The Many Faces of Ayurveda*
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Ancient Science of Life, Vol No. XI No.3 & 4, January – April 1992, Pages 106 - 113 THE MANY FACES OF AYURVEDA* G. J. MEULENBELD De Zwaan 11, 9781 JX Bedum, The Netherlands *Speech delivered during the opening session of the Third International Congress of IASTAM, held at Bombay from 04 – 07 January, 1990. Received: 14 July 1990 Accepted: 9 December 1991 ABSTRACT: The erudite author makes an attempt in this article to trace the historical developments of Ayurveda. He also identifies the divergent views which made their appearance on the scene, thus highlighting the flexibility and adaptability of the system to ever changing circumstances. When one reads Sanskrit medical texts from is an arduous one. One way of facilitating various periods, one cannot but be struck by this insight is, in my view, the comparison a remarkable continuity of thought and of Ayurveda with other medical systems. practice on the one hand, and equally The most suitable counterpart of Ayurveda remarkable changes on the other. Just as for comparative purposes in Greek striking is the contrast between a tendency medicine, which resembles it in many towards consensus, and a tendency towards respects, being based on a humoral theory divergences in opinion. and having a long history. Since numerous authors, especially in our The beginnings of Ayurveda as a medical own times, have emphasized the unchanging system are more obscure than those of aspects of Ayurveda, it seems natural to Greek medicine. Indian medical literature study the other side of the coin as well. does not start with writings that are comparable with those of the Hippocratic To start with, I want to be clear about my corpus, which consists of a large number of point of departure in the study of Ayurveda treatises, embodying very diverse points of and its literature. Ayurveda is in my view a view and theories. In contrast to this, the medical system that, having gradually Indian literature begins with two evolved on Indian soil, is intimately comprehensive treatises, the samhitas connected with Indian culture as a whole. I bearing the names of Caraka and Susruta. take much interest in the way in which Fortunately, these treatises belong to Ayurveda came into being, how it different schools, which results in numerous developed, changed, and maintained itself, divergences of opinion between the two, and adapting again and again to altered in different attitudes towards medicine as a circumstances. The task of trying to gain science. The Carakasamhita, which deals some insight into these historical processes mainly with internal medicine. The Pages 106 - 113 Susrutasamhita, conversely, is less developments. Far more significant were preoccupied with philosophy, being a Tantrism and Saivism, both closely treatise that belongs to the surgical school, connected with alchemy and iatrochemistry. and surgeons are known to be, in ancient From the twelveth to thirteenth century India no less than in our own days, less onwards, Indian medical literature shows prone to philosophical speculations than that a varying amount of elements derived other medical specialists. from alchemy were used, resulting in all kinds of mixtures, the components of which The relationship between medicines and are not always compatible. Among the non philosophy thus proves to vary from early Hindu authors, the Jainas composed medical times onwards. It is worth considering if treatises adapted to their creed. These works thus relationship may not be a secondary are said to be based on texts belonging to the development, like it was in ancient Greece, Jaina canon, but do not, however, deviate where medicine developed as an considerably from the common stock of independent art, separate from philosophy. ayurvedic literature, except for their material The Caraka- and Susrutasamhita contain medica, which had to conform to Jaina numerous passages that seem to indicate that tenets. It is even hard to distinguish treatises philosophical concepts did not fit in well by Buddhist authors from those by their with medical doctrines. The Carakasamhita hindu colleagues, with the exception of also clearly shows the eclectic attitude invocation of figures from the Buddhist towards philosophical systems that is typical pantheon. of physicians in general. The samhita of Susruta even advocates explicitly this In general, the role of religion in medical eclectic and tolerant attitude towards widely literature varies considerably. The diverging world views (Sarirasthana 1.11). Carakasamhita is a good example of a Later, in the age of the great commentators, treatise in which religion is conspicuously the scene has evidently changed. Authors, present, as is philosophy. Some later works in particular some of them, like incorporate verses of entire chapters on Cakrapanidatta for example, devoted much disorders regarded as the fruits of evil energy to the interpretation of the classical actions committed in previous lives, but this texts in agreement with philosophical never became a marked feature, which is doctrines that had become authoritative. A understandable since disorders of this type one sided picture of post-classical literature are not amenable to medical treatment. would emerge by giving this trend too much Exceptions do occur, however. A treatise, weight. A large part of the later literature called Virasimhavaloka, composed towards conveys the impression that medical in the end of the fourteenth century, deals philosophy. Other parts of its reflect the extensively with this subject. Mantras, and great diversity of philosophical and religious in later texts also yantras, occur regularly, thought in various periods of Indian history. though not frequently, except in works of A remarkable feature is, for example, the Tantric inspiration, such as Narayana’s almost complete lack of impact of the Yoga- Tantrasarasamgraha. Magical element system on medicine. One single text, the show a similar distribution and are found in anonymous Ayurvedasutra, testifies to an particular in Tantric works, as well as in individual effort to integrate Yoga and specialized treatises such as Nagarjuna;s Ayurveda; this remained an exception and Kaksaputa. As to astrology, its relation with did not have any influence on subsequent medicine is not a close one, although in a Pages 106 - 113 few exceptional texts, like the already There were numerous differences of opinion mentioned Virasimhavaloka, it is given on practical points, especially on the details ample scope. In more recent times, we can of the preparations of compound medicines. observe that during the revival of Ayurveda in the nineteenth century, much thought was Apart from all these early disagreements in given to the integration of Ayurveda, the formative period of Ayurveda, the philosophy, and religion. This is striking number of differences between the views feature of the extensive commentary on the expressed in Caraka and Susrutasamhita is Carakasamhita by Gangadhra Kaviraj, the considerable, many of these even being greatest representative of this movement. irreconcilable. It is therefore no surprise The most recent literature does not show this that, in the course of time, just as in the tendency any longer, being characterized by Graeco-Roman world, there was an a secularization of Ayurveda. increasing need to construct a more unitary system of medicine. The demand was met After this digression on the vicissitudes of by Vagbhata, who probably lived in north the relationship between medicine on the western India about A. D. 600. The work he one hand, and philosophy and religion on composed, the Astangahrdayasamhita, the other, I shall turn to medicine proper. although based in large measure on the Taking a closer look at the samhitas of samhitas of Caraka and Susruta, heralds a Caraka and Susruta, we notice efforts new era by introducing a consistent system towards a coherent body of medical theory of medicine, with the added advantage of without this aim being completely achieved, being couched in elegant Sanskrit verse. In which is a fortunate state of affairs for the spite of the importance of the subject, the medical historian. Besides their construction of Vagbhata’s treatise and the inconsistencies, a fascinating aspect of these motivation behind his choices, have not yet samhitas is their preservation of a been studied in details, although much considerable number of old theories, which informations on this tissue can be found in a are still referred to, though these are refuted book by Prof. P. V. Sharma, called by the authoritative teachers who figure Vagbhatativecana. An extremely interesting prominently in them. The available topic is the influence of Vagbhata and the evidence point to a great diversity of views subsequent fate of his work. As opposed to in the period anterior to the establishment of what one would expect, his treatise was not the classical samhitas. In this it must have generally welcomed and accepted, and only resembled the formative period of Greek became authoritative and very popular in medicine. Regrettably, this pre-classical certain parts of India, especially in the south. period has left us no complete texts or large A remarkably large number of authors from fragments of these, but nevertheless, the India’s Dravidian-speaking areas have references found in the samhitas themselves, extensively drawn upon Vagbhata’s the quotations and all sorts of remarks in the Samhitas in composing or compiling their commentaries, and a few fragments of early won medical