etc.).

One of the core features of the IAMP was the setting up of the ‘Samoa Asset Management System’ (SAMS). SAMS is an essential tool for forward planning and prioritising necessary capital works in the transport sector. It is a key and useful tool for the current Ministry and its replacement. Utilising SAMS requires attention to adequate maintenance and updating of the data and a capital investment budget. Currently, the SAMS is not operational. Yet the support documentation to the 2003-2004 Budget tabled the following as Performance Indicators for the Roads Asset Management (RAM) for Upolu: Supervise/Monitor Routine Road Maintenance Contracts Supervise/Monitor General Maintenance Contracts Supervise Capital Works Contracts Supervise Clearance Contractors for Drainage

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Contract Documentation Asset Data Collection and updating of Samoa Road Asset Management Systems Carry out Quality Control of Civil Works

And similarly the same document tabled the following RAM Performance Indicators for Savai’i.

Supervise/Monitor Routine Road Maintenance Contracts Supervise/Monitor General Maintenance Contracts Supervise Capital Works Contracts Supervise road contract for Salelologa Township Project Carry out inspections for any new/repair school access roads

2.6 Continuing Efforts in the Area of Institutional Strengthening (TISRSS)

Given the background above and the commitment of government to its reform programme, it followed that further reform was required in the land transport sector to achieve the aims set out in the 2002-2004 SDS (and the current 2005-2007 SDS). An Institutional Strengthening Programme (ISP) with the MWTI, the ‘Transport and Infrastructure Sector Reform Strengthening Services Project’ (TISRSS) commenced in July 2005 and concludes in July 2007. This project is largely based on the recommendations made by the EPS in 2003.

The TISRSS project is large and multi-faceted. Its main objectives, that relate to land transport, include:

1. To build on the MWTI by reorganising its transport activities into separate planning and policy, programme management, and service delivery functions and by improving sector coordination and policy advice. This is to be achieved by: (i) establishing a Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure (MTI) in place of the MWTI with the reduced in size MTI to concentrate on policy, planning and regulation; (ii) creating a Transport Planning and Policy Coordination Unit with a CEO; and (iii) transferring Road Use Management (RUM) and Road Asset Management (RAM) functions to a ‘Land Transport Authority’ (LTA) to function as a Statutory Authority or State Owned Enterprises (SOE) with a high level of autonomy and to be commercially-oriented. 2. To provide the MTI and LTA with sufficient financial resources through appropriate means of road user cost recovery. 3. To institutional capacity build in areas such as strategic planning, policy analysis, programme development and management, financial management, data collection and use, road safety and traffic management with legislative change as needed in the area of road safety and to support institutional changes.

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A Road Safety Committee has been set up under the TISRSS project which first met in mid September 2005. It is currently an informal working group run by the TISRSS team with representatives of the ACC, MWTI (including the TCB), the Police, taxis, buses, health and education.

The TISRSS is also responsible for undertaking other matters, including: Creating a Transport Planning and Policy Unit in the MTI with direct access to the CEO to improve transport sector integration and management; Reviewing and updating the Road Sector Plan; Assist in establishing an LTA to be operational by July 2006 as a SOE or Authority and to include the following matters: 9 Combining the RUM, including road safety, traffic management, freight and public transport aspects, driver and route licensing, vehicle registration and traffic enforcement, and the RAM, including road infrastructure construction and maintenance, within the new LTA; 9 Developing asset monitoring support for Samoa Asset Management System; 9 Transferring vehicle and drivers licensing, and vehicle registration from TCB and Police to LTA 9 Developing a road traffic safety programme within LTA; and 9 Developing a system for empowering the road users.

The TISRSS team is to also recommend the design and implementation of an appropriate road user cost recovery programme to include:

Estimating the true costs of maintaining road assets in an appropriate condition; Reviewing current road user charges and establishing an appropriate level of charges (such as a fuel levy and license fees) so that the proposed LTA will be adequately financed; and Designing the structure of road user charges (mainly fuel levy and licenses fees) and a programme for implementation. Many of the TISRSS’ tasks flow on from earlier work (and recommendations made by) the OPCV (2001) and EPS (2003) reports. For instance, the OPCV (2001) proposed a new Roads Act, supported by Regulations to deal with all road issues, including road construction, maintenance and operations (EPS, 2003, p.79). The TISRSS team is tasked to draft legislation (amendments or new legislation), in consultation with the GoS Attorney General’s office to reorganize the MTI and set up the LTA.

Whilst a number of these issues being looked at by the TISRSS team in Samoa are perhaps unique to this country there are many, such as the review and reform of the road transport institutions and legislation, that have already been resolved in other PIC countries (eg Fiji which has had recent reforms that resulted in the formation of a Land Transport Authority (LTA). As the OPCV report points out, the Samoans can learn from such overseas lessons (2001, p.C-1).

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2.7 Legislative Review

The OPCV report in 2002 identified a need to totally revise the Samoan road transport legislation. The OPCV team saw the following possible changes (including revised institutional arrangements) as improvements to the current system: a) introducing a ‘penalty notice’ system; b) automatic licence suspensions for repeat offenders through a ‘demerit point’ system; c) updating road rules; d) drink driving and vehicle mass legislation; e) involving the private sector in vehicle inspection; f) ensuring that the public service vehicle regulator has effective powers of enforcement; and g) clearer requirements for public service vehicle licensing (OPCV, 2002, p.9).

It is not known what, if any, of these suggestions have been implemented as no legislative changes of substance have occurred since 2002. It is presumed that the TISRSS team will undertake all or a number of these improvements.

2.8 Transport Control Board

The Transport Control Board (TCB) was originally established under the Road Traffic Ordinance 1960 and has operated for many years (though it has over that time been abolished and reconstituted).

The MWTI’s Corporate Plan for 2004-2006 states that the Objective of the TCB is: “To ensure safety of all Road Transport in Samoa” (MWTI, 2004, p.11)

The TCB’s role is to control the licensing (registration) of vehicles and the licensing of drivers in Samoa and to check the roadworthiness of vehicles. Private driver licenses are for a five year term while those for taxis and buses (i.e. the ‘Public Service Vehicles’ (PSVs)) are only for one year. Vehicle registration for private vehicles is for one year while PSVs are every 6 months. All vehicles are checked for roadworthiness before their licence is renewed. Statistics for vehicle and driver licensing are kept by the TCB on a computerized system. The TCB also collates the accident data obtained from the Police. A problem in this system appears to be its limited access by TCB staff and the ability to trust the data and interrogate the figures.

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The TCB Building at Vaitele-uta

The office and (currently non-elaborate) vehicle testing facilities are located in a new purpose built building at Vaitele-uta on the outskirts of Apia. There is also a TCB office at Salelologa on Savai’i. Both facilities are primarily for vehicle inspection and driver examining. The TCB staff include Samoans trained in the areas of road safety promotion, defensive driving, information technology and licensing. Due to an apparent lack of technical equipment vehicle checks are limited to a visual assessment. Each vehicle inspected is examined in accordance with a one page ‘Vehicle Inspection’ checklist, that was derived from the EPS exercise in 2003 (refer to copy at Appendix B). Vehicle inspections do not currently include efficiency and emission measurements except as a visual inspection of a vehicle’s exhaust system. Samoa appears to not have stated standards or regulations on vehicle emissions for CO,

CO2, etc. However, the TCB is understood to be presently looking for suitable overseas aid to purchase the necessary testing equipment to test exhaust systems. The TCB (or perhaps PUMA or MNREM) will need to establish a set of standards for the emission of the different pollutants. The use of overseas standards from developed countries may be a starting point.

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The OPCV report states that in 2002 two specialised pieces of equipment (a pair of vehicle weighing scales and a vehicle brake-tester) were bought for the GoS under the OPCV project in 2002 (OPCV, 2002, p.4-5 and 10-11). These do not appear to be used (or even present) at the TCB.

The new TCB building with Dive-in Inspection area

As noted by the EPS the TCB is responsible for reporting to the Minister “for all matters related to the issuing of road service licences (for public bus services and taxis) and associated driver permits. (It) also undertakes associated vehicle safety assessments, develops traffic regulations, and in theory identifies and funds capital works of essential traffic management infrastructure including traffic signals, pedestrian crossings and so on” (after APS, 2003, p.A-6). Road safety is a major component of the TCB’s function. Therefore, road safety promotion, the identification of remedial traffic management works (such as ‘black spot’ treatments), the establishment of traffic regulations, the regulation of private, bus and taxi service licences, and safety inspections of vehicles are all part of the Board’s role (after EPS, 2003, p.A-6). The Board also examines issues such as parking in the Apia CBD and possible control measures (such as metering).

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While the TCB has been vested with the responsibility to undertake road safety initiatives, it has adopted an integrated approach to road safety that incorporates input from other specialists, including within government agencies, notably the Ministry’s of Education, Health and Police as well as other key stakeholders (OPCV, 2002, p.2).

The TCB is responsible for making recommendations on the fare structure for taxis and buses. In late September 2005 Cabinet approved a 25% increase in taxi and bus fares which commence on 1 October. To avoid any confusion, the TCB has published a schedule of fare rates booklet which has been issued to the taxi and bus industry and which is available to the general public. It has been announced that reviews will in future be on a two-year basis rather than the former five-year fixed period. The decision of Cabinet was based on a TCB recommendation at its September meeting. This is a good step towards a fairer fare pricing system in Samoa.

The day to day running of the TCB is through an appointed Assistant CEO for Road Transport who is also the Board’s Secretary. The Board meets monthly and has six members, being the Commissioner of Police, the TCB ACEO, the CEO of the MWTI, the General Manager of the Accident Compensation Corporation and two other appointed members including the Chairperson who is currently Judge Vui Clarence Nelson who is a Senior District Judge for Samoa.

In the GoS 2004-2005 Budget the following activities (which all relate to the TCB) were seen as outputs in the area of ‘Administration of Road Traffic and Transport Policy’: Registration and Licensing of Vehicles and the Issuance of Drivers’ Licenses Issuing New Road Service Licenses Conducting Defensive Driver Courses Conducting Road Safety Courses Prepare documentation for TCB meetings and carry Inspections/Investigations

In the 2004-2005 Budget address the Hon Misa Telefoni emphasised that safety will become a key focus of the TCB in the coming year (Telefoni, 2004). The Budget committed a total of $492,117 SAT for the cost of new driving licences, registration plates and stickers as well as road furniture and bus shelters (Telefoni, 2004, p.11). It is understand that the GoS is lagging behind in the provision of bus shelters with several having already been put up by the Rotary Club of Apia and apparently by the Aggie Greys Hotel.

The TISRSS project has considerable work to do in the area of the TCB and its replacement.

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2.9 Role of Planning and Urban Management Agency

The Planning and Urban Management Agency (PUMA) is the central planning agency for Samoa. Its vision (stated on the MNREM website) is for:

“Well-planned and regulated development protecting the environment together with well coordinated provision of urban and rural services and effective disaster management”.

Until February 2005, PUMA was a section within the MNREM. At that time a Ministerial reshuffle occurred and PUMA was placed under the MWTI.

Bus Shelter on Beach Road, Apia

The Planning and Urban Management (PUM) Act 2004 came into operation on 1 July 2004. This is the first such specific planning legislation for Samoa. Previous to this legislation there was the Draft Samoa Lands, Surveys and Environment (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations, 1998 (Beca, 2003, p.71). Environmental planning is new to Samoa and it is taking some time to be bedded down with many developers (and Government agencies) continuing to ignore the planning process. This is also exacerbated by the fact that no enabling Regulations (or Model Provisions) necessary to enforce the planning Act have yet been made.

The objectives of the PUM Act (contained in Section 8) include:

(a) To provide for the fair, orderly, economic and sustainable use, development and management of land including the protection of natural and man-made resources and the maintenance of ecological processes and genetic diversity; (b) To enable land use and development planning and policy to be integrated with environmental, social, economic, conservation and resource management policies at national, regional, district, village and site specific levels;

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(c) To create an appropriate urban structure and form for the development of Apia and other centres so as to provide equitable and orderly access to transportation, recreational, employment and other opportunities; (d) To secure a pleasant, efficient and safe working, living and recreational environment for all Samoans and visitors to Samoa; (e) To protect public utilities and other assets and enable the orderly provision and co-ordination of public utilities and other facilities for the benefit of the community; and (f) To balance the present and future interests of all Samoans.

As a new government department PUMA is still finding its feet amongst other more established departments and in a society where planning consent was not previously required. The Act is modern and has been drafted with considerable thought and deals with sustainability. Up-to-date sections, such as those on ‘Sustainable Management Plans’ (eg Sections 12 and 81), exist but there is an urgent need to provide adequate staff to carry out the necessary work including the drafting of necessary policies and guidelines.

Section 61 of the Act enable Cabinet a discretionary role to call in certain applications “on any grounds Cabinet thinks fit”, taking planning applications out of the control of the planning authority and giving “no right of appeal to the Planning Tribunal”. Such provisions can be found in most planning acts elsewhere. However, here in Samoa, such provisions appear more open to possible abuse as developers have easy access to Ministers of Parliament (perhaps especially now in the lead up to the country’s political election in early 2006).

While Apia is experiencing a building boom there is no adopted parking policy in place that requires developers to provide for ample off street parking or land in kind elsewhere or a monetary contribution for parking. However, Section 49 of the PUM Act relates to ‘Developer Contributions’ for public amenities and public services. This includes issues such as off street parking provision and can require:

a) the dedication of land free of cost; or b) the payment of a monetary contribution; or c) a combination of (a) and (b).

However, this Section is yet to be seriously applied to any new development.

A comprehensive ‘Draft Parking Code’ for the Apia CBD has been drafted by PUMA. The Code is at the stage of having to be ‘tested’ on a number of developments before it is taken on a wide round of public consultations. It will be some time before it is adopted. As part of its work for the Parking Code PUMA has also looked at alternative measures for controlling vehicles in the Apia CBD. These include the installation of parking meters, limited on-street parking and a multi storey pay car park.

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PUMA is currently preparing planning developing standards for permissible emissions levels from transport and industry. No such standards currently exist. These standards are much needed and will give the necessary detail to parts of the amenity/pollution section of the planning act (Section 63).

The lack of gazetted planning Regulations is currently hampering good planning in Samoa. Currently, much of the country is ‘developer lead’ and environmental controls and enforcement are lagging well behind. At best PUMA currently has a peripheral role in the area of sustainable transport but it is likely to play a bigger role in transport planning in the future.

2.10 Ministry of Police, Prisons and Fire Services

The Ministry of Police, Prisons and Fire Services (MPPFS) previously was responsible for vehicle licensing (registration), driver licensing and traffic enforcement. The former two functions are now carried out by the TCB while the Police still carry out traffic enforcement. The latter function is being investigated by the TSRSS to establish if such a role should be funded by the TCB. The penalty provisions for road offences are found in the Road Traffic Ordinance 1960, either in the specific offence section or under a blanket penalty provision in Section 72A. Police normally attend accidents where people are injured or killed. They are required to fill out a ‘Police Report of Motor Vehicle Accident’ form for such accidents (refer to Appendix C). The information on the form is then entered into a basic computer database by the Police with these statistics then being used by the TCB. The ACC (who made up the report forms based on the work of the OPCV in 2001-2002) also receive the completed hand- written Police accident report forms which they use to investigate accidents and claims and for their own statistics. The forms are supposed to reach the ACB within 5 days of an accident (this being a requirement of the Accident Compensation Act 1989).

Police Road Patrol motorcycle (Kawasaki 1000cc)

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There are currently two motorcycle police officers who undertake regular road patrols. ‘General Policing’ officers also undertake vehicle patrols and random vehicle inspections for registration and road worthiness. Police prosecute traffic offenders in the District Court and the Faamasino Fesoasoani (Chief Justice) Court. The Police have previously received traffic related equipment under the IAMP programme. It is understood that this equipment includes computers, hand-held speed radar guns and possibly the two Police motorbikes used for traffic related activities.

Samoan Policeman on Point Duty The Police also perform the important function of being on ‘point’ duty at major intersections and pedestrian crossings during peak periods. This works well in that, unlike traffic lights, the officers are able to better coordinate vehicle movements and keep the traffic moving smoothly. A concern is that Samoan Police seldom wear necessary personal safety equipment (such as white gloves and reflective vests) while on point duty. There may also need to be better training for some Police officers performing their point duties.

Police Road Block Signage

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Random vehicle testing and checking for vehicle registration and drivers’ licenses is carried out by the Police on occasions accompanied by TCB officers. The numbers of infringements issued are high, perhaps indicating that the Police are making a good proactive effort to control wayward vehicles and make the rods safer. At the same time the figures are alarming as these only refer to the vehicles that were seen and stopped by the Police). As an example, for the two month period of March to April 2005, a total of some 3,721 infringement notices were issued. Of these 974 were for overloading (while not stated in the statistics this figure would primarily be buses. Of concern here is that the vehicles are stopped, the driver issued with a fine and the vehicle then continues on). A total of 958 vehicles were found to be unregistered, 215 drivers were found to be unlicensed and only 7 were issued with a ticket for speeding (statistics obtained from the Police).

In February 2004 the Police Services launched its ‘Safer Samoa’ (‘Saogalomu o Samoa’) Campaign. This Campaign has been implemented under the Police Services Institutional Strengthening Project (ISP). The ISP is a joint project of the GoS and the Australian Government (being implemented by AusAID and UniQuest Pty Limited). The Campaign has five technical components, two of which are ‘protecting life and property’ and ‘crime and justice’ with road safety a small part. The Samoa Police have a ‘Community Awareness and Safety Team’, which, at the beginning of 2005 launched its ‘Safety in Schools’ programme as part of the ‘Safer Samoa’ campaign. The team, along with officers of the TCB, visits schools, church organisations, village councils, etc on both islands to educate the community on issues such as crime awareness and road safety.

The EPS study reported in 2003 noted that “existing roads legislation in Samoa is quite old, with the principal statutes, the Road Traffic Ordinance 1960 and Road Traffic Regulations 1961 being over forty years old. In addition there is the Road Traffic Orders 1994. There have been only a few amendments over that period and the legislation is considered to be out of date. The legislation is fragmented, overlapping and excessively complex, fails to address current road safety and traffic issues, and makes it difficult for legal compliance and enforcement” (EPS, 2003, p.79). Previous studies added that up-to- date versions of the legislation were hard to come by even within the Police Department and that the Police did not properly understand their own legislation. This is still the situation but will hopefully change in the near future with the ISP programme currently running with the Police likely to make moves to encourage new legislation. It is important that any revisions to the legislation make it simpler to operate by being easier to understand. Any new legislation should be accompanied with an education package for all staff who may have to deal with it.

The previous project by OPCV in 2001-2002 did not have enforcement as a focus (even though the Police were recipients of testing equipment under the former IAMP). The OPCV team pointed out that the next IAMP needs to have an enforcement component in order to reinforce the initiatives proposed in other components of the OPCV work (2002, p.C-6).

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2.11 Ministry of Revenue

The GoS, through the Ministry of Revenue (MoR), imposes an excise tax on new vehicles imported into Samoa. The tax figures are given in Table 7 below.

Table 7 Taxation on New Imported Vehicles

Vehicle Type Import Duty Excise Tax VAGST Rate Commercial Vehicles 20% 0.0% 12.5% SUV's up to 2000cc Commercial Vehicles 20% 20% 12.5% SUV's etc over 2000cc Utility Pick-ups 4WD, 20% 0.0% 12.5% 2WD trucks Buses, Hiace Commuter 8% 0.0% 12.5% Vans

SUV – refers to sport utility vehicle (commonly referred to as four wheel drive (4WD) vehicles). Such vehicles come as sedans or as pick-ups.

The GoS also charges a duty tax on imported second hand vehicles which is generally a minimum of 3,000tala per vehicle. The purchase price, however, dictates the applicable duty. The GoS has a rule that used vehicles over 8 years old are not permitted to be imported into Samoa. There is no apparent restriction on vehicle size coming into the country.

The MoR also charges VAGST on both the wholesale and retail price of all imported fuel (refer to the Fuel Section of this report).

2.12 Ministry of Finance

The Ministry of Finance (MoF) plays an important and central role in the transport sector. The MoF is responsible for setting the level of the tax levy which is imposed on all imported fuel sales (this area is further dealt with in the Fuel Section below). Revenue from the levy is used to pay off the OPEC concessional loans (totaling US$3.27 million) taken out in 1996 to fund upgrading of the fuel storage facilities and associated infrastructure. Ideally, once this loan is paid off, this levy will be used in the area of energy efficiency promotion.

The EPS report noted that the revenue collected from trucks and buses through fuel excise, vehicle registration and similar fees is especially low relative to the costs these vehicles impose on the road system. They also noted that the fuel excise charged in Samoa in 2003 was low by regional standards (EPS, 2003, p.ii-iii).

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Raising fuel taxes needs to be justified to the community. This can be done by: justifying the increase on the basis that the increased revenue will be used to improve road conditions, as is proposed in this case. It can also be supported if fuel prices in Samoa are low by comparison with other countries (EPS, 2003, p.54).

Energy Unit - Samoa’s energy policy is to reduce the spending of foreign reserves on the importation of petroleum products. The emphasis of the policy is to: employ indigenous energy resources in place of imports, whenever economically feasible; promote energy conservation, especially through use of more efficient energy equipment; and monitor deliveries of imported fuel to ensure that least-cost supply arrangements, consistent with the existing oil supply agreements, are used (www.adb.org/Documents/CSPs/SAM/2001/csp0200.asp).

The Ministry of Finance has a specific Energy Unit (EU), headed by an Energy Coordinator, which is responsible for planning and policy formulation and management of energy related matters and for making recommendations to the Minister of Finance. The EU is also responsible for petroleum supply arrangements. The EU is responsible for pricing fuel when shipments arrive in the country (ADB, 2004, p.9).

The Energy Unit team is part of the Economic Planning and Policy Division of the Ministry. The MoF has requested more personnel to staff the EU as the Unit has major responsibilities stemming from overseeing donor-supported energy projects such as the Pacific Islands Renewable Energy Project (PIREP) and PREGA. The EU also formulates energy policies, processes fuel prices and runs a data collection system for the overall monitoring of the energy sector. A National Energy Committee (NEC) coordinated by the EU has input into energy policy and activities. The NEC meets as need and is made up of representatives of Government Ministries, experts in energy and related areas, as well as relevant nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) and corporations, and interested and relevant private businesses or individuals. A draft table which lists the policies and strategies that relate to the function of the EU is given in Appendix D. This draft is as agreed to by the NEC team in September 2005.

At a recent National Energy Policy Framework Consultation Workshop (July, 2005), run in Samoa under the Pacific Islands Energy Policy and Strategic Action Planning (PIEPSAP) programme, the issues of sustainability and transport were discussed in detail. The GoS, through the Ministry of Finance, had requested PIEPSAP to assist in the development of Samoa’s national energy policy framework. The Ministry of Finance’s Energy Unit is currently formulating an energy policy framework. It is planned to submit the policy framework to Cabinet by November 2005 for endorsement (PIEPSAP, 2005, p.2).

The Samoan National Energy Policy Framework at the time of the PIEPSAP report was a series of goals and policy statements. The parts pertinent to the transport sector are listed in the box below.

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Draft Samoan National Energy Policy Framework

A. Petroleum Goal: Access for all to reliable, affordable and safe petroleum products. Policy Statements • Encourage increased competitive supply options. • Ensure petroleum products meet the required minimum national standard. • Promote the collection, transportation and environmentally re-use, disposal or removal of waste oil and other petroleum by-products. • Reduce dependency of petroleum fuels. • Ensure contingency plans for management of oil spills are in place. • Ensure that the Petroleum Act is adhered to. • Ensure that storage facilities meet the national and international standard. • Reduce emission from fossil fuels use. • Promote the use of bio-fuels.

B. Transport Goal: Efficient, sustainable and cost-effective transport sector. Policy Statements • Encourage the import and use of environmentally friendly and energy efficient vessels, motor vehicles and aircraft. • Ensure land, sea and air transport systems are reliable, efficient and affordable. • Promote the use of bio-fuel as a substitute for imported fossil fuels. • Enforce national and international safety regulation when storing and refueling land, sea and air transport.

C. Renewables Goal: Increase and encourage use of renewable energy. Policy Statements • Promote the sustainable development and use of indigenous renewable energy resources. • Promote and integrate renewable energy programmes into the socioeconomic development plan of all communities. • Promote the use of renewable energy technologies. • Promote partnerships with potential foreign and local investors and donors to seek funding and technical • assistance for the development of renewable energy programmes. • Encourage the use of renewable energy research findings of the Research and Development Institute of Samoa on a commercial basis. • Ensure the sustainable development and use of renewable energy resources.

D. Energy Unit (Ministry of Finance) Goal: Efficient and effective coordination and management of the Energy sector. Policy Statements • Ensure that the Energy Unit has the capacity to plan, manage and coordinate the energy policy. • Provide the Energy Unit with the necessary resources. • Establish an appropriate institutional arrangement. • Ensure the establishment of an effective and reliable database management system. • Ensure human resource capacity development plan is in place. • Increase cooperation and coordination in the collection and dissemination of information. (PIEPSAP, 2005, p.13-14).

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2.13 Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment and Meteorology

The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment and Meteorology’s (MNREM) Vision states: “Sustainable management of Samoa’s natural resources and environment to ensure a better quality of life for all its people”.

It’s Mission Statement is stated as: “Best practice for the sustainable development of the country's natural resources and the environment, in partnership with all relevant stakeholders”.

MNREM’s predecessor, the Department of Lands, Surveys and Environment (DLSE), published (circa 2001) the ‘National Policy for the Protection of the Atmosphere’ (which is shown on the MNREM website but is still in draft form). It is a draft GoS policy addressing atmospheric pollutants and surface emissions and measures for protecting the environment in Samoa. The Policy recognizes that sources of major air pollutants are from human-induced activities or individual actions, including transport vehicles, industrial activities and electricity generation. Relevant to this EST report is mention in the policy of carbon monoxide (CO) emissions from motor vehicle exhaust, CO2 from all combustion sources and lead pollutants from motor vehicle exhaust, etc. The policy points out the health implications due to atmospheric pollutants and other adverse effects such as potential losses of agricultural productivity.

The draft Policy’s Goal is to: “Minimise local impacts of atmospheric degradation and adhere to global efforts that sustainably manage and support the reduction and prevention of, human-related diseases, threats to food chain continuation and crop damage as well as threatening animal life survival, from increasing adverse effects of atmospheric depletion and air pollution”.

The expected benefits of the ‘Protection of the Atmosphere’ Policy include:

Provide clean air quality for all and reduce exposure to health risks Facilitate the recovery of the ozone layer Reduce the impact of climate change and its related effects such as global warming and sea level rise Reduce emission of ODS, greenhouse gases and airborne pollutants

(MNREM website at: www.mnre.gov.ws/documents/policies/Policy%20-%20Atmosphere.pdf).

Similarly, the DLSE published (circa 2002) the ‘National Climate Change Policy’ which addresses climate change (again, while the document is shown on the MNREM website, it is still in draft format).

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The draft Policy’s Goal is to “develop national plans of adaptation and mitigation in response to the impact of climate change”.

This Policy is designed to contribute to the achievement of sustainable measures taken to address climate change issues and how it impacts on the environment, humans and infrastructure (MNREM website at: www. mnre.gov.ws/documents/policies/Policy%20-%20Climate.pdf)

Both policies are now in a final draft form having been reviewed in September, 2004. They are yet to be referred to Cabinet and adopted by the GoS.

MNREM is responsible for environmental aspects of energy use especially with impacts on GHG emissions and CC. The Meteorological Division of the MNREM now has the CC role while officers at the MNREM’s Waste Management Centre are understood to now be responsible for GHG measurement. As stated earlier PUMA (now under MWTI) is in the process of developing standards for emissions for transport and industry (ADB, 2004, p.30, PUMA and MNREM Meteorological Division).

2.14 Transport Related State-Owned Enterprises

A number of ‘State-owned Enterprises’ (SOEs) operate in the transport sector. The EPS (2003) report points out that have been progressively established from commercialized government agencies and enterprises and are set up under a specific Act and Regulation. There were eighteen SOEs listed in 2003, several of which are transport-related (EPS, 2003, p.A-8). Dealt separately below is the Accident Compensation Corporation, the Samoa Ports Authority and Polynesian Airlines.

2.15 Accident Compensation Corporation

The Accident Compensation Board (ACC) (previously called the Accident Compensation Board (ACB)) is a SOE set up by the GoS as a safety net for accident victims. The ACC has a ‘no fault’ insurance scheme that provides compensation for people injured or killed in road and marine accidents. It is estimated that in it’s 2003-2004 financial year the ACC paid out $521,244 (this figure includes both motor vehicle and fishing boat accidents).

There are three Acts that relate to the ACC, these are the:

Accident Compensation Act 1989 Accident Compensation Amendment Act 1997 Accident Compensation Amendment Act 2003

There is a limited payout system under the Accident Compensation Act 1989 with a scale being used to assess the degree of injury/disability (ie a % loss of use rate). This assessment being done for the ACC by GoS doctors at the National Hospital.

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In 2003 the EPS stated that the ACC insurance scheme was financed by a SAT 0.011/litre surcharge on the price of fuel used for land and domestic maritime transport purposes. The EPS also reported that the ACB had a substantial deficit for the scheme when account was taken of compensation payments and management costs (p.A-11). In December 2003 an amendment was made to the ACB Act which imposed a 1% levy for employees and employers (i.e. total of 2%) to assist in funding compensation payments. The surcharge on fuel has also been increased to some 1.1c/litre. Also, the ACC owns the main fresh food market in Apia and makes money on renting out stalls. The writer was not advised whether the ACC still operates at a deficit. In the past year it is understood that only a small proportion of monies (raised from the levies) and allocated to be spent on road safety matters has been so spent.

The ACC performs an important and active role in road safety. Of the nine sets of traffic signals in Apia which were installed at major junctions in the early 1990s four were paid for by the then Accident Compensation Board (EPS, 2003, p.A-28). The ACC has previously funded Police safety equipment, posters and road safety campaigns (and a new television advertisement is due to be aired in the near future). The Manager of the ACC is also a board member on the TCM committee. The ACC works in the role of safety advisor with a small team of several safety promotion officers (though they do not solely deal with the road sector). The ACC keeps an up-to-date database of road statistics derived from Police accident report figures.

2.16 Electric Power Corporation

The Electric Power Corporation (EPC) is the major user of diesel fuel in Samoa. It is a State-owned enterprise (SOE) which is directly responsible for the supply of electricity. The MWTI is responsible for the EPC.

2.17 Samoa Shipping Corporation

The Samoa Shipping Corporation (SSC) is responsible for a regular inter-island ferry service between Upolu and Savai’i. It is also a significant user of imported diesel (this is discussed in greater detail in Section 4).

2.18 Polynesian Airlines

Polynesian Airlines runs the inter-island domestic air service between the two big islands of Samoa. It is also a user of imported petrol and kerosene (there role in the transport sector is discussed in more detail in the Transport Section).

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2.19 Other Transport-Related Organizations

2.19.1 Petroleum Products Supplies

Petroleum Products Supplies (PPS) is a non-government organisation responsible for the storage and distribution of fuel in Samoa.

2.19.2 Public Service Vehicle Associations

The writer was advised that a bus and taxi association look after both aspects of the public transport area. However, in the limited time available to prepare this report, no representative from either organization could be contacted. It is understood that there are bus and taxi representatives on the TCB.

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3.0 LANDS TRANSPORTATION ISSUES AND CONCERNS

“… there is increasing evidence that the negative consequences of transportation may be overwhelming the benefits derived from it, and that there are serious risks to society if we continue our current patterns of transportation development and use. Governments face increasing difficulties in funding expansion of transportation infrastructure and systems to meet continuous growth in demand. Social polarization is occurring between those who have access to good transportation alternatives and those who do not. There are major threats to human health and the global climate as well as other environmental concerns from unrelenting growth in the use f fossil fuels for transportation… around the world”

Sustainable Transportation in Canada: Backgrounder – National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy, 1996

3.1 A World-Wide Problem

Since the world’s first road traffic death in 1896 an estimated 750,000 (GRSP figure) to 1.2 million (World Health Organisation (WHO) figure) people have been killed on roads every year and 20 (GRSP figure) to 50 million (WHO figure) more are injured (Global Road Safety Partnership (GRSP) website: www.grsproadsafety.org and WHO website: www.who.int/features/2004/road_safety/en/print.html) Since the invention of the motor vehicle, it is estimated that some 30 million people have been killed in road accidents. While there may be questions as to the accuracy of the figures they are nonetheless massive in scale and particularly worrying showing that road safety is an issue of immense human proportions. Over 75 percent of these casualties occur in developing and transition countries, though these countries only possess 32 percent of motor vehicles.

The economic impact of road accidents is huge with economic losses estimated at US$ 500 billion world- wide each year. Countries in development and transition have a disproportionably high share of this economic loss, being estimated to be close to 2% of GDP, nearly US$ 100 billion (i.e. nearly equivalent to double all overseas development assistance) and climbing as the level of motor vehicle use increases. Such huge economic losses inhibit economic development and perpetuate poverty. It is clear that the outcome of a serious injury or death of a family member in poor communities has many long-term effects, socially, economically and psychologically on all other family members and the community. Many of these ‘outcomes’ are permanent and soul destroying for individuals and possibly for the larger community (Mohan, 2002(?), p.9). An improvement in road safety will reduce fatalities and injuries and in doing so release pressure on medical facilities which will produce savings that can be spent on other aspects of health care or can be invested to deliver better public services GRSP website www.grsproadsafety.org) There is also the difficult and contentious issue of estimating the costs of death, disability and quality of life (Mohan, 2002(?), p.2) as a financial cost gives a definite economic dimension to the problem. With

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more than 1 million people killed and over 20 million injured in road accidents each year, road safety is therefore a major public health issue.

Poor people in low-income countries are believed to be particularly at risk from road accidents. The GRSP has found the following:

In high-income countries, the poor are more at risk than the wealthy. Low and middle-income countries suffer disproportionately with 85% of the world’s road deaths but only 40% of its motor vehicles. Pedestrians often account for the largest number of road deaths and it is assumed they are disproportionately drawn from the poor. By definition, the poor will have fewer resources on which to rely in times of emergency (www.grsproadsafety.org).

If current trends continue the World Bank projects that the number of people killed and injured on the world’s roads will rise by more than 60% between 2000 and 2020. Deaths are predicted to decrease in high-income countries by the year 2020. However, in developing countries where people are increasingly using motorized transport, fatalities are likely to increase by more than 80% yet are predicted to decrease by nearly 30 percent in high-income countries (refer to Table 8 below) (Bliss, 2004, p.1).

Table 8 Predicted Road Traffic Fatalities

% Change World Bank Region 2000-2020 South Asia 144% East Asia and Pacific 80% Sub-Saharan Africa 80% Middle East and North Africa 68% Latin America and Caribbean 48% Europe and Central Asia 18% Sub-total 83% High-income Countries -28% Global Total 66%

Source: Bliss, 2004, p.1.

The report by Bliss (2004) for the World Bank highlighted that road safety is also a social equity issue. Road accidents have a disproportionate impact on the poor who experience limited access to post-crash emergency care and face costs and loss of income that can push families into poverty (p.1).

Death and injury rates are already high in developing countries. Yet, a study done in Bangalore (India) (cited in Mohan, 2002) found that while the number of traffic accident fatalities recorded by the police is

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reasonably reliable, the total number of injuries are in fact grossly underestimated. According to this study, fatalities were underestimated by 5 percent and the number injured who needed treatment in hospitals by a factor of more than two. The ratio of injured people reporting to hospitals : fatalities was 18:1. But even this ratio is an underestimate, given that some injured are treated at home or by private medical practitioners. Another detailed Indian study showed that the ratio of critical, serious, and minor injuries was 1:29:69. In 1998 in the United States there were 41,471 fatalities and 3,192,000 injured, producing a ratio of 77:1 for recorded fatalities : injuries. Other studies yield ratios (fatalities : serious injuries : minor injuries) of 1:13:102 7 and 1:14:80. Using the accident figures from India and other countries, a conservative estimate has been made of the ratios of fatalities deaths, injuries requiring hospital treatment, and minor injuries to be 1:15:70 in most countries. This would mean that in many LICs the costs of road accidents, if calculated according to the recent international guidelines, would also approach 2 per cent of the national GDP (Mohan, 2002(?), p.5). Using total injury and fatality figures available in Samoa (since 1998 for financial years and since 1995 for calender years) (refer to Tables 11 and 12) a ratio of fatalities to injuries of 1:541 (by calender year) and 1:584 by financial year was found. The short time frame is likely to mean that these figures are not statistically significant. Also we are not comparing ‘like with like’ as we are unable to tell the number of hospitalized cases or whether the injuries are minor or serious. Nonetheless, the ratio is exceptionally high by comparison with the above Indian and US figures. Also unacceptably high is the Accident Compensation Corporation’s (ACC) statistics that there is currently a ratio of 1 death for every 4 (reported) accidents in Samoa. (deaths : accidents).

A study by the Global Road Safety Partnership (GRSP) group in Bangladesh and Bangalore (India) found the poor to be disproportionately killed and seriously injured in road accidents. This is partly due to the fact that they are ‘vulnerable road users’ (VRUs) (i.e. while walking or using 2 or 3 wheeled transport (motorised and non-motorised)). In general, seven in every ten road deaths and serious injuries to the poor involved VRUs (98% among Bangalore urban poor). VRUs accounted for the majority of the non- poor as well. Less than one-third of deaths and one quarter of serious injuries to the Bangladesh poor occurred as 4-wheel motor vehicle occupants. The study also showed that few of the victims (killed or injured) were the head of a household, rather they tended to be adult children who were the main income providers (who are also more likely to have both elderly and young family dependants). The income from the urban poor who were killed amounted to on average, 62% of their total household income (www.grsproadsafety.org/activities/reports/5/Final%20Poverty.pdf). Given adequate statistics similar results might be seen in Samoa. Table 22 below does show pedestrians involved in accidents but it is possible that not all pedestrians in accidents in Samoa are poor.

Miller cited in Mohan, (2002(?), p.2) states that the burden of injury/loss from traffic accidents can be classified into four categories:

1) Medical Costs include emergency transport, medical, hospital, rehabilitation, mental health, pharmaceutical, ancillary, and related treatment costs, as well as funeral/coroner expenses for fatalities and administrative costs of processing medical payments to providers.

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2) Other Resource Costs include police, fire, legal/court, and victim services (e.g., foster care, child protective services), plus the costs of property damage or loss in injury incidents.

3) Work Loss Costs value productivity losses (including victims' lost wages and the replacement cost of lost household work, as well as fringe benefits and the administrative costs of processing compensation for lost earnings through litigation, insurance, or public welfare programmes. As well as victim work losses from death or permanent disability and from short-term disability, this category includes work losses by family and friends who must care for sick children, travel delay for uninjured travelers that results from transportation accidents and the injuries they cause, and employer productivity losses caused by temporary or permanent worker absence).

4) Quality of Life includes the value of pain, suffering, and quality of life loss to victims and their families.

By making the transportation of goods and people faster and more efficient, these vehicles help to support economic and social development in many countries. But while motorised travel provides many benefits, it can also do serious harm unless safety is made a priority. Pedestrians and cyclists using roads are particularly at risk. Accidents are frequent and fatalities and injuries are common.

3.2 Road Fatalities and Injuries are Preventable

There are solutions to the road safety problem. A wide range of effective interventions exist, and experience in countries with long histories of motorized travel has shown that a scientific ‘systems approach’ to road safety is essential to tackling the problem. This approach addresses the traffic system as a whole and looks at the interactions between vehicles, road users and the road infrastructure to identify solutions.

Road treatments can assist in increasing road safety by slowing down traffic. Those treatments used world-wide are included in the box below. Not all of these measures exist in Samoa and it is acknowledged that some may be currently uneconomic to undertake. Given their good results overseas measures such as surface alterations, corrugated roads and rumble strips may have a good chance of success in Samoa and should be tried.

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Road Safety Measures

There are a variety of measures used world-wide to slow drivers. While some of these are already in operation in Samoa others are not and should be considered and trialled. These measures include:

Speed Humps Speed humps are probably the most widely used measure in traffic calming. They are generally raised to about the same height as adjacent curbs and can be round or flat-topped. They extend from curb to curb or may be cut back at the curb with tapered ends to facilitate drainage and to allow bicyclists to bypass them. Their most effective height from a traffic control standpoint is between 50-100 mm. Speed humps are appearing to lose favour in some countries as they do not encourage effective driving (and increase pollution and greenhouse gas emissions from drivers braking into and then accelerating out) and create noise that can disturb residential amenity. They can also be negotiated faster by larger vehicles, such as 4WDs. Vibrations from vehicles hitting the humps can travel through certain types of soil and can damage the foundations of nearby buildings.

Chicanes Chicanes are created by the placement of physical obstacles or parking bays staggered on opposite sides of the road, making for a more ‘tortuous route’. By narrowing the road, sight lines are reduced. This method of constriction has generally proven successful in encouraging lower speeds and deterring through traffic.

Pinch Points Pinch points are used to narrow two-lane roads to a single lane over a short distance and can be found in conjunction with a raised pedestrian crossing. When used in conjunction with a raised pedestrian crossing, pinch points have been found to successfully reduce traffic speeds and through movements. Signing and a textured surface may be used to emphasize pedestrian crossing movement. The surface helps to impress upon motorists that lower speeds are intended.

Curb Extensions Curb extensions involve the widening of the sidewalk on one or both sides of the road. They serve to reduce crossing distances for pedestrians. When placed near an intersection, they tend to tighten turning radii and lessen vehicle speeds while preventing vehicles from parking too close to the intersection.

Surface Alterations Surface alterations at side road junctions involving raised textured materials tend to give the impression of a calmed area. This encourages drivers to be more careful when entering or leaving the side road. The effect is enhanced with the addition of tight curb radii.

Environmental Road Closures Environmental road closures generally occur in residential areas and serve to remove through traffic or undesirable maneuvers. Bicycle exemption should be provided as such closures.

Plugged, or No-entry Calming Plugged, or no-entry calming, involves barring access to motor vehicles on one end of a road while maintaining a two-way flow available to bicyclists and pedestrians. This technique successfully reduces vehicle through traffic while avoiding the possible increase in traffic speed that a continuous one-way street can create. This technique is often used in new housing developments incorporating courtyards or cul-de-sacs to remove through traffic.

Traverse Bands Transverse bands are painted lines placed at decreasing intervals. They give drivers the impression that they are traveling with increasing speed so that they react by slowing down. They are effective at reducing speeds on the approach to a hazard (usually at a junction).

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Overtaking Lanes Is an additional uphill lane which allows for vehicles to overtake those vehicles which are unable to maintain satisfactory speeds. Typically found where long roadway grades occur.

Corrugated Roads This describes a deliberate road treatment which is proving a popular alternative to the speed hump. The UK- based Transport Research Laboratory, a government-backed agency, have been doing work in this area of road management. The corrugations are built into the road surface being designed to rise and fall by 7mm for every 35cm of road travelled to generate vibrations (and noise) only inside the vehicle) (Also refer to: http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:BiFu22JsSUMJ:www.can.org.nz/news letterschnlink_pdf/CL-2002-05-May- Jul.pdf+environmentally+sustainable+transport+safety+quotable +quotes&hl=en &start=18).

Rumble Strips Rumble strips are bands of raised material or indentations formed or grooved in the traveled way or along the shoulder. They are intended to call the motorist’s attention to standard warning or regulatory devices or otherwise alert inattentive drivers by transmitting sound and vibration through the vehicle. There are two basic types – ‘traveled way rumble strips’ located in the road way which may alert motor vehicle drivers to traffic controls, etc. and ‘shoulder rumble strips’. Shoulder rumble strips are typically 0.6 m wide. Such strips have varied practical effect on vehicle speed.

Raised Edges This is a form of grade separation between vehicles and pedestrians and cyclists and acts in a similar way to shoulder rumble strips except they are higher and therefore more a physical barrier forcing a separation of traffic modes.

Speed Cameras Fixed speed cameras have been found to cause drivers to drive to the speed limit or lower whether or not they are in operation. They also serve as a reminder of a monetary disincentive to speeding drivers.

(Source: adapted from Minnesota Department of Transportation, 1996, p. 4(8)– 4(10)

The number of road accidents and casualties is unacceptably high in Samoa (refer to Table 9 below). The TISRSS has noted that the accident rate (given as fatalities per 10,000 registered vehicles) is nearly forty times the figures for Canberra and Australia. The accident rate for Samoa (given as fatalities per 100,000 persons) is nearly five times that for Canberra and Australia. While only three years of statistics are given for Samoa it is clear that they are alarming and are well above the figures for developed nations, such as Australia (TISRSS preliminary findings in unpublished report dated September, 2005). Again the ACC’s calculated 1:4 (death : reported accidents) ratio appears to be a massive figure. Unlike examples in developed countries, people in Samoa appear to have a 1 in 4 change of being killed should they be in an accident.

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Table 9 Comparative Road Fatality Rates for Samoa, Canberra and Australia

Australia Australia Australia Canberra Samoa Samoa Samoa 1975 1990 2004 2004 1993 2001 2004-5 Road Fatalities per 100,000 26.59 13.66 7.9 3.1 7.3 15.0 15.0 Population Road Fatalities per 10,000 5.82 2.31 1.2 0.5 12.5 25.0 19.3 Registered Vehicles

Source: TISRSS September 2005, derived from statistics from ADB and TCB and from OPCV Inception Report (2001, p.1) and ATSB website (www.atsb.gov.au/road/stats/pdf/rfa2004.pdf, www.atsb.gov.au/road/pdf/mgraph 16.pdf and www.atsb.gov.au/road/pdf/mgraph23.pdf).

In addition to the personal suffering, the monetary cost of accidents is very high. By way of example, in Australia in 1996 the monetary cost of accidents was in the order of $15 billion. From 1970 to 2002 the Australian fatality rate dropped from 30.4 to 8.8 deaths per 100,000 population. This reduction has been achieved in spite of the huge increase in motor vehicle use. In Australia, between 1970 and 2002, the fatality rate per 10,000 registered vehicles dropped from 8.0 to 1.4. This was not the case in Samoa where the figures generally rose. In terms of 100 million vehicle-kilometres travelled the fatality rate in Australia dropped from 4.4 in 1970 to 1.0 in 2000 (ATSB 2005figures at: www.atsb.gov.au). Vehicle- kilometres travelled figures do not exist for Samoa so no comparisons can be made. The trend of a rising accident rate in Samoa is disturbing. It is important to examine further statistics to see the yearly accident rate as well as seeing the breakdown of accidents according to vehicle type. Real monetary figures are available in Samoa from the ACC who have estimated that in one year its estimated costs in payouts were:

Total yearly payments (financial year 2003-2004) $521,244.00* Average annual compensation payouts per death $20,757.33 Average annual compensation payouts per injuries $4962.91 * This figure includes both motor vehicle and fishing boat injuries

It has already been proven in Samoa that the road toll can be reduced. In 1996-1997 an emergency road safety programme was conducted by the TCB with the support of the World Bank. The programme was instrumental in curtailing the accident rates momentarily. The achievement was so overwhelming within such a short period that development of a more strategic approach was undertaken by the OPCV team in 2002 (OPCV, 2002, p.2). It is not known if the OPCV work in this area will be effective in the long term (the figures show a reduction in road accidents and fatalities for the year 2002-2003 after the OPCV project was completed, but whether this is attributable to the OPCV work is difficult to tell). The OPCV work in the area of road safety needs to be further expanded upon and their recommendations revisited by the GoS and the TISRSS.

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While there is a GoS interest in making roads safer the means to do so have not been clearly described. No measurable goals appear to exist within the government agencies. There is also apparent conflict between those with expertise in road design and safety and the county’s politicians. An example of this conflict is the efforts of the TCB to keep road speed down while Cabinet was keen to increase it in both the urban and rural areas.

Samoan Road Safety Signs (sponsored by the TCB, a local insurance company and a car rental firm)

3.3 Accidents by Vehicle Type

The consideration of vehicle type as a contributing factor to road accidents is important. The following three tables (Tables 10 – 12 below) give statistics for accidents, injuries and fatalities for a 7-year period in Samoa. It should be noted that many accidents in Samoa are not reported to the Police (for whatever reasons) and therefore do not appear in the statistics. A quick analysis of the figures shows a consistently high number of accidents involving pick-up vehicles.

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Table 10 Total Accidents by Vehicle Type (by Financial Year)

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006# Total Pick-up 29 30 28 24 39 18 3 171 Bus 7 3 8 3 6 7 1 35 Truck 10 6 9 8 6 8 0 47 Taxi 7 14 10 7 6 9 1 54 Car 12 8 10 4 4 7 0 45 Van > 5 5 11 8 13 10 2 54 Jeep * 4 2 6 7 7 9 3 38 Motorcycle 2 3 1 2 0 1 0 9 Others ** 1 0 0 2 2 1 0 6 Totals 77 71 83 65 83 70 10 459

> Van: a vehicle that contains some 7 passengers. * Jeep: a 4WD type vehicle. ** Others: indicates other vehicle types and includes bicycles, fork lifts, tractors, etc. # Part figures only up to 31 August 2005 (i.e. statistics are only for the first two months of the financial year). Source: Accident Compensation Corporation

Table 11 Total Injuries by Vehicle Type (by Financial Year)

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006# Totals Pick-up 42 38 40 34 73 43 10 240 Bus 17 6 18 10 6 14 7 68 Truck 11 8 10 12 16 10 0 67 Taxi 8 17 10 10 7 12 1 65 Car 15 8 12 5 4 10 0 54 Van > 6 5 11 14 19 20 6 81 Jeep * 4 4 10 7 13 15 3 56 Motorcycle 2 3 1 2 0 1 0 9 Others ** 1 0 0 2 2 2 0 7 Totals 106 89 112 96 140 127 27 697

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Table 12 Total Fatalities by Vehicle Type (by Financial Year)

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006# Totals Pick-up 9 3 14 7 4 9 0 46 Bus 1 1 3 0 4 1 0 10 Truck 3 2 2 3 2 4 0 16 Taxi 2 0 1 0 0 0 3 Car 2 0 3 1 2 1 0 9 Van > 2 2 5 2 5 6 1 23 Jeep * 1 0 0 2 1 5 2 11 Motorcycle 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 3 Others ** 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Totals 20 9 29 16 18 27 3 122

These figures roughly equate with those found by the OPCV Inception Report (2001) (refer to the OPCV’s figures for casualties by vehicle type which are given below in Table 13 below.

Table 13 Casualty Rate (%) by Vehicle Type

Vehicle Type Percentage Pick-up 44% Car 13% Taxi 12% Bus 11% Truck 10% Motor Bike 3% Other/Unknown * 2%

* Other/Unknown includes other vehicle types, such as bicycles, fork lifts, tractors, etc. or are unknown/unrecorded by the reporting Police officer. Source: OPCV, 2001

A brief comment is made here regarding the popularity of pick-up (utility) vehicles, which, in effect, are used as small buses/people movers by many families and groups. The statistics show that such vehicles have been popular amongst Samoans for well over a decade. Unlike mini-vans, where people are conveyed inside, pick-ups are usually ‘open weather’ type vehicles with the majority of the passengers, including children being conveyed in the rear in an informal arrangement with people often standing or sitting (illegally) on the sides. Such vehicles by law are permitted to carry four people within the cabin

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and four in the rear – though the number can well exceed this legal limit (with ten people or more crammed into the rear not an unusual sight). This is standard practice in Samoa with such vehicles rarely being pulled over by the Police. It is therefore not surprising that pick-ups have such a poor safety record.

3.4 Accident Locality

The location of road accidents is an important consideration. While the categories are fairly broad that are nonetheless indicative of where accidents are occurring (refer to Tables 14 to 16 below).

Table 14 Total Accidents by Locality (by Financial Year)

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006# Totals Town (Apia) 38 33 34 24 33 28 1 191 West Coast Rd 14 12 13 14 10 6 4 73 East Coast Rd 5 5 10 3 10 5 0 38 Rural 9 10 7 10 9 9 3 57 Tiavi * 0 1 0 1 2 0 0 4 Savai’i 11 10 19 13 19 22 2 96 TOTALS 77 71 112 65 83 70 10 459

* Tiavi is a locality stretching from the southern outskirts of Apia on the Cross Island Road to the village of Siumu on the South Coast of Upolu. # Part figures only up to 31 August 2005 (i.e. statistics are only for the first two months of the financial year). Source: ACC Statistics

Table 15 Total Injuries by Locality (by Financial Year)

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006# Totals Town (Apia) 52 38 38 34 42 44 1 249 West Coast Rd 16 20 25 19 26 10 15 131 East Coast Rd 5 7 12 9 14 10 0 57 Rural 9 10 10 11 24 27 3 94 Tiavi * 0 1 0 1 2 0 0 4 Savai’i 24 13 27 22 32 36 8 162 TOTALS 106 89 112 96 140 127 27 697

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Table 16 Total Fatalities by Locality (by Financial Year)

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006# Totals Town (Apia) 10 2 4 6 7 10 0 39 West Coast Rd 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 16 East Coast Rd 0 1 5 0 3 3 0 12 Rural 2 2 7 3 3 4 1 22 Tiavi * 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Savai’i 7 2 10 3 1 8 1 32 TOTALS 20 9 29 16 18 27 3 122

As can be seen by the statistics in Tables 14 - 16 above a large number of accidents occur within the Apia area or on the West Coast Road on Upolu. The West Coast Road has a high accident rate due to many people living in the villages to the west of Apia, and vehicles traveling to both the Faleolo Airport and the Mulifanua Wharf. Statistics for Savai’i are also high, this is likely due to the fact that the island has some 24% of the population yet is only recognized as a single statistical district. Anecdotal evidence is that people tend to drive faster on Savai’i partly because the roads are better built and in better condition, less traffic and fewer Police to control speed.

All accident figures in Samoa are derived from the Police traffic accident reports. The TCB collects these figures by calender year while the ACC generally collates their figures by financial year. There are possible inaccuracies in the Police figures given that the Police statistics sometimes do not make it to the TCB or ACC in time to be placed in the correct month’s figures and are instead put in the following month’s listing. Thus, some accidents that, for example, occurred in December may be recorded in the January figures for the next year. All three bodies use computerised databases.

Below in Tables 17 and 18 below is a comparison of annual totals for the number of accidents, the number of people injured and the number killed given in calender years and financial years. These tables are interesting as they show a fair disparity between the years overall which cannot be explained and give the figures a possible level of unreliability.

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Table 17 Motor Vehicle Accident Totals (by Financial Year)

1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006# Total Accidents 80 77 71 83 65 83 80 8 547 Injuries 117 106 89 112 96 140 127 25 812 Fatalities 29 20 9 29 16 18 27 2 150

Table 18 Motor Vehicle Accident Totals (by Calender Year)

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005# Total Accidents 91 101 106 79 86 76 80 70 79 79 32 879 Injuries 141 153 154 118 115 105 105 96 137 130 60 1,314 Fatalities 19 21 23 26 27 11 20 24 17 22 15 225

# Part figures only up to 31 August 2005 (i.e. statistics are only for the first two months of the financial year). Source: ACC Statistics

Alcohol - There appears to be a correlation between alcohol and road accidents, as can be seen in Table 19 below. However, the accuracy of these figures must be questioned as the Police have no means of verifying scientifically whether a driver is affected by alcohol and to what degree. Admissions by drivers and passengers, physical evidence (egg beer bottles inside a vehicle at a accident) and, if necessary, a doctor to verify that someone appeared drunk after an accident are the main means of determining drunkenness (but not the level of drunkenness). Further caution should be used in respect of these figures as ‘spikes’ in numbers recorded may merely be due to a drink driving blitz by the Police as a whole or by individual officers. There are also other figures kept by the Police that relate to others being drunk at an accident (but this may or may not include the driver(s)).

Table 19 Drink Driving by Financial Year

1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006# Totals Accidents 12 6 7 9 6 23 18 2 81 Injuries 26 7 10 15 9 55 50 6 172 Fatalities 0 3 1 8 4 5 8 0 25

# Part figures only up to 31 August 2005 (i.e. statistics are only for the first two months of the financial year). Source: ACC Statistics

Other issues involved in road accidents are not dealt necessarily with in the Police accident data, such as speeding, fatigue, kava use, marijuana, driver age and eye sight, mobile phone use, ability to drive, use of seat belts and child restraints, use of safety helmets by cyclists and motorcyclists, the condition of vehicle, the condition of the road and weather conditions (Appendix C shows an example of the Police accident report sheet).

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The incidence (and economic and social costs) of road accidents can be substantially avoided. This has been better demonstrated in high-income countries over the last thirty years where, while vehicle numbers have been increasing, road fatalities and injuries have reduced by proportion. It is reassuring to know that something is able to be done to reduce accidents, injuries and fatalities on roads in Samoa. As mentioned earlier an emergency road safety programme occurred in Samoa in 1996-1997 which momentarily lowered the accident rate. Unfortunately, appropriate investment in low and middle-income countries for the prevention of road accidents, deaths and injuries is currently not commensurate with the growing public health priority. Also, research and development programmes are inadequate and the implementation of cost-effective safety measures is not widespread (Aeron-Thomas, et.al. 2002. p.2, Bliss, 2004, p.2 and OPCV, 2002, p.2).

Samoan vehicle standards remain poor and annual (and six monthly for PSVs) safety inspections need to be strengthened.

Police randomly check taxis at informal roadblocks in Apia

3.5 Environmental Impacts

The major significant pollutants from vehicle exhaust emissions, which are related to environmental health and therefore to road safety and sustainability, are listed in the box.

Noise Pollution – Studies have found that noise levels in most third world urban areas are consistently and significantly higher than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended level of 55 dB (average noise levels per se are higher in third world urban areas than in developed countries). The most significant contributor to these noise levels is road traffic. Road noise can include engines, music and vehicle horns and can be somewhat insidious in its effect but causes reduced amenity, stress and health problems for residents, workers and visitors. As stated earlier one criteria of the 1996 OECD paper

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looking at the attainment of EST by 2030 is “noise caused by transportation should not result in outdoor noise levels that present a health concern or serious nuisance” (www.oecd.org/dataoecd/28/54/ 2396815.pdf).

Major Pollutants from Motor Vehicles

Carbon Monoxide Carbon monoxide (CO) is a product of incomplete combustion. Diesel engines produce far lower emissions of both CO and HC than do gasoline engines. CO affects red blood cells in the body by binding to hemoglobin and reducing the amount of oxygen that can be carried to the body’s organs and tissues. CO can cause health effects to those with cardiovascular disease and can also affect mental alertness and vision.

Nitrogen Oxides Most of the NOx in vehicle emissions are in the form of NO (nitric oxide), a by-product of fuel combustion under conditions of extreme heat and pressure. Once emitted, NO is oxidized to NO2. In conjunction with SO2, NOx plays a major role in the formation of acids in the atmosphere. NOx also reacts with hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight to produce photochemical smog.

Nitrogen Dioxide Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a by-product of fuel combustion and is formed both directly as a product of combustion and in the atmosphere through the reaction of nitric oxide with oxygen. NO2 is a respiratory irritant.

Sulfates Sulfates are the fully oxidized ionic form of sulfur. Sulfur compounds occur primarily from the combustion of petroleum-derived fuels that contain sulfur. This sulfur is oxidized to SO2 during the combustion process and subsequently converted to sulfate compounds in the atmosphere. Effects of sulfate exposure at levels above the standard include aggravation of asthmatic symptoms and an increased risk of cardiopulmonary disease. Sulfates reduce visibility and, usually being acidic, can harm ecosystems and damage property.

Sulfur dioxide The emission rate of Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is directly linked to the sulfur content of the fuel. Diesel engines produce more SO2 than do petrol engines. SO2 is a respiratory irritant and long-term exposure to it can cause respiratory illness and aggravate existing cardiovascular disease. In conjunction with NOx, SO2 is involved in the formation of acids in the atmosphere.

Ozone Ozone (O3) is considered a photochemical oxidant, which is a chemical that is formed when volatile organic compounds (VOC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), both by-products of combustion; react in the presence of ultraviolet light. O3 is considered a respiratory irritant and prolonged exposure can reduce lung function, aggravate asthma, and increase susceptibility to respiratory infections.

Lead Lead (Pb) in the atmosphere occurs as particulate matter. It was added to petrol to raise the octane rate and help lubricate engine components. Lead enters the atmosphere as a fine dust which is easily dispersed and settles on any available surface. The introduction of unleaded petrol (ULP) has reduced but not eliminated atmospheric lead (as it is also emitted from industrial sources). Lead has the potential to cause gastrointestinal, central nervous system, kidney and blood diseases and is a probable human carcinogen.

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Particulate Matter This diverse group consists of carbon nuclei onto which various compounds are adsorbed. Typical particulates include suspended airborne particles from diesel combustion, materials produced by tyres, brakes and road wear, and dust. Respirable particulate matter (PM10) refers to particulates with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 microns or less. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) refers to particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 microns or less. Particulate matter in this size range has been determined to have the potential to lodge in the lungs and contribute to respiratory problems. PM10 and PM2.5 can increase susceptibility to respiratory infections and can aggravate existing respiratory diseases. In 2005 results were released of a study New Zealand conducted by the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research on the ‘invisible’ road toll. The study estimated that 399 New Zealanders over the age of 30 die prematurely every year as a result of exposure to particles emitted by vehicles. By comparison 243 people in the same age group were killed in road accidents in 2001. While a preliminary study and based on “a small amount of emissions and exposure data” it contained disturbing results. The New Zealand Government has announced plans to reduce vehicle emissions through a number of steps including reducing the sulphur content of diesel in Auckland (only!), gradually improving the quality of both diesel and petrol nationwide and improving the emission quality of new and used vehicles

Aldehydes Aldehydes, including formaldehyde, are a major pollutant group associated especially with engines burning alcohol. They are also produced by diesel engines and, to a lesser degree, by petrol combustion.

Air Contaminants and Secondary Pollutants The main products of the combustion of motor fuels are carbon dioxide and water, but inefficiencies and high temperatures inherent in engine operation encourage the production of other pollutants with varying effects. Included are the Hydrocarbons (HC) which are produced by the incomplete combustion of fuel and by its evaporation. Their production is strongly influenced by fuel composition. Hydrocarbons include many organic chemical substances, including benzene and ethylene. Hydrocarbons combine with NOx to produce photochemical smog. Many primary pollutants are transformed into secondary and tertiary pollutants through various chemical reactions linked to meteorological factors, air temperature, humidity and topography.

(World Bank Handbook at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTTRANSPORT/Resources/336291-11078808 69673/chap_9.pdf, the California State Lands Commission www.slc.ca.gov/Division_Pages/DEPM/DEPM_ Programmes_and_Reports/SONGS/DEIR/4%5B1%5D.5%20Air%20Quality.pdf, http://72.14.203.104 /search?q= cache:BiFu22JsSUMJ and www.can.org.nz/newsletters/chnlinks_pdf/CL-2002-05-May-Jul.pdf+ environmentally+ sustainable+transport+safety+ quotable+quotes&hl=en&start=18) .

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4.0 THE SAMOAN TRANSPORT SYSTEM

“We are coming to the conclusion that land use, urban design and the built environment are much larger factors in public health than people have really appreciated.”

Richard J. Jackson, Director, National Center for Environmental Health, US Centers for Disease Control

Samoa has a diverse transport system with a variety of modern vehicle types. Table 20 below gives figures for vehicles registered from various sources with a breakdown by vehicle types and with yearly totals. The figures in the table well illustrate a number of issues, such as the overall increase in vehicle numbers, the popularity of pick-up vehicles and a significant increase in taxi numbers. Various sources report that vehicle numbers are increasing in Samoa annually between 6.9 and 7.9% (EPS, 2003, p.11).

Table 20 Number of Vehicles Registered~

Year Pvte Cars Pick-ups Trucks Buses Taxis Motorcycles Tractors Other# Total 1987 1473 1925 391 212 363 uk uk 188 4552 1988 1531 1,936 346 196 411 uk uk 222 4642 1990 1666 2371 376 505 220 124 uk 43 5305 1991 1742 2504 325 572 820 130 18 55 6166 1992 2240 2610 377 381 1099 118 25 419 7269 1993 1269 1936 472 334 936 67 uk 91 5105 1994 2134 2710 510 209 1057 110 30 729 7480 1995 2380 2784 579 243 1013 97 10 840 7946 1996 2813 2639 426 239 718 47 34 458 7374 1997 2756 2597 404 155 628 52 11 434 7037 1998* 2100 2080 261 159 804 40 6 363 5813 1999 1997 1882 912 147 585 91 uk 561 8243 2000 2017 2173 922 252 1000 80 uk 103 9983 2001** 1990 2180 842 240 1416 200 uk 863 5551 2002 2203 2220 937 1159 81 30 2566 9196 2003 2905 3092 1006 235 956 83 32 3042 11351 2004 4392 3216 1011 235 1286 80 36 3226 13482 2005^ 4591 3493 1201 333 1798 80 39 3228 14763

~ The writer is unable to say whether the figures in this table are definitive. Where possible the writer has used primary sources for data. Some entries are from previous consultant reports where data reliability may be low. The EPS Report (2003) observed that reliability was not good (erratic) for some years (presumably 1992-2000) when the Ministry of Police and Prisons were responsible (p.A-16) and that there were anomalies from differing government data for which it was unable to find an explanation (.11) and that it was variable in both quantity and quality (p.28). This appears to still be the case.

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# All ‘Other’ vehicles include government vehicles, ‘Landrovers’ (a confusing term which the EPS report concludes are 4WDs), forklifts, etc. However, this is not a reliable category as it differs between published tables and in some instances such vehicles may be even separately listed as Government vehicles, machines, etc. uk Figure not known. * Upolu figures only. ** Assumed to be a part figure only (either part year or Upolu only). ^ Figures are from TCB records obtained October 2005. Sources: PRISM database (www.spc.int/prism/country/ws/ws_index.html)(for years 1990-2001), Opus, 2001, p.9, Opus, 2003, p.6 (years 1992-1998), EPS, 2003, pp.11 and A-16 (years 1987-2000) and TCB September- October 2005.

4.1 Right Hand Drive Vehicles

In the EPS study (2003) it was noted that vehicles in Samoa are driven on the right hand side of the road and are generally configured as left hand drive (LHD) vehicles. In the mid- 1990s, the Government permitted the importation of right hand drive (RHD) vehicles. This issue is raised here as vehicle configuration was shown by the EPS team to be a safety issue. It is therefore also an EST consideration. Registration data from March 2003 suggested that 850 vehicles (or some 7% of Samoan vehicles) were RHD (of which about half were light commercial vehicles). Many of these RHD vehicles were imported as second-hand vehicles from New Zealand or Australia mainly as gifts (remittances) from expatriate Samoans (EPS, 2003, pp. 19-20 and A-17). Samoan legislation introduced in 2004 prohibited the importation of RHD vehicles so they should now progressively decline in numbers. The GoS has made an exemption for some heavy goods vehicles (such as specialised 10-wheeler trucks and earthmoving trucks required for aid contracts). The TCB 2005 figure RHDs now registered is 9992 on Upolu and 79 on Savai’i (a total of 1001 RHD vehicles). This means that RHD vehicles now comprise 6.8 % of the vehicle fleet (ie the same percentage as in 200).

4.2 Heavy Vehicles and Goods Transport

A variety of trucks are used in the movement of goods in Samoa. The types of goods carried includes: Shipping containers on heavy vehicles General freight on heavy vehicles General freight in light trucks, vans and pick-ups Industrial materials Hazardous goods (such as fuel) Quarry products Farm produce and livestock Logs and timber

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Cargo imported into Samoa arrives in bulk by ship (mainly by specialised container vessels) or in smaller quantities by commercial aircraft at the Faleolo International Airport on Upolu. Much of the haulage relates to containers going to and from the main wharf area in Apia. There is a profusion of container yards in the urban area of Apia (many being located for convenience near to the port on prime real estate). Such yards tend to be poorly planned and unsightly and may be ‘bad neighbours’. The method of longer haul goods transport within Samoa is mainly via small trucks, including refrigerated vans, which also serve outlying village shops and beach-side tourist destinations.

The Samoa Ports Authority has reported that between July 2003 and June 2004 there has been an increase in total trade into Apia of 8.57 percent and an increase in containers of 5.4 % to a total of 20,088 TEU (i.e. twenty-foot equivalent units or TEU is the equivalent of a twenty-foot container. Most containers today are of the 40-ft variety and thus are 2 TEU). Between July 1999 and June 2004, 20,088 containers were moved through the port of Apia (Samoa Ports Authority, 2005, p.8). Therefore, there are considerable container truck movements on Samoan roads and the numbers are increasing.

Side Lifter unloads a 20 foot container beside Fugalei Street, Apia

The issue of ‘trans-shipment’ (i.e. the movement of goods from one country to another) is a consideration for the transport sector. Trans-shipment makes up a significant quantity of container movements within Apia and has a significant economic impact. The Samoa Ports Authority has stated that shipping services from the United States west coast (such as PM&O Line, Polynesia Line and Hamburg Sud) and other lines from Asia, Australia and New Zealand utilise Apia as a point for the trans-shipping of cargoes to other ports in the Pacific (Samoa Ports Authority, 2005, p.9). The main impact of trans-shipment is the increased movement of containers on the roads of Apia between the shipping agent depots and the port.

Risks - There are obvious risks in the use of heavy vehicles. Risks can be listed as either ‘vehicle- related’ or ‘cargo-related’. There are significant potential risks to human health with the use of some

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types of heavy goods transport on urban roads shared with other road users as well as to residents living in these areas. These risks include the transport of hazardous chemicals and explosives. Such transportation industry risks need to be considered using a set process known as ‘risk assessment’. Risk assessments will involve the GoS in evacuation planning and contingency planning. The transport of hazardous good using designated preferred routes needs to be considered properly along with appropriate emergency responses to accidental or malicious leaks, spills, explosions, etc. The GoS has limited heavy vehicles in some areas. A 1993 Regulation prohibits heavy transport from using Apia’s Beach Road. Therefore, while buses use this area, container trucks do not (it is understood that the reason for this prohibition is more that the bridge over the Vaisigano River next to Aggie Greys Hotel is not built for heavy vehicles). This produces a planning conundrum in that heavy vehicles are forced to use what are in effect suburban streets to move goods. The GoS has also imposed a ‘curfew’ on heavy transport vehicles banning them from the road system during the transport peak periods (i.e. from 7-9am and from 4 -5.30pm) (Beca, 2003, Appendix C). However, enforcement of such restrictions are another matter with many heavy vehicles continuing to operate during these curfew periods.

Overloading - The use of overloaded goods vehicles is evidently a common occurrence in Samoa. This is a safety issue as well as a prime reason for road damage. Pavement damage is directly related to axle load. A formula exists for making pavement damage calculations which is often simplified by stating that damage from a single axle can be computed as: Damage = (axle weight in pounds / 18,000 pounds)4 Damage done by a given vehicle increases roughly with the fourth power of its weight. Put another way, if you double the weight of a vehicle, then the damage it does is doubled four times. This means that doubling the weight causes 16 times the damage. Spreading the weight over many wheels and many axles greatly reduces the damage caused per pound of vehicle weight. Axle spacing also affects the damage caused to an asphalt pavement. Cars actually do little or no pavement damage in comparison to large trucks. It takes approximately 12,000 cars to do the same damage as a single 80,000 pound 18- wheel truck (Federal Highway Administration, 1995, p.43). Engineers who design pavement typically ignore the number of cars and only concern themselves with the number of trucks.

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Triple boggie trailer with lazy axle and container

There are two aspects of truck weight that are interdependent and that interact with the highway infrastructure – these are axle weight (loading) and gross vehicle weight (GVW). Generally, highway pavements are stressed by axle and axle group loads directly in contact with the pavement rather than by GVW. The GVW, taking into account the number and types of axles and the spacing between axles, is distributed among the axles and determines axle loads. Over time, the accumulated strains (pavement deformation from all axle loads) deteriorates pavements, eventually resulting in cracking of both rigid and flexible pavements and permanent deformation or rutting in flexible pavements. If pavements are not routinely maintained, the axle loads, in combination with environmental effects, will accelerate cracking and deformation. Proper pavement design relative to loading is a significant factor in pavement life (Federal Highway Administration, 1995, p.VI-2).

The condition and performance of highway pavements depend on many factors, including the thickness of the various pavement layers, quality of construction materials and practices, maintenance, properties of the roadbed soil, environmental conditions (most importantly rainfall and temperature), and the number and weights of axle loads to which the pavements are subjected (Federal Highway Administration, 1995, p.VI-16). Other considerations are road age and vehicle volumes. A number of examples of major pavement failure exist in Apia, coincidently on commonly used heavy vehicle routes.

Studies overseas have found large variations in the extent to which user fees paid by different vehicle classes actually cover road costs attributable to those vehicles. Infrastructure costs attributable to heavy vehicles are usually greater than the user fees they pay which means that other vehicle classes are subsidizing the operations of those heavy vehicles (US Department of Transportation. 2000). The costs of heavy vehicles to roads in Samoa should be further investigated with a view to a possible more equitable user pays system being introduced.

While the road worthiness of taxis and the overcrowding of buses is frequently a fineable offence, overweight transport vehicles are seldom targeted at road blocks or by Police patrols. This may be because the heavy transport vehicles may use areas where there are no Police or (more likely) it is too difficult for

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the Police to assess whether the vehicle is actually overloaded. A set of portable road-side weighing scales were purchased several years ago (OPCV, 2001, p.4-5) but appear to have been ‘lost’ and are unaccounted for. There scales are obviously essential equipment for random roadblocks to test for vehicle weights. Both the Police and TCB staff have been previously trained in their use. The idea behind the scales was that they were to used periodically by the Police, TCB and the (then) PWD to provide data regarding the loading of goods and other vehicles in Samoa and to give important input into the design of future roads and bridges. Further, the OPCV saw such information gathered as a basis for dialogue with the freight and civil contracting industries and motor vehicle distributors to ensure that more appropriate, road-friendly vehicles are considered when such vehicles are imported in the future (p.5).

Enforcement of Vehicle Weights - There is an incentive to overload vehicles as fewer vehicle movements are necessary to carry cargo. When scales are again used a result may be that transport managers will be forced to reduce the GVW limit for their trucks, thus adding to the necessary number of truck movements on Samoa’s roads. A further implication may be that the increased costs for commercial trucking will be passed on to consumers in the form of higher prices for products. There would be also an increase in safety concerns due to greater congestion and potential accidents with more frequent truck movements. The way to address concerns about trucking is not to put thousands of additional trucks into the system. What is needed is a sensible application of the current law so that it promotes a more efficient and safer transportation system (that is something closer to EST).

A requirement for an overweight vehicle either to be offloaded or have the load shifted until the axle weights are within limits can be a strong incentive to comply. Off-loading and load-shifting requirements are often effective immediately as the inconvenience or added cost that the violator incurs may contribute to increased compliance. A vehicle weight enforcement programme to administer size and weight enforcement requirements and to monitor Government compliance is needed in Samoa. The underlying reasons for such a programme should be to make Samoa’s roads safer and to keep the roads in better condition and not a revenue issue.

While adequate fines and penalties are important elements in an effective road safety programme, judicial support is critical. It is understood that the Samoan court system is slow and overloaded with pending court cases while some Police reports tendered in the courts have been hastily prepared and lack necessary details for convictions (this applies to all types of traffic enforcement as well as criminal prosecutions). Work on improving the Samoan Police’s way of doing business is currently underway as part of an AusAID funded ISP.

Better Efficiency in Goods Movement - Overseas studies have shown that increasing GVW limits can contribute to energy conservation and environmental objectives. Several studies have found that increasing cargo weights by 50 percent can increase fuel consumption by less than a 10 percent. Thus, by allowing more freight to be shipped in fewer trucks, we reduce energy consumption, vehicular emissions and total vehicular noise (Federal Highway Administration, 1995, p.49). However, the difficulty in doing

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this in Samoa is that it is not known what weights are currently being carried on the roads (and it is assumed that vehicles are already overloaded).

There are clear societal benefits in using trucks for moving goods in Samoa. There is however a need to establish if the trucking industry is using the road system in a sustainable way and to what extent they are responsible for road damage.

4.3 Public Transport

Public transport vehicles (termed ‘Public Service Vehicles’ or (PSVs) by the GoS are operated by the private sector and overseen by the TCB under the MWTI. The PSV system consists of buses and taxis only. Table 21 below sets out the statistics for these vehicle types over a two-year period. Most buses are given fixed routes by TCB while the taxis are ‘free range’. Both buses and taxis must be registered twice each year and each renewal required a safety check by TCB officers. Bus and taxi drivers are also required to renew their drivers’ licenses once every year while (a private driving license is for 5 years).

The TCB’s records to February 2005 shows that there has been an increase in both bus and taxi numbers in Samoa on both islands (refer to Table 21 below) since 2004. However, over the past 18 years the figures for both bus and taxi numbers have tended to fluctuate (refer to previous Table 20). The highest number of buses in this period was 572 in 1991, while the record number of taxis was 1,798 in for 2005.

Table 21 PSV Numbers in Samoa (2004-2005)

February February Total Location Type 2004 2005 Increase Taxis 106 120 14 Savai’i Buses 30 51 21 Taxis 1180 1678 498 Upolu Buses 205 282 77

Totals Taxis 1286 1798 Totals Buses 235 333 Source: TCB October 2005

A review into the set fare prices for both buses and taxis occurred in late September 2005 with fares increasing (by 25%) on 1 October. The review was tabled with the TCB in mid September. The TCB is now determined to have more frequent reviews of the pricing (every 2 years instead of five) to keep better pace with fuel price increases in Samoa and provide a fairer system.

4.3.1 Buses

Originally most buses in Samoa were the wooden type. These are basically truck cab chassis, imported into Samoa by the Toyota, Nissan and Ford dealers onto which are constructed a wooden cabin. These

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are a somewhat simple but effective form of construction. The work is done locally by specialised bus builders. The result is a characteristically attractive and personalised painted bus that is popular with both locals and visitors. They lack creature comforts - with hard wooden seats and no air conditioning but are normally ‘airy’ with the windows only being pulled up during heavy rain. These buses are often entertaining or even noisy with music, such as reggae and Polynesian rock. These buses are distinctive to Samoa and are a tourist icon appearing on postcards, postage stamps, calenders and even websites about Samoa. The Toyota cab chassis was the most popular type used for Samoan wooden buses. Buses are a very affordable way of travelling in Samoa.

Interior of a Samoan wooden bus

However, the Samoan wooden buses are fast disappearing, being replaced by modern looking ‘ready- mades’ from Japan and Korea. A representative for the local Toyota dealer (ASCO Motors) has advised that ASCO is no longer importing this type of truck body into Samoa and that Toyota has, in fact, now ceased to manufacture them. It is understood that the Nissan and Ford have also ceased making such cab chassis. It is understood that the GoS has banned further imports of such chassis with a preference for ready-mades. Meanwhile, it is rumoured that a dealer has recently imported two Chinese-made truck cab chassis, which are now operational as buses. By comparison, the standard ready-made bus has seating for 28, compared to 33 on the wooden Samoan buses.

ASCO is now promoting the Toyota ‘Coaster’ 30-seater ready-made which is selling well. The writer was advised that there was a market for second-hand imported Korean manufactured buses (egg the 40- seat capacity). However, spare parts availability and reliability issues have been cited as reasons for such buses falling out of favour.

The profitability for bus operators is an issue with fare prices being set by the TCB previously every five years. Apparently as a result of low fares some routes drivers/companies are forced to fill buses to the point of overloading (and fining) in order to make running their vehicles viable. There is also anecdotal

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evidence at least that the TCB has allocated to many bus companies licences for some routes making operations less or non-profitable. An example is the route to the Tupua Tamasese Meaole Hospital at Motootua (the main hospital in Apia) where some 12-15 vehicles vie for trade.

The largest bus company in Samoa, ‘Queen Poto’, is a family business which has operated since 1987. It has a fleet of forty-one registered buses, of which 40 are used on bus routes and one is kept as a ‘spare’. Only three of Queen Poto’s buses are ‘ready-mades’ with their youngest Samoa bus having been built in about 1999. The company works 25 bus routes 6 days per week, plus one bus to the ferry at Mulifanua on Sundays.

Most of Samoa is accessible by the public bus service. These buses once outside of Apia can carry all sorts of produce, including livestock, large bags of rice, fine mats, as well as machinery and bicycles. The bus timetable is at best approximate. As the EPS team observed: “at the village level, locals know the timetable even though it may not be ideal” (2003, p.A-22). The uncertainty as to when the next bus will arrive leads to frequent overcrowding during peak times and an expressed unwillingness of those with a travel mode choice to travel by bus.

The local Samoan practice is to overload buses with people sitting on laps of others as well as standing. Thus it is quite possible to have a 33 seater bus containing some 60 people! The Police are aware of the overloading issue and in Apia will frequently issue fines to drivers of overly full buses (however, this is less the case in the country areas where there are fewer Police officers). One operator stated that their company pays the fine immediately and the driver then pays the company back rather than the risk of driver imprisonment (!) (However, imprisonment is an unlikely consequence of overloading buses). It has also been stated that bus drivers find it hard to refuse a passenger a place on an already crowded bus partly as there is the fare and the fact that ‘Samoa is a very small place’ (which is not meant to sound threatening but rather that there is a good chance that the driver and the passenger know each other or are even related!).

The overloading of buses is correctly perceived as a safety issue by the authorities (especially when people can be seen hanging out of doorways). The risk level of overcrowding of buses is possibly over- rated. This is because the buses tend to drive slowly when laden and drive according to the road conditions. The statistics available show that buses in Samoa are, given for the volume of passengers carried, one of the safer forms of travel (refer to Tables 10-12). The question needs to be asked whether there are good reasons for fining drivers for the overcrowding of buses if there are other vehicles, drivers and driving practices that would be better targeted to improve road safety (i.e. to reduce road injuries and fatalities). Perhaps a more pertinent issue to be addressed is the practice of passengers flagging down buses in dangerous locations, such as on crests, blind corners and where no pull off area exists. The lack of designated bus stops makes for lazy passengers and drivers having to take risks to accommodate their passengers. Perhaps the provision of comfortable bus shelters (with shade and seating) in safe stopping locations for buses and passengers will reduce this currently dangerous practice. It was noted that several

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such bus shelters are already located along Beach Road in Apia. It is also noted that several such shelters are proposed in this financial year by the GoS.

4.3.2 Taxis

The fleet of taxis in Samoa (primarily in the capital of Apia) appears to be large in comparison to the population. Taxis are privately owned by a number of operators. While many vehicles are owned by the drivers there are many Samoans operating a small fleet of taxis (generally 4-5 vehicles). There are also a small number of operators with larger fleets of taxi vehicles.

The TCB tightly controls the taxi fleet in terms of the numbers of registered taxis on the road, the prices they charge, the frequency of registration checks and the licensing of the drivers (yearly). This is not to say that the system is not open to some abuse by unscrupulous operators, this includes persons driving taxis without licenses and the temporary replacement of some parts (egg door handles) on taxis undergoing registration checks.

All Samoan taxis are white in colour which makes them more visible to other drivers and to people using them. The fleet almost entirely consists of fairly new small Japanese sedans which are able (i.e. licensed) to carry up to four passengers. In addition to these taxi types there are also a number of station wagons and a small number of mini-vans. An increasing number of taxi operators are using two-way radios with a base co-coordinating the dispatch of drivers. This is proving to be a better system to the traditional method of drivers cruising for fares.

Taxi stand at the Flea Markets

No taxi in Samoa is metered with set fares being established by the GoS (through the TCB). However, those not knowing the charge, especially palagi (non-Samoan visitors), will on occasions be charged well above the normal fare. This may be as a result of a perception that such people are able to pay more or because the set fare is low relative to current fuel prices. However, overall, taxis are an economical means of travel in Samoa and appear to be well utilised.

-69- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

There are no taxis specifically designed to carry disabled persons. This is a consideration given the number of disabled persons in Samoa. This number appears to be increasing as disabled Samoan people who reside overseas are increasingly returning home as the level of health support services improves.

4.4 Private Transport

The number of vehicles in private use is increasing. This particularly includes 4WDs, smaller sedans, vans and pick-ups. According to local motor vehicle dealers there has, in recent times, been an upsurge in the number of 4WDs imported into the country. Popular 4WDs are the smaller Suzuki-types, the larger 4- door (‘twin cab’) pick-ups/utilities and the less expensive Korean makes. Observations are that the private vehicles are tending to get bigger (especially in the 4WD range).

The Opus study (2001) found that, in terms of daily persona travel in Apia buses and taxis make up for some 26% and 19% respectively, while cars and pick-ups made up some 30% person trips. In the rural areas buses and taxis make up about 38% and 13% of daily person travel, while cars and pick-ups made up 32% (with the pick-up “playing most of the transport role for these trips” (EPS, 2003, p.A-18).

The 2003 EPS study reported that the average growth in registered vehicle numbers between 1997 and 2002 was 7.9 % per annum (EPS, 2003, p.10-11). It is fair to state that the most significant increase has been in private vehicles. Visible signs of this vehicle increase is perhaps the degree that traffic congestion in peak times has increased in Apia in recent years. The impacts of traffic growth are more substantial in Apia as it contains a significant proportion of the Samoan population in a small area. Such growth is placing increasing and new demands on the road system.

Innovative parking in Samoa

-70- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

Traffic congestion in Apia is an emerging problem according to locals. Road congestion on Vaitele Street west of Apia in peak periods is probably the worst current example (with considerable road conflict). Yet the degree of congestion is not yet impossibly high not having reached the proportions evident in industrialised countries. Nevertheless, attention should now be directed towards improving traffic management to counteract an escalation of existing problems into serious problems in the future.

Parking provision in the Apia CBD is becoming an increasing issue though again is not on the same scale as is seen in developed countries. Parking is much less an issue anywhere else in Samoa. The practice of commercial and business staff parking long-term on-road outside of their premises means that short-term customers must park elsewhere. A number of businesses and building owners provide off-street parking for staff and clients but this is normally at a premium. There is also a fairly large off-street parking area off Beach Road in front of the Government building which is well utilised. Many people have evidently become lazier as the motor vehicle has increased convenience and fewer appear willing to park away from work and walk. The use of parking meters (or pay-and-display) has been previously investigated for central Apia as has a multi-story day-time pay long-term parking facility. The idea of park-and ride is also another option which could be investigated to ease congestion both within the CBD and on the arterial roads that run into the city from the west, east and south. However, the writer is of the opinion that vehicle use in the CBD is affecting amenity, making the center noisy and at time unpleasant for workers, shoppers and visitors. It is perhaps time to review the current parking arrangements with a view to reducing vehicle numbers in the CBD. As suggested in the BECA report (2003) further investigations into the parking issue is needed in the form of a full parking study and a comprehensive parking plan (p.79).

An alarming number of vehicles on the road are unregistered. Vehicles used for ‘short-haul’ type trips from plantations to local villages account for some of these but other vehicles are used for general commuting. Many people appear willing to run the risk of occasional Police roadblocks rather than bothering with vehicle registration. Certainly many vehicles on the road do not appear to be registrable with visible safety issues (including bald tyres, broken windscreens, overly elaborate dashboard and windscreen ornamentation, non-functional head lights, brake lights and indicators). Generally, the Police pull over taxis and buses and only the occasional private vehicle if it looks to be un-roadworthy or has made some infringement. All types of vehicle may be unregistered and still driving on the road, including private vehicles but also buses and taxis and even some government vehicles. Of further concern is the fact that the unregistered vehicles include buses, taxis and apparently even some government vehicles.

-71- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

A modified aged and unregistered Datsun sedan wrecked and abandoned in Apia

There are many people driving on the roads of Samoa who are unlicensed. This is especially prevalent on Savai’i and in villages outside of Apia. There is the knowledge that the Police seldom stop people and that this is generally only in the Apia area (this premise is, however, changing for the good as motorcycle Police officers are now patrolling the West Coast road with hand-held radar guns and stopping offenders). There are also a proportion of drivers who are under age.

Motorcycle ownership in Samoa is low. The TCM figure for motorcycle registration for 2005 was 80. However, this includes the Police motorcycles and Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry ‘ag bikes’. The reason for this small number may be because a motorbike can at best carry only two people. The most useful private vehicle in Samoa is undoubtedly the pick-up which is a versatile workhorse able to transport goods or large numbers of people.

4.5 Pedestrians, Cyclists and the Disabled

The GoS appears to be doing little to facilitate or promote walking and cycling as alternatives to motorised transport. Yet many people walk and some walk considerable distances on the roads of Samoa. Cyclists are, however, rarely seen. Samoan roads are motor vehicle dominated and need to be made friendlier for alternative forms of transport.

Existing pedestrian footways do exist in the Apia CBD and parts of the Salelologa CBD. However, they are of inadequate quality being non-contiguous and with most having an irregular surface, various obstructions and steep drop offs. Such footpaths do not provide sufficient levels of safety and comfort to encourage walking. Most disabled persons (such as those limited to wheelchairs or visually impaired) find it nearly impossible to safely access many shops and facilities. Planned disabled access facilities are rarely seen. This is perhaps also an indicator that many footpaths are at best difficult and at worst dangerous for other users including the aged and tourists. A number of newly-built concrete footpaths

-72- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

have been constructed under the SIAM-2 project which are wide and meet accessibility standards. These new footpaths are really the exception to the rule, being located with bridgeworks or road widening at Falefa and Fagalii and in Vailele and Vaivase Streets, Apia.

Overall in Apia and the rest of Samoa there are no footpaths and no kerbing and guttering. Therefore pedestrians are walk on the road or the road edges (EPS, 2003, p.17). Not surprisingly, pedestrians in Samoa fair poorly as road users in terms of difficult and dangerous access and feature prominently in accident statistics (refer to Table 22 below). In much of Samoa the road is a de facto footpath which pedestrians must share with vehicles. Many roads are confined by the practice of planting thick hedges along property edges (or within the road reserve) and the presence of deep runoff drains on the road edges. Pedestrians especially tend to use the road space in late afternoon and after sunset.

Statistics for injuries and deaths in Samoa show an unacceptably high number of accidents involving pedestrians (refer to Table 22 below). Pedestrians are very much vulnerable road users. Cyclist injuries and fatalities are somewhat hidden in the ‘Other’ group of road users (refer to Tables 10-12). The figures show that the majority of crashes and accidents occur within Apia or between Apia and Faleolo airport, with a high proportion of these involving pedestrians.

-73- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

Table 22 Accidents Involving Pedestrians (by Financial Year)

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006# Totals Accidents 41 35 46 26 37 33 3 221 Injuries 42 35 47 27 38 38 3 230 Fatalities 9 2 10 6 6 13 3 49

# Part figures only up to 31 August 2005 (i.e. statistics are only for the first two months of the financial year). Source: ACC Statistics obtained September 2005 What is not shown in the above table is the fact that the majority of pedestrians killed and injured are school-aged children (i.e. up to the age of 14 years) (EPS, 2003, p.16) and the elderly (i.e. 60 years and over). The OPCV Inception Report found that “there is a high incidence of child pedestrian casualties” (OPCV, 2001, p.1). Pedestrian planning has been obviously neglected in Samoa with the country having a long way to go before it will be pedestrian friendly. Facilities for cyclists, such as cycleways or bicycle lanes or even secure bicycle racks, are non-existent. Cyclists are forced to cycle on the roads with other larger and faster vehicles. Samoa is very much motor vehicle oriented. Biking is an efficient, healthy, and environmentally friendly way to commute yet is dangerous in Samoa. The country has a long way before it can be considered to be bicycle friendly.

Palagi cyclist cycles to work in Apia The transportation needs of the mobility-impaired, such as the elderly and the disabled, along with young children, have been seriously neglected in Samoa. In late 2004 ramps began to be constructed to several public buildings and at street corners in Apia. The Asia-Pacific Development Center on Disability (APDCD) has recent (2000 and 2002) figures for the number of disabled persons in Samoa. It estimated that 2,874 people in Samoa have a disability, with 83.4% living in the rural areas. Of these, children (0- 14 years) are a disproportionate number (1,200 children) (APDCD website at: www.apcdproject.org/country profile/samoa/samoa_current.html#current5

-74- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

Consideration should be given to transportation planning terms that unintentionally throw a bias toward motor vehicle travel. For example, projects that increase road or parking capacity are often called ‘improvements’ although they may in fact be harmful to other road users or people living near them. Wider roads and larger parking areas can degrade the local environment and reduce adjacent property amenity and values. Projects that increase vehicle traffic volumes and speeds frequently reduce the safety and mobility of pedestrians and cyclists (Litman and Burwell, 2003, p.11).

4.6 Ferry Transport

A regular domestic inter-island ferry service exists between the domestic ports of Mulifanua (on Upolu) and Salelologa (on Savai’i). The ferry service is run by the Samoa Shipping Corporation (SSC) which is totally owned by the GoS. The vessels carry private vehicles, taxis and smaller trucks (with shop stock and produce). Between July 2003 and June 2004 the service saw a recorded 528,319 passengers and 51,036 vehicles (Samoa Ports Authority, 2005, p.8). The service has been operating successfully (though apparently not on a profit) for 31 years beginning operations in December 1974.

The ferries consist of the MV Lady Naomi and the MV Lady Samoa II. In addition, there are two self- propelled landing-craft type vessels; the MV Fotu-O-Samoa and the MV Samoa Express (refer to Table 23 below for details on these ferries). The ferries provide a reliable service which runs on time between 2 and 6 times a day. The trip is a distance of 13 miles (20.9 kms) across the Apolima Strait and generally takes 1 hour and 10 minutes. Public buses meet all of the ferries at both Mulifanua and Salelologa Wharves. Fares for this inter-island ferry service are given below in Table 24. While it is a good and reliable service vessels do tend to be crowded with vehicles and passengers on weekends. The safety (or at least the comfort) of the passengers is sometimes compromised.

Vehicles disembark from ‘MV Samoa Express’ at the Salelologa Wharf in Savai’i

-75- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

Table 23 Domestic Inter-Island Vessels Operated by Samoa Shipping Corporation

Lady Naomi Lady Samoa II Fotu-O-Samoa II Samoa Express Type of Vessel Passenger-vehicle Passenger-vehicle Passenger-vehicle Passenger-vehicle ferry ferry ferry ferry Year Built & 1998 (Japan) 1988 (Japan) 1995 (Malaysia) 1995 (Malaysia) Country Overall Length 46.5 metres 43.3 m 39 m 42.0 m Beam 11.4 m 11.5 m - - Draught 2.4 m 2.35 m 2.5 m 2.18 m Gross Tonnage 993 gt 867 gt 299 gt 340 gt (gt) Capacity 220 passengers 480 passengers 110 passengers 60 passengers Crew 16 13 12 12 Service Speed 11 11 9 9 Source: Samoa Shipping Corporation, September 2005 and South Pacific Forum Secretariat. 2004.

View from the bridge of MV Samoa Express at Mulifanua Wharf

The SSC operates a separate goods service with barges (ferries) carrying heavy and/or dangerous goods between Salelologa and Apia. Such goods include fuel for PPS and equipment for the EPC which are not permitted on the passenger ferries.

The ferries use diesel fuel purchased from PPS which is kept in storage tanks at the respective wharves.

-76- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

Table 24 Inter-Island Domestic Ferry Charges ($SAT) Type One way Return Adult Passenger 9.00 18.00 Child Passenger (2-12 years) 5.00 10.00 Infant Free Free Vehicle Freight Small 4WD 50.00 100.00 Larger 4WD 65.00 130.00 Light Truck 70.00 140.00 Medium Truck 80.00 160.00 Heavy Truck 100.00 200.00 10 Wheeler Truck 150.00 300.00 Source: Samoa Shipping Corporation. September 2005. A privately owned high speed passenger ferry, the ‘Tausala Cedar’, ran between Mulifanua and Salelologa for a short period. In July 2004 the vessel was destroyed by fire. The Tausala Cedar could carry up to 90 passengers and made the crossing in roughly half the time it takes the Lady Samoa II. There appears to be no plans to replace this vessel. There are also inter-island ferry services to American Samoa (Pago) from Apia (and for cargo also out of Salelologa) and to Tokelau also out of Apia. While these ferries carry people, vehicles and goods, these services are outside of the scope of this study.

4.7 Air Service There is a limited aviation passenger market within Samoa. An inter-island domestic air service is provided by Polynesian Airlines, which is Samoa’s national air carrier. The airline also provides an international service which will cease operations on 30 October 2005 to be replaced by Virgin Blue. However, the inter-island service will continue to be operated by a down-sized Polynesian Airlines flying a Britten-Norman ‘Islander’ aircraft. The service is between Faleolo (the international airport on Upolu) and Maota Airport (west of Salelologa) and the township of Asau (on the north-western side of Savai’i). On occasions other aircraft types may be used for the service (egg when the Islander is being serviced), these being the Dash 6 ‘Twin Otter’ and the Dash 8 turbo-prop aircraft. The Airline will also continue to fly the short-haul flight to Pago in American Samoa. The flights to Savai’i and Pago were previously from a smaller airport at Fagalii (east of Apia) which closed in late 2004. Details of the air service between Upolu and Savai’i are given in Table 25. Table 25 Inter-island Flights Faleolo-Maota Faleolo-Maota-Asau Frequency Daily (returns daily) Friday, Sunday & Monday (returns same day) Price - One way $46.50 $78 Price - Return $92.90 $155.90 Source: Polynesian Airlines. September, 2005

-77- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

5.0 FUEL SUPPLY AND DEMAND

"I am no enemy to the eco-tax, we can live with it… Very high fuel costs can be a source of innovation."

Werner Pollmann, Environmental Vice President, Daimler-Chrysler, Germany

5.1 Overview of Fuel Situation in Samoa

Samoa, like other PICs has a total dependence on imported fuel for transport and for most power generation purposes (there is small amount of electricity generated by hydroelectric power and by solar panels). However, the use of hydroelectricity is generally during the wet season while during dry periods these generators may only run at 20-25 per cent of their wet season capacity). There are problems with the EPC’s power distribution system and many private businesses and some public agencies have found it necessary to produce their own power from medium -sized generators. Blackouts in the Apia CBD can be frequent and lengthy meaning that such generators are an economic necessity. Samoa’s economic growth will continue to rely on the availability of competitively priced petroleum fuel. The scope for petroleum displacement by indigenous energy sources is largely confined to hydropower in limited quantities, unless recently discovered indigenous sources and RE technology can be utilized (ABD website document at www.adb.org/Documents/CSPs/SAM/2001/csp0200.asp).

There is no operating petroleum refinery in the Pacific island countries and imported petroleum consists of refined products. The share of diesel, also referred to as Automotive Diesel Oil (or ADO), in total petroleum products is higher in the PICs than the international average as the Pacific island electric utilities use ADO for power generation. Because of this, and the growing use of electricity associated with higher living standards, the growth in ADO demand is projected to increase. The transportation costs for petroleum products are high, and their growing usage makes up a considerable proportion of the GDP of Pacific Island economies (Kumarasuriyar and Burke, 1998). The reality of the situation with the PICs is that they comprise a very small part of the World’s fuel market and long transportation distances are required to supply them.

The ADB reported that for Samoa in 1997, petroleum imports accounted for 10.2% of the value of imports and 69.6%t of the value of exports. These figures wee expected to be higher during 1998 - 2000 as petroleum product prices had increased substantially. As demand for petroleum products continues to increase, the comparative cost of petroleum in Samoa's external accounts is likely to continue to rise in the medium and long term (ABD website at www.adb.org/Documents/CSPs/SAM/2001/csp0200.asp).

-78- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

PPS Fuel Tanker In 2004 the Asian Development Bank (ADB) made a succinct summary of the energy consumption figures for Samoa (as well as for potential renewable energy sources). This summary can be found in the box below.

ADB Findings on Energy Consumption in Samoa

Petroleum: Continues to grow at an average annual growth rate (AAGR) of 9% per annum (p.a.) o Unleaded Petrol (ULP) 80% for land transport and 20% for marine transport o Automotive Diesel Oil (ADO) 36% for electricity generation, 25% for heavy machinery, 24% for land transport and 15% for marine transport o Dual Purpose Kerosene (DPK) 90% for aviation purposes with the remaining 10% for domestic purpose (lighting and cooking) o Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) 60% used by domestic sector mainly for cooking while remaining 40% by commercial sector for cooking and more recently for water heating Electricity: Grew at more than 6% p.a. in the last 6 years o Hydro installed de-rated capacity, has remained constant in the last 10 years, with growth being catered for by diesel power o Since 2001 diesel has supplied more than 50% of electricity consumption o For electricity in general, 40% is used by the domestic sector mainly for lighting and the rest by commercial and others, for lighting, heating or drying and for mechanical processes Biomass: Comprises approximately 78% for household cooking and the remainder for industrial use o Most biomass gasifiers and boilers used in the past are either no longer operational or replaced by diesel or electrical alternatives o Biomass remains the number one cooking fuel but its usage has declined by more than 15% between 1989 and 2001 due to urbanisation (AAGR 1.5% compared to population growth of 0.96%) and increased popularity of LPG

-79- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

Potential Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency, and Greenhouse Gas Abatement (REGA) Technologies

Hydroelectricity: Hydro capacity has been identified in both Savai’i and Upolu, with Savai’i having completed its feasibility study. Savai'i Hydro capacity (10 megawatts [MW] in stages of 4MW, 2MW, 2MW by the year 2013) is capable of providing electricity (current peak demand approximately 3MW) for more than 8 years. Upolu potential sites have been identified and should boost hydro capacity by more than 45%, over a period of almost 20 years. By that time it would only amount to about 29% of the Japan International Cooperation Agency's (JICA) projected demand Geothermal: Geothermal potential has been identified in Savai’i but requires further investigation, which is still pending because the license has not yet been granted. Geothermal potential is estimated at 4MW, current peak is less than 3MW therefore new alternative exceeds current requirement Biomass: Biofuel: The Electric Power Corporation (EPC) is pursuing possibility in biomass (coconut) gasifier generator, which is reportedly promising. Methane: An anaerobic digester at the Tafaigata Landfill was proposed to test the feasibility of using methane produced as a by-product of the process to generate electricity to self sustain the operation and also to feed into the national grid (if in excess). To date, the results are not as promising as expected and remain to be justified Source: ADB, 2004, p.1-2

5.2 Fuel Supply Arrangements for Samoa

For many years liquid fuel supply arrangements in Samoa were unsatisfactory. When compared with other regions of the world, Samoa and most other PICs were paying far higher prices for petroleum products, and much of the difference could not be justified on the basis of cost. The GoS felt that it had little bargaining power, since the local market is small and ownership of storage facilities by the existing supply companies being a major barrier to entry by competitors. The mechanism for pricing product each quarter on the basis of changing ‘freight on board’ (FOB) prices provided the companies neither much incentive for increased efficiency nor any penalties for inefficiency. The mechanism also provided for the full pass through of costs, even if these were avoidable by the supply companies (ADB, 2003, p.17). Under the early pricing arrangements, the FOB product prices applied to Samoa (and other PICs) composed of a 50/50 mix of ‘posted’ and ‘spot’ prices. This represented a premium cost, since the posted prices were generally above spot prices. Also having more than one company in Samoa was seen as inefficient, and raised costs unnecessarily due to duplication of overheads, etc. These unsatisfactory supply arrangements moved the GoS to build their own storage facilities to improve their negotiating position when tendering for product supply.

In 1996, the GoS negotiated concessional loans totaling US$3.27 million from the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This funding was used to construct new storage tanks at the site of the former Mobil terminal at Sogi in Apia, at Faleolo international airport and at Asau in Savai’i.

-80- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

Under the new system the GoS sets fuel prices using a price template agreed upon during the negotiation of the contract. The Ministry of Finance is responsible for regulating and monitoring petroleum contracts. The price template is used to price petroleum products every time a shipment gets in (ADB, 2004, p.9).

Fuel supply, terminalling and distribution arrangements for Samoa are now put out to tender every 5 years by the GoS. The first tender was awarded to Mobil Oil in 1998 and the second (current) tender was awarded in 2003 to a joint venture between Shell and Petroleum Products Supplies (PPS). The current contract expires in July 2008.

In late 1999, the GoS calculated cumulative savings of 18% from the earlier supply arrangement. According to a report from the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (PIFS) in late 2003, prices (wholesale excluding import duties and taxes) in Apia were more than 25% lower than the PIC average for petrol and ADO and below the average for kerosene (ADB, 2004, p.17). Since 1998 the GoS has implemented a supply arrangement whereby a sole supplier is responsible for petroleum products. The MoF handles all negotiations and tendering.

In broad terms, Shell is responsible for the logistics and supply side of the contract while PPS manages the main fuel terminal and distributes fuel to retail and commercial customers. PPS is also responsible for bunkering ships and refuelling aircraft at Faleolo International Airport. It also manages and maintains the government-owned facilities including the terminals at Sogi and at Salelologa, Savai’i, the tanks at Apia Wharf and the aviation refuelling depot at Faleolo Airport (Information supplied by PPS).

The fuel for Samoa is currently sourced from the Shell refinery in Singapore which is shipped by tanker monthly. The same tanker also carries fuel for Fiji and American Samoa, and sometimes the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia and Tahiti. Samoa imports 3 grades of fuel, namely ULP (unleaded petrol), ADO (diesel) and DPK (kerosene). ULP was first introduced into Samoa in 1998 (information supplied by PPS).

The Oldest Petrol Station in Samoa

-81- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

Fuel for land transport is available from 22 service stations in Samoa (sixteen located on Upolu and 6 on Savai’i). These service stations vary in age and age of infrastructure/equipment/machinery (such as tanks and fuel pumps) and there are questions of the efficiency of such facilities. The Ministry of Finance is responsible for setting the fuel price and the price fluctuates in accordance with World (OPEC) prices. The Samoa Customs Department collects various forms of revenue from imported fuel (refer to Table 26 below). Diplomatic corps vehicles are exempt from all taxes. Table 26 Revenue Collection by Samoa Customs Department*

Type of Revenue Unit Petrol Diesel FOB^ Price plus Premium US$/bbl> 43.70 38.80 Total Freight US$/bbl 6.09 6.92 Total product base supply price free US$/bbl 49.79 45.72 of excise & all Gov’t charges Total product base supply price free US$/litre 0.31 0.29 of excise & all Gov’t charges US$/SAT exchange $US 1.00- ST/l 2.77 2.77 Total product base supply price free ST/l 0.87 0.80 of excise & all Gov’t charges Excise (Effective from July 1999) ST/l 0.41 0.40 CIF~ + Import Excise Sene/l 127.81 119.71 VAGST per litre Sene/l 01598 01496 Maximum Wholesale Price for the Sene/l 140.15 130.96 same month will be * Figures are as given on the Samoa Customs Department website for April 2005. ^ Free on Board (FOB): indicates which services come with a price. It describes a price which includes goods plus the services of loading those goods onto some vehicle or vessel at a named location. > bbl: barrel ~ Cost, Insurance, and Freight (CIF): A trade term requiring the seller to arrange for the carriage of goods by sea to a port of destination, and provide the buyer with the documents necessary to obtain the goods from the carrier. Source: Samoa Customs Department website (www.revenue.gov.ws/customs/home.htm)

5.3 Fuel Costs Developing countries generally suffer more than OECD countries from oil-price increases. This is because energy-intensive manufacturing generally accounts for a larger share of their GDP and energy is used less efficiently. In fact, on average, oil-importing developing countries use more than twice as much oil to produce one unit of economic output than do developed countries. Oil intensity (use) is in fact is still increasing in many developing countries as modern commercial fuels replace traditional fuels in households and industrialisation and urbanisation continue. By contrast, in the OECD oil intensity has halved since the early 1970s. The vulnerability of developing countries is further exacerbated by their limited ability to change to alternative fuels, the prices of which may increase slower than those of oil products (Anon, 2004, p. 5-6).

In Samoa the cost of fuel while set by the GoS is based on fluctuating OPEC prices. Retail price changes are reflected in changes to the wholesale price with the price being assessed and fluctuating monthly.

-82- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

The ‘Fuel Price Index’, published periodically by the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (PIFS), compares wholesale and retail prices for ULP, Diesel and Kerosene for the PICs along with Australia and New Zealand. The comparisons are useful in terms of indicating what consumers are paying and the duties and taxes imposed by respective countries. When EPS (in 2003) reviewed fuel prices for Samoa and compared them with other PICs (using the PIFS FuelPrice Index) it was noted that: the retail price of petrol in Samoa (even inclusive of tax and duty) was, with the exception of the Solomon Islands, the lowest of all sixteen countries reported; and the retail price of diesel (though it was evident that a number of countries impose lower rates of tax and duty on diesel than occurs in Samoa) was in Samoa still low relative to the regional average (EPS, 2003, p.54). The EPS study suggested that there was scope to increase the rate of petrol taxation in Samoa. Interestingly, the figures given in the latest ‘Pacific FuelPrice Monitor’ (July 2005) by the PIFS (refer to Figures 2 to 4 below) show a similar trend for fuel prices (some 2½ years later) with Samoa continuing to be one of the cheapest PICs for fuel. This study therefore recommends that there is further scope to increase the fuel tax in Samoa. The fuel tax needs to be specifically used for providing funding for road safety type works to ensure that the Samoan road transport system becomes more sustainable. Any increase in fuel prices is also an incentive for the development of other alternative fuel sources to fossil fuels and more fuel efficient vehicles. The EPS report (2003) has considerable detail on fuel pricing (and other road revenue) and should be referred to (refer to pages Appendix D). Figure 2 Regional Wholesale Prices for Petrol (ULP) and Diesel (ADO) (excluding Tax & Duty) - May/June 2005

Source: Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat FuelPrice Index, July 2005

-83- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

Figure 3: Regional Retail ULP Prices (US cpl) - May/June 2005

Source: Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat FuelPrice Index, July 2005

Figure 4: Regional Retail Diesel Prices (US cpl) - May/June 2005

-84- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

Source: Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat FuelPrice Index, July 2005

The PIFS July 2005 FuelPrice also gives figures for DPK (kerosene) which are not show in this report. However, Samoa is similar here to the other two fuel types in being one of the cheaper places in the PICs for kerosene (Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, 2005, p.4).

Government politicians appear to have a different view on increasing the fuel tax. During the 2004-2005 Budget Address the Hon Misa Telefoni, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance, announced that “one of the notable policy initiatives implemented by the Government is the rationalisation of the supply and distribution of petroleum products. This has been a rewarding policy objective as Samoa now has the lowest fuel prices in the region. At this point in time of rising fuel prices, the pricing structure currently in place has provided a welcoming cushion for Samoan consumers” (Telefoni, 2004). It would appear that Samoan politicians are happy with fuel prices. While perhaps not politically simple, Samoa’s politicians need to be better educated (along with the public) in the environmental ‘advantages’ in increasing fuel prices.

An indicator of the affordability of higher fuel prices in Samoa is the comparison of income in Samoa compared with other countries. The indicates that gross national income in Samoa, measures in terms of purchasing power parity (which takes account of the relative prices in countries), was $6,130 in 2001. This compared with $4,920 in Fiji, $3,110 in Vanuatu and $1,910 in the Solomon Islands (all figures in $US). That is, the cost of fuel in Samoa is lower relative to national income than in Fiji, Vanuatu and in the Solomon Islands (using the World Bank's World Development Indicators database) (EPS, 2003 p.54).

5.4 Fuel quantity and Quality

As the fuel contractor, PPS is required under the terms of the contract to have a minimum reserve stock of seven days for each type of fuel at any given point in time. Failure to maintain the minimum reserve stock cover results in heavy penalties to the contractor. To ensure that there is sufficient fuel stocks at all times, and to allow for delays in shipping schedules, PPS as a rule maintains a minimum of 10-12 days stock. Table 27 below indicates total fuel quantities imported into Samoa between 1997 and 2002. Table 28 below shows the amount of ULP and diesel sold between 1999 and 2004.

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Table 27 Fuel Use (Million Litres) 1997-2002

Total Fuel Imported for Year Land and Marine Transport (Million Litres) 1997 37.53 1998 34.58 1999 45.07 2000 45.70 2001 46.50 2002 43.06*

* It is estimated by the ACC that of all fuel used for land and marine transport in 2002 some 97.6% was for land transport.

Source: ACC figures quoted in EPS, 2003, p.A-18

Table 28 Distribution of Fuel Sales~ in Samoa (Wholesale only)

ULP Sales (Litres) ADO Sales (Litres >)

Totals Wholesale to Wholesale by Government# Commercial* Service Government# Commercial* to Service Year Stations Stations

1999 879,320 13,226,571 12,224,700 14,454,940 7,770,246 3,244,160

2000 977,220 13,286,045 11,952,259 16,317,820 9,181,347 3,226,810

2001 807,700 7,843,350 17,490,380 19,372,970 9,172,010 4,667,200

2002 721,000 4,182,040 20,869,995 18,028,539 11,882,543 7,684,745

2003 693,114 7,574,628 18,053,122 17,389,797 11,152,821 6,186,200

2004 715,400 500,950 25,937,570 19,374,500 8,793,227 8,533,970

~ Kerosene sales are not shown in this table given that it makes up a small amount of the transport sector fuel amount and is not used by land transport vehicles. # Sales classified under ‘Government’ include sales to all government departments and corporations, such as EPC. * Sales classified under ‘Commercial’ includes fishing boats, transport and heavy machinery operators, etc. > 90% of sales of ADO under ‘Government’ are to the EPC for power generation.

Source: PPS

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The quality of the fuel supplied by Shell and PPS needs to meet the minimum specifications set by the GoS. Each shipment must be accompanied by a ‘Certificate of Quality’ (CoQ) from the refinery which confirms the actual technical specifications of each type of fuel. When the tanker arrives in port, samples of the fuel are first tested to ensure compliance, before the cargo is allowed to be discharged. Samples are again taken and tested before each fuel type is released to the public. The fuel off the tankers is stored in the tank farm that was formerly owned by Mobil at Sogi. The other storage area seen at Sogi is the closed BP tank farm. These tanks are in a derelict state and their future appears to be unknown. Environmental issues relating to this abandoned tank farm (such as remnant fuel leaking out of rusted tanks into the groundwater) are beyond the scope of this report.

Under the terms of the contract, Shell and PPS are required to operate to the highest possible industry standards in the management and operation of the fuel contract. PPS operates in accordance with the highest safety standards applicable including the Shell standards and the Australian Institute of Petroleum standards in every area of its operation, including HSSE (Health, Safety, Security and Environment). The tanker trucks used for the distribution of fuel are all required to meet the minimum safety standards set by the industry. Additionally, to ensure compliance with these standards, PPS’s operations are audited twice a year by Shell, on its quality control procedures, operating procedures, and maintenance of equipment and facilities used for the storage and handling of fuel and annually by the Civil Aviation Authority of NZ for the aircraft refuelling operations.

Samoa has one of the most modern fuel terminal facilities in the South Pacific in terms of the equipment and computerized technology that the GoS has installed at Sogi and Salelologa. In his 2004-2005 Budget Address in May 2004, the Hon Misa Telefoni, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance, stated that developments are continuing at the Sogi Petroleum Tank Farm with $3.0 million being allocated in the Budget to meet the costs incurred at the time of change in the management of the supply of petroleum products, including the purchasing of essential equipment and facilities (Telefoni, 2004).

The ULP fuel sold in Samoa has an octane rating of 91. For diesel, the minimum octane rating is 45. ULP has a sulphur content of 0.05% while diesel has a sulphur content of 0.5% (this does not appear to have changed since the EPS report in 2003 (refer to p.A-30)). While the sulphur content is higher in both fuels than that used in developed countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, it is the same as other PICs and is what was stated in the GoS contract to PPS. Shell and PPS are contracted by Government to supply specific types of fuel. At this stage, there are no plans by the GoS to supply other grades of fuel, such as ULP with a higher octane rating or other fuel types, such as bio-fuels (information supplied by PPS).

Table 29 below indicates total fuel sales by service stations in Samoa for the years 2002-2004. When compared to Table 28 above there is a difference which can be put down to other sales to the EPC, the SSC, and the Samoa Airport Authority

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Table 29 Sales to All Service Stations by Product (Million Litres)

Year ULP (litres) ADO (litres) DPK (litres) Total Sales 2004 25.93M 8.32M 1.29M 35.54M Source: Ministry of Finance (Economic Policy and Planning Division), September, 2005.

5.5 Aviation Fuels

Somewhat hidden in the figures above are the two fuel types used by the inter-island domestic aviation service provided by Polynesian Airlines. The aircraft commonly used is a Britten-Norman ‘Islander’ which has piston engines which use AvGas (see box below). Other aircraft can be used on this service when required (egg when the Islander is being serviced). Two types of turbo-prop aircraft can be used- the Dash 6 ‘Twin Otter’ and the Dash 8 - both use Jet A-1 (see box below). The fuel is purchased by Polynesian Airlines from PPS and stored at Faleolo Airport. This fuel is used to fuel both domestic and international aircraft. The fuel breakdown figures from PPS do not indicate what quantities are used for aviation purposes.

Aviation Fuels ‘Avgas’ is a high-octane petrol product used by piston-engined powered aircraft. High-octane ratings are achieved by the addition of tetra-ethyl lead (TEL), a fairly toxic substance phased out of motor vehicle use in most countries in the 1980s. The main petroleum component used in blending Avgas is alkylate, which is essentially a mixture of various isooctanes, and some refineries also use some reformate. Avgas is currently available in several grades with differing maximum lead concentrations. ‘JET A-1’ is an aviation grade keosene used in jet and turbine aircraft engines. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avgas and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet.fuel

5.6 Liquid Petroleum Gas

Two companies are responsible for liquid petroleum gas (LPG) distribution in Samoa. These companies, BOC Gases and Origin Energy, are both based in Apia. LPG is not currently used in transport vehicles in Samoa but is used for cooking purposes and some hot water systems.

The British Oxygen Company (BOC) began supplying the LPG market in Samoa in 1977 as Samoa Industrial Gas (SIG). In the 1990s, BOC began discussions with the Boral Gas Company regarding a possible joint venture for the supply of LPG in Samoa. The joint venture proposal failed to eventuate but Boral then entered the Samoa LPG market as a competitor. Boral Gas (now known as Origin Energy) has been operating in Samoa since 1996. Since that time, price competition between the two LPG companies has been keen. The GoS has a 27% ownership in BOC in Samoa (ADB, 2004, p.17-18). LPG has more than doubled its sales in Samoa between 1996 and 2003 while at the same time biomass

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consumption (i.e. the use of firewood) has correspondingly declined. The product is supplied mainly from Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji and is transported in specialised container tanks. The GoS also sets a ceiling price for LPG through the Price Control Board under the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Labor (MCIL), (ADB, 2004, p. 9, 11 and 22).

In discussions with BOC Gases based in Apia it was suggested that LPG is currently too expensive to be economically used in transport vehicles. There are stories of people several years ago who bought LPG for their vehicles from BOC, that they filled up once and never came back! This may be an Samoan urban myth or based on fact given the number of second-hand vehicles that were once imported from Australia and New Zealand as gifts (remittances) there is a possibility that some would have had dual fuel (petrol and LPG) systems. It is quite possible that LPG will be utilised as a fuel for vehicles (possibly as a bi-fuel) if the price of ULP and diesel rise faster than the price of LPG.

In terms of energy efficiency and environmental sustainability, vehicles running on LPG emit about one- third lesser reactive organic gases than petrol-driven vehicles. Nitrogen oxide and carbon monoxide emissions are also 20% and 60% less, respectively. LPG also has an extremely low sulfur content. Unlike petrol-fueled vehicles, there are no evaporative emissions while LPG vehicles are running or parked as LPG fuel systems are tightly sealed. LPG is therefore an attractive option if economic. However, while LPG has a reputation as a purer form of fuel this depends on its source as it can be obtained from either natural gas purification or from crude oil refining (Department of Energy, 2003, p.1).

5.7 Offshore Oil Exploration

Tertiary period reefal carbonates that produce oil and gas in arc-related basins of Southeast Asia also exist in the area of the PICs. While no hydrocarbon deposits have been previously found there is a potential for such underlying petroleum deposits within the PICs Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) which reach 200 nautical miles from their coasts. Between 1968 and 1987 two phases of petroleum exploration in the Fijian EEZ occurred after the discovery of oil ‘seeps’ in neighbouring Tonga. The Fijian push for exploration was largely due to high world oil prices in the 1970s. It is understood that no good deposits were discovered.

There is a similar potential within Samoa’s EEZ. In July 2005 it was announced in the media that an American company, Padre Valencia Energy, was seeking a licence to conduct crude oil and natural gas exploration in Samoan waters. The proposal has been tabled before Cabinet and the Attorney-General's office was to investigate the company's background and to make a recommendation to Cabinet (Tavita, 2005). At the time of this report no announcement had been made with regards to this proposal.

As stated previously there is no operating petroleum refinery in the PICs. It is unlikely that any petroleum refinery could be economically based in the Pacific islands given the low volumes which would be produced, the small local market and the costs of setting up and running such a facility and

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transport costs. There are also the environmental issues, including the continued reliance on GHG producing fuels.

“History teaches us that men and nations behave wisely once they have exhausted all other alternatives” (Abba Eban (1915 - 2002) Israeli diplomat and politician)

5.9 Energy Efficiency in Transport

Many are now realising that increased energy efficiency may be the “key to long-term international development and security and… the key to long term sustainability” (Laitner, 2005, p.30). This premise applies to both the transport and electricity sectors.

Laitner (2005) states that there are three minimum sets of policy conditions necessary to sustain improved energy efficiency gains. These are: There is a strong need to market energy efficiency in more concrete terms so that the opportunity seems more real and more compelling; There is also a need for a clear and persistent policy signal that will direct the creative resources of the market toward greater efficiency innovations; and Finally, there is a need for tightening but flexible efficiency standards on the one hand, but also greater support for research and development on the other (p.21).

Studies by the ADB estimate that transport fuel efficiency can probably be improved in Samoa by at least 10% through focused public information programmes and other measures (ADB, 2004, p.26). However, the transport sector is probably the hardest to impact through programmes for Environmental Efficiency (EE) improvements. Areas that can be impacted include operational efficiency improvements in marine and air transport and the development of engine maintenance programmes for marine and land transport. Improvement of land transport efficiency through incentives to shift to more fuel-efficient vehicles, and better public transport for commuters and improvements in vehicle maintenance can also result in overall transport efficiency improvements of 10% or more (ADB, 2004, p.35). The ADB has estimated that the EPC can improve its generation efficiency by more than 5% (ADB, 2004, p.26).

Smaller, energy (fuel) efficient vehicles, such as the ‘Smart’ vehicle, exist on the market. In fact, several Smart vehicles are currently on the road in Samoa (the Smart vehicle is an interesting vehicle from Daimler-Chrysler's European small-car division which wears a Mercedes badge, is based on a Dutch-built front-drive hatchback and was developed in association with Mitsubishi). However, a realistic consideration of the use of such small vehicles in Samoa is not regarding their fuel efficiency but rather their safety, as such vehicles (generally smaller than 1300cc engine capacity) tend to lack an ABS braking

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system or air bags. The car is small and while described as a four seater would be of little practical value to the average Samoan family. There is also the consideration that everything else on the road is much bigger than you.

In Samoa the medium-sized vehicle should be considered and promoted (with monetary incentives) by the GoS in place of larger vehicles. The vehicle preference should have 4-6 cylinders with engines between 1300 and 2600cc with low to ultra-low emission characteristics (except taxis which should have a minimum egine size of 1500cc). The vehicles should also be required to have appropriate technology such as air bags, ABS brakes and automatic daylight headlights. Preference should be given to turbo- diesels, the use of renewable fuels or hybrid type vehicles. Also, larger-engined vehicles should pay significantly more in government taxes.

A Smart car in the streets of Apia

5.9 Alternative Fuel Sources

‘Alternative fuel sources’ are substantially non-petroleum types which yield both energy security and environmental benefits. They are alternatives to conventional gasoline and diesel fuels in conventional engines. They include Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), Biodiesel, Electricity and Hydrogen (in the form of ‘Hydrogen Fuel Cells’). LPG was discussed earlier as it is a petroleum derivative and is already being used in Samoa (but not in vehicles). CNG and LNG are not discussed as they add another dimension to the fuel situation, require different infrastructure and, it is felt, will not be economic in Samoa given a choice of other alternatives.

There is currently an absence of alternatives to fossil fuels in Samoa. Research into alternative fuels is only beginning (though SOPAC has learnt that the EPC did trials with alternative fuels in the early 1980s but that all records are now missing) (Bowry, et.al., 2005, p.7-8). Samoa has been selected as one of the

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two Pacific Island countries involved in the ‘Renewable Energy and Efficiency Programme’ (REEP) supported by the ADB. The programme is aimed at supporting the development of renewable and energy efficiency technologies, through examining constraints with the ultimate goal of increasing community access to commercially viable alternative energies, such as ‘biofuel’ (which is discussed below). The implementation of this programme should result in a decline in demand for imported fuel which will strongly assist Samoa’s balance of payments (Telefoni, 2004).

There is potential for the use of solar, wind power, more potential for hydropower generation and the possibility of harnessing the Pacific’s ‘Rim of Fire’ to produce geothermal electricity. Biomass from agriculture can also substitute for fossil fuel. And there are opportunities to utilize wave, tidal and other ocean-based energy sources to produce electricity. The use of ‘waste-to-energy’ (biogas systems) is also being investigated to increase Samoa’s energy independence while helping to reduce pollution and public health concerns while providing a source of organic fertiliser. At present these ‘modern renewables’ account for less than 1% of the world's electricity output. The relative unimportance of these sources of energy reflects the high costs involved. However, as petroleum becomes increasingly scarce, this situation will change.

5.10 Biofuels

Biomass is material that is burned to generate electricity and heat. These materials can consist of plant material, animal and human waste, plant and crop residues and industrial and municipal waste. In some cases biomass can be modified into fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel, which are called ‘biofuels’. Biomass can be a sustainable source of energy if the crops used are grown and harvested in a sustainable fashion (http://pennstatebehrend.psu.edu/academic/science/degrees/ biology/energy fieldtrips/biomass Index.htm).

Biodiesel - When Dr. Rudolf Diesel first developed the diesel engine in 1895 it was designed to run on a variety of fuels. Diesel ran the engine on peanut oil when it was demonstrated in 1900 at the World Exhibition in Paris. It was later that the engine was modified to run on petroleum-derived fuel. Biodiesel is a fuel produced from renewable sources such as soybean oil, coconut oil canola oil, cottonseed oil, and animal fat (http://pennstatebehrend.psu.edu/academic science/degrees/biology/energyfieldtrips/biomass Index.htm). Biodiesel is a completely natural, renewable fuel that can be used wherever conventional petroleum diesel is used. Though ‘diesel’ by name it is not derived from fossil fuels and is 100% vegetable oil based, technically being ‘Vegetable Oil Methyl Ester’.

Currently biodiesel is produced mainly from field crop oils in Europe and used widely in a range of diesel vehicles. In Hawaii, ‘Pacific Biodiesel’, produces a biodiesel fuel from recycled cooking oil. It is more economical for pump trucks to deliver used cooking oil to Pacific Biodiesel than to landfill it. This means a landfill saving of over 40 tons of used cooking oil per month (www.biodiesel.com).

Biodiesel is said to be the only alternative fuel that can actually extend engine life because of its superior lubricating properties. It is a renewable alternative diesel fuel which will reduce the following emissions: carbon monoxide (CO)

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ozone-forming-hydrocarbons hazardous diesel particulate acid rain-causing sulfur dioxide lifecycle carbon dioxide (www.biodiesel.com).

In the Financial Times in October 2005, it was reported that Malaysia is likely to legislate to require biofuel use for vehicles and industry. If so then it will become the first Asian country to require the replacement of diesel fuel with biofuel. The biodiesel will be a mixture of 5 per cent palm oil and 95% diesel fuel. The move is in response to increased government spending on fuel subsidies, including diesel and an effort by government to cut costly fuel subsidies and boost the palm oil industry. Malaysia is planning to build three plants to produce 180,000 tonnes of biodiesel for export within the next year. The plants will be operated in a joint venture between the government’s Palm Oil Board and local palm oil plantation companies (Burton, 2005).

Coconut Oil - Coconut oil was first used as a biofuel in the Pacific during World War II when a fuel shortage gripped the Philippines, forcing residents to look for alternatives. When the war ended the concept was abandoned and wasn’t restarted until several years ago when the price of oil began to skyrocket. Jan Cloin, an Energy Adviser with SOPAC currently uses coconut oil to run his diesel vehicle in Fiji. While he is perhaps unique in Fiji, ‘Cocofuel’ is already being used as a fuel in Vanuatu, the Marshall Islands, the Philippines and India. In Vanuatu it is a government requirement that their vehicle fleet be run on Cocofuel. Some 100 private buses in Vanuatu's capital of Port Vila are now powered at least in part by coconut oil. In addition to reducing dependency on foreign petroleum, coconut oil is a source of employment for local people (Cloin, 2004, p. 3, Naivalurua, 2004, Bowry, 2005 and Deamer, et.al. 2005).

Two feasibility studies are to be carried out to identify opportunities for the region. Samoa is one of the PICs where investigations into the use of coconut oil as a biofuel for electricity generation and transport is occurring. SOPAC is taking a lead role in the investigation of this alternative fuel source. However, it is understood that local farmers are hesitant to commit to producing coconut oil solely for fuel as they are currently able to get better prices in the local markets for the coconuts. The specialized production of coconut oil for an assured energy market will benefit farmers and plantation holders in Samoa (especially in Savai’i) through the creation of a stable market for coconuts (it takes about five coconuts to make a litre of fuel). In 2004-205 a feasibility study was conducted in Samoa by SOPAC looking at options for the use of coconut oil in the power sector of Samoa (Anon, 2005 and Bowry, et.al., 2005, p.7-8). The Electric Power Corporation (EPC) is currently trialling the use of a coconut oil - kerosene mix (85:15%) in two vehicles. The vehicles are a 1996 Toyota Hilux Double Cab 2.8 litre diesel and a 2000 Isuzu Turbo Double Cab diesel. Both vehicles appear to be running successfully on this biofuel mix.

In July 2005 members of the members of the PIEPSAP team attended a ‘Cocogen’ workshop in Samoa with stakeholders in the coconut industry, including farmers, NGOs, officials from government ministries

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(such as Agriculture and MNREM), private sector and donor organisations. The use of coconut oil as alternative fuel source to imported fossil fuels is also being promoted in Samoa’s draft energy policy.

The use of coconut oil for biofuel in Samoa will have a positive impact on GHG through its substitution for diesel fuel. The use of biofuels as an energy source needs further investigation in Samoa. Such fuels will help with renewable energy, environmental and human health and regional development.

Ethanol - Ethanol fuel is a mixture of conventional gasoline and ethanol. The result is a much cleaner burning fuel that is just as efficient as standard fuels. Most vehicles are set to run on a mixture of 10 percent ethanol to 90% gasoline as this mixture is optimised for a combination of clean exhaust and efficiency and will function properly in any non-diesel vehicle. Like biodiesel ethanol produces far less toxic emissions than do their traditional counterparts, petrol and petro-diesel.

Ethanol can be generated from grain, straw and cane, to create biofuels for use in energy generation, cooking and as a vehicle fuel. In the 1970s, Brazil began a programme to produce ethanol (ethyl alcohol) from sugar cane. By 1983, with the use of massive subsidies, about 90% of Brazilian cars were designed to be fuelled by alcohol. Unfortunately the project proved expensive as ethanol could not compete with petrol. The main benefit was that the ethanol-powered vehicles reduced levels of air pollution in Brazil's cities. Elsewhere, it is also used in significant quantities, for instance, California residents use close to a billion gallons of the ethanol as a fuel per year. Closer to home, in Fiji the current decline in the sugar industry is causing a rethink of the alternative uses for sugar cane. The option of using cane in ethanol production is being seriously considered.

Ethanol (along with methanol) can be used in internal combustion engines in transport vehicles. Ethanol is produced by fermenting plants containing sugar, starch, or cellulose, such as corn, sugar cane, wood, waste paper, wheat, brewery waste, and other agricultural products and food wastes. Pure ethanol is rarely used, but is normally mixed with petrol. Many vehicles throughout the world run on this blends (for instance, in 2000 the United States Postal Service purchased 23,750 vehicles that are powered by 85 percent ethanol) (http://pennstatebehrend.psu.edu/academic/science/degrees/biology/energyfieldtrip/ bio massIndex htm).

In a recent study, UC Berkeley geo-engineering professor Tad Patzek, in the US has claimed that ethanol, rather than being the alternative fuel of the future, may in fact eat up far more energy during its creation than it winds up giving back. This, of course, raises questions about its future widespread use. A clean- burning fuel produced from renewable crops, ethanol has long been a cornerstone of many nations trying to clear the air and curb dependence on foreign oil. Patzel has argued that up to six times more energy is used to make ethanol than the finished fuel actually contains (Svoboda, 2005).

There is a need for Samoa to get smarter in its use of fuel both for transport and electricity generation.

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6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

“Unless we change direction, we are likely to end up where we are going” (Chinese proverb)

The writer (similar to the findings and recommendations of previous transport studies for Samoa) sees the need for a number of changes to the country’s transport system in order that the system may become more environmentally sustainable. Many of these changes relate necessarily to road safety and the efficient use of vehicles. It should be noted that a number of these recommendations reiterate similar recommendations made in earlier transport management type reports. Where pertinent, the names of the appropriate (existing) government agency responsible for the suggested recommendation are listed in brackets.

Efficiencies

Broadly speaking, it is necessary that sustainable short and long term solutions are adopted and enacted by the GoS to reduce fuel consumption, reduce congestion, reduce air pollution (GHG emissions), reduce accidents, reduce travel costs, reduce requirements for larger parking space areas, improve energy efficiency and reduce the costs of importing fossil fuels. This should be done by examining the following issues/recommendations:

6.1 Transport Sector Institutions, Policies and Legislation

Regional PICs Action

Establish an Integrated Transport Energy Management Centre in one of the Pacific countries aimed at promoting energy efficiency and management in the transport sector and to reduce emissions of greenhouse gas emissions in the Region. The regional transport body should preferably be part of an existing regional body, such as SOPAC, SPC, SPREP or the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, to avoid unnecessary duplication.

A National Road Strategy

The National Road Strategy should contain: 9 A commitment by the GoS to improve the present road system to make it more efficient, safer and environmentally based. 9 Vision statement (of where Samoa intends to go with its future transport system). 9 A Mission Statement (as to how this will occur).

Establish a specialised SOE to drive the Road Strategy (the TISRSS project involving the setting up of the LTA which could have this role).

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Extensive public consultation in the formulation of the Road Strategy document.

The Role of the GoS

Ministers and Ministeries and SOEs to lead by example in the area of EST (eg the use of biofuels in government vehicles). That the GoS take a definite public direction in the areas of environmentally sustainable transport and road safety. Establishment of a National Road Safety Council.

Appropriate GoS Policies

Cabinet adopt as GoS policy the draft ‘National Policy for the Protection of the Atmosphere’ and the draft ‘National Climate Change Policy’.

Role of MWTI

Resurrection, maintenance and updating of Samoa Road Asset Management System. Continued restructure as outlined in the TISRSS programme.

Role of TCB

Improve vehicle testing to include testing of emissions (using agreed overseas standards for emission levels of pollutants). With vehicles which fail such tests to be taken off the road. Update and implement the road safety action plan. Improve road vehicle and traffic administration and road safety measures within the TCB. Improve the TCB’s road vehicle registration database so that it able to be easily interpreted and interrogated.

Role of PUMA in Transport Planning

PUMA to be given a central role in the area of public transport planning. Ensure that the Regulation to the PUM Act is gazetted. The GoS recognise the importance of strategic forward planning and the need for strong enforceable planning policies relating to all aspects of transport planning and road safety (including local planning matters such as road setbacks, sight lines for vehicles and national matters such as parking requirements for new development within the Apia CBD, the promotion of energy efficiency and public transport and planning for pedestrians and cyclists). Ensure PUMA is adequately staffed and trained to perform its functions. Development minimum car parking requirements for all new developments in urban areas by way of a Parking Code for Apia.

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Develop a user contributions plan (under Section 49 of the PUM Act) for the dedicated of land or monetary contributions in lieu of the provision of parking (etc.). PUMA to be given the leading hand in drawing up a public consultation process for all aspects of transport planning with the aim being achieving a system which is closer to EST and which is supported by the public. Disabled Persons The requirements of disabled persons, as both pedestrians and passengers, need to be properly considered by the GoS in all aspects of planning. Disabled persons be represented in any community consultation for future transport type works.

Role of MNREM

The Meteorological Division’s role in CC be strengthened with adequate staffing and training. The MNREM’s role in GHG measuring be strengthened with adequate staffing and training.

Policing and Legislation

Laws need to ensure that the transport sector is made more efficient and safe. Transport laws should be practical for Samoa and enforced strongly. The Samoan Police to use a sensible interpretation of the law and what it is intended to protect. The issue of real public safety should be recognised rather than the issue of revenue. Update existing legislation or draft and enact new legislation that relates to all forms of energy (not restricted to fossil fuels specified in the Petroleum Act). The new Act(s) should have regard to and encourage alternative fuel types to fossil fuels that are more energy efficient and environmentally sustainable. Improve the enforcement arm of the Police (with funding from SIAM-2) to reinforce earlier initiatives (eg by the OPCV Project). The authorities are to take a more sensible application of the current law so as to promote a more efficient and safer transportation system (which is closer to EST). Ensure that Police in the traffic enforcement role are correctly trained and equipped. Enforcement of heavy vehicle restrictions during curfew periods. Enforcement of rules regarding the carrying of passengers in the rear of pick-ups (given the statistically high accident, injury and fatality rates). Enforcement of the current seat belt law. Enforce the requirement for driver licensing to ensure that all drivers have adequate (tested) driving skills. Enforce the requirement that all vehicles traveling on public roads be registered.

-97- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

Better enforcement of all other aspects of road safety (this may require legislative changes). Enforcement of noise levels generated by vehicles (fines for noise above the WHO recommended level of 55 dB) as road traffic has an insidious effect causing reduced amenity, stress and health issues for residents, workers and visitors. Road Safety and Design

Road surface treatments, such as surface alterations, corrugated roads and rumble strips, should be tried in Samoa as an alternative to the ‘traditional’ traffic speed hump. Better signposting of such traffic calming devices to warn drivers in advance. Investigate the installation of roundabouts on critical intersections with current stop signs or current traffic lights. Footpaths to be incorporated into any road upgradings or new works. Road reserves to be resurveyed and where possible reclaimed from private yards (with high, thick hedges and fences, which cause reduced sight lines for drivers and others, being moved away from the road edge (or lowered) to reduce the potential for accidents). Where necessary, for reasons of public safety, land be acquired for road works, such as roundabouts and slip roads. Better signposting, marking and lighting of pedestrian crossings Installation of traffic islands in association with pedestrian crossings or in areas where pedestrians use informal crossing areas is recommended to give temporary refuge from traffic. Role of MoF

Review the current price of fuel set by the GoS with a view to increasing the rate to levels commensurate with other PICs (to enable the paying back of the OPEC loan and future funding of energy efficiency related projects). Ensure that the Energy Unit is sufficiently staffed, trained and funded to carry out all of its tasks competently. Encourage/educate the GoS and its Ministers as to the advantages of using alternatives to fossil fuels.

Accident Compensation Corporation

Review the current surcharge on the price of fuel for land and domestic maritime transport purposes for insurance compensation purposes. Continue in its role as safety adviser to the GoS (including the Police and TCB). Coordinate its road safety campaign (eg school education) with the Police and TCB.

-98- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

6.2 The Samoan Transport System

Vehicle testing

Strengthen vehicle safety inspections for vehicle licensing and for random roadside testing (by Police and TCB officers) to improve the standard of Samoan vehicles. Require more stringent safety/road worthiness testing of all vehicles over 8 years of age (including brake testing and emission levels). Future testing to include a requirement for restricted cabin adornments and a prohibition on the unauthorized modification of vehicles which such features as flashing headlights which can be a distraction and hazard to other road users. Vehicles that fail road worthiness testing are to be given a defect notice to require the problem to be remedied or no licence is to be issued. Such vehicles should not be permitted to be driven on public roads until such repairs have been done. This is to ensure that vehicles on public roads are safe and well maintained.

Buses and Taxis

The GoS create incentives to increase the use of public transport. Improve the image of buses in Samoa to encourage more people to travel by this mode. Licenses of taxi and bus drivers to be displayed in a prominent position within the vehicle in full view of passengers (primarily to avoid the practice of unlicensed persons driving these vehicles). Establish a ‘code of conduct’ and ‘best practice guidelines’ for bus and taxi operators. Establish a system where the public is able to easily report observed bad practice by bus and taxi drivers. A ‘cultural shift’ occur in Samoa with regards to the concept of the bus timetable to create a certainty and convenience of a bus system which runs on time and is not dangerously overloaded. The GoS require and enforce buses and taxis to stop off the roadway when letting off and picking up passengers. Increase the number of bus shelters and formal bus stops by providing shade and seating in appropriate locations, such as outside schools and large businesses, for the waiting comfort of passengers and improved safety. Adequate pull-over areas be provided for buses and taxis providing greater safety for PSV passengers and other road users. Improve the image of taxis and taxi drivers with dress standards.

-99- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

Driver education

Publicity Campaign for safer drivers (egg seat belt campaign). Use of all media forms (newspaper, radio, television, internet) to better educate prospective and existing drivers. Drivers be taught to drive economically and intelligently.

Heavy Vehicles

The transport of hazardous good/materials on preferred routes be considered properly by the GoS with appropriate strategies being adopted (including appropriate emergency responses to accidental or malicious leaks, spills, explosions, etc. and evacuation plans). A vehicle weight enforcement programme (using portable road-side weighing scales at random roadblocks) be set up and carried out diligently to administer vehicle size and weights and to monitor Government compliance Road-side weighing scales data regarding the loading of goods and other vehicles in Samoa be used in the design of future roads and bridges. Road-side weighing scales data be the basis for dialogue with the freight and civil contracting industries and motor vehicle distributors to ensure that more appropriate, road-friendly vehicles are considered when such vehicles are imported in the future. Adequate fines and penalties are used to enforce and prevent the practice of overloading vehicles (penalties may include a requirement that loads be immediately offloaded or shifted until axle weights are within limits). The costs of heavy vehicles to roads in Samoa be further investigated with a view to a more equitable user pays system being introduced.

6.3 Road Safety

Identification of ‘black spot’ accident areas. A remedial treatment programme be put in place by the GoS for black spot locations, using traffic calming and other suitable road safety management options to increase road safety and reduce the accident rate at such locations. The GoS black spot remediation programme be strengthened with specific budget and the development of necessary skills. Previously successful emergency road safety programmes (such as 1996-1997 campaign by the TCB and the work by the OPCV team in 2002) be revisited and analysised as to why they worked. The GoS conduct a specially designed road safety programme, including use of the media.

-100- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

The GoS direct attention towards improving traffic management to counteract traffic congestion problems before they escalate into more serious problems. The GoS direct attention at parking provision in the Apia CBD with a full parking study and a comprehensive parking plan (looking at options to reduce CBD traffic and parking, such as pay parking and park and ride facilities). The use of other fiscal disincentives for the use of private cars in the CBD should also be examined. The OPCV’s recommendations be re-examined by the GoS and the TISRSS. The GoS take an interest in accident prevention by favouring new technology in new vehicles (such as ABS brakes and airbags). The GoS require vehicles to be lightly painted with visible colours (such as silver and white) Alternative road treatments to the use of traffic speed humps be trialled in an effort to make for safer and efficient roads. All pedestrian crossings to be made safer, incorporating better warning signage, road markings, lighting and where warranted center-island refuges. Provision for off-street parking or lay-bys outside of schools and public facilities to enable safer pulling over by buses, taxis and private vehicles. Other necessary road safety measures be undertaken as a priority, such as better road center-marking and maintenance, safety barrier protection, elevated footpaths and pedestrian refuges, pedestrian crossing marking and maintenance, strategic location of street lighting especially outside of public facilities such as shops, schools, halls and churches, etc. centreline reflectors and road side reflector posts be installed on heavily trafficked roads, especially where poor street lighting is a problem.

Pedestrians and Cyclists

The GoS recognise the needs and rights of pedestrians and start making decisions on road ‘improvements’ with pedestrians in mind. The government needs to strive to make Samoan roads safer for pedestrians (ie making the roads more ‘pedestrian friendly’). The GoS should make a serious effort to make Samoa bicycle friendly (cycling is an efficient, healthy, and environmentally friendly way to commute to work and school) including appropriate facilities, such as secure bicycle racks and line marking to delineate cycle areas. Use of all forms of the media (newspaper, radio, television, internet) to better educate pedestrians in road safety.

Road Safety Publicity/Promotions

Development of a transport behavioural change campaign to encourage better usage of public transport and other more efficient (sustainable) means of transport.

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The development of a new school education road safety programme aimed at all level of students including teacher guide packages and training. The education programme to include the use of promotional items (such as road safety calendars, posters and brochures, drink coasters, safer roads phone cards and safer roads postage stamp series). Such items need not be expensive as they can include sponsors (such as local vehicle rental companies and insurance companies). Tertiary Education road safety campaign (as above).

6.4 Fuel Supply and Demand

Fuel

The current fuel tax in Samoa be increased to be in line with other PICs with revenue collected to be directed into paying off the OPEC loan and incentives and investments in EST type projects. Sulphur levels in fossil fuels be lowered in line with best practice elsewhere. The GoS continue in supporting the investigations into the use of Biodiesel and other alternative fuels in order to move towards EST and reduce imported fossil fuel dependence.

Vehicles

The GoS introduce legislation that provides monetary-type incentives for the purchasing of medium sized vehicles, with preference being given to those 4-6 cylinder vehicles with engines between 1300 and 2600cc. The GoS also provide incentives (ie a preference) for vehicles with the following attributes: 9 Low to ultra-low engine emissions 9 Turbo diesels 9 The use of renewable and clean fuels (including LPG, ethanol, electric and biodiesel) 9 Hybrid type vehicles (using a combination of petrol and electricity for motive power)

The GoS regulate vehicle size based on engine capacity (larger-engined vehicles should pay significantly more government tax) The replacement of Ministerial vehicles with low to ultra-low engine emission, medium sized vehicles (ideally which run on Biodiesel or alternative fuel sources). The replacement of other GoS vehicles with low to ultra-low engine emission, medium sized vehicles (ideally which run on Biodiesel or alternative fuel sources). The replacement or conversion of the PSVs (both buses and taxis) to run on Biodiesel or alternative fuel sources.

-102- IPA ‘Engineering & Management Consultant’ South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) SAMOA COUNTRY REPORT National Consultant Report on: OCTOBER 2005 Promotion of Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in the Pacific Islands

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WEBSITES

Alternative Fuel Vehicles: http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/current.shtml http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/zevprog/factsheets/hybrids_fs.pdf http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/zevprog/factsheets/altfuels_fs.pdf http://www.itee.uq.edu.au/~serl/_pamvec/PAMVEC_1.1.xls

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Samoa Customs Department:

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www.revenue.gov.ws/customs/home.htm

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