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Space Warfare and Defense by Chapman SPACE WARFARE AND DEFENSE www.abc-clio.com ABC-CLIO 1-800-368-6868 www.abc-clio.com ABC-CLIO 1-800-368-6868 SPACE WARFARE AND DEFENSE A Historical Encyclopedia and Research Guide BERT CHAPMAN Santa Barbara, California Denver, Colorado Oxford, England www.abc-clio.com ABC-CLIO 1-800-368-6868 Copyright 2008 by ABC-CLIO All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file with the Library of Congress 12 11 10 09 08 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an ebook. Visit www.abc-clio.com for details. ABC-CLIO, Inc. 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116–1911 Production Editor: Alisha Martinez Production Manager: Don Schmidt Media Manager: Caroline Price Media Editor: Julie Dunbar File Management Coordinator: Paula Gerard This book is printed on acid-free paper. Manufactured in the United States of America www.abc-clio.com ABC-CLIO 1-800-368-6868 To Becky, who personifies Proverbs 31:10. www.abc-clio.com ABC-CLIO 1-800-368-6868 www.abc-clio.com ABC-CLIO 1-800-368-6868 C ONTENTS Acknowledgements ix Introduction xi Chronology xv PART 1 1 Development of U.S. Military Space Policy 3 2 U.S. Military Space Programs 97 3 Space Weaponry Development 137 4 Other Countries’ Space Weapons Programs 183 5 Selected U.S. Laws and International Agreements on Military Uses of Space 223 PART 2 6 U.S. Defense Department Resources 239 7 Non–Defense Department U.S. Government Resources: Congress, Independent Agencies, and Commissions 279 8 U.S. Research Institutions 313 9 Foreign and International Government Organizations and Research Centers 329 10 Research Assistance: Periodical Indexes, Scholarly and Trade Journals, Scholarly Books, Documentary Collections, and Library of Congress Subject Headings 347 Glossary 369 Index 387 About the Author 405 vii www.abc-clio.com ABC-CLIO 1-800-368-6868 www.abc-clio.com ABC-CLIO 1-800-368-6868 A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS Numerous factors are required to make book production successful. Steve Danver, Craig Hunt, Julie Dunbar, Alisha Martinez, and Alex Mikaberidze of ABC-CLIO have been con- summate professionals in guiding me through company publishing practices and pro - cedures. I received valuable research assistance from various research individuals in this process including Sharon Kelly of the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Barbara Risser of the Pentagon Library, and the presidential Office of Science and Technology Policy. I am particularly fortunate to work at Purdue University Libraries, which encourages its library faculty to achieve scholarly excellence, and I am grateful to God for the profes- sional and personal opportunities He has given me. Finally, I am grateful to my wife Becky who encourages me to reach for the heavens while keeping me firmly grounded. ix www.abc-clio.com ABC-CLIO 1-800-368-6868 www.abc-clio.com ABC-CLIO 1-800-368-6868 I NTRODUCTION The authorities essential to the common defense are these: to raise armies; to build and equip fleets; to prescribe rules for the government of both; to direct their operations; to provide for their support. These powers ought to exist without limitation, because it is impossible to foresee or define the extent and variety of na- tional exigencies, or the correspondent extent and variety of the means which may be necessary to satisfy them. The circumstances that endanger the safety of nations are infinite, and for this reason no constitutional shackles can wisely be imposed on the power to which the care of it is committed (Hamilton 1787). ... while some might view that space can be kept a weapons-free sanctuary free of military systems, history tells us that each time new technological opportunities pre- sent themselves, nations invariably employ them to avoid being placed in an inferior defense position. (Orr 1984). The key factor in early 21st-century American national security policy has justifiably been the U.S. Government’s responses to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. This has been demonstrated by controversial wars in Iraq and Afghanistan; acrimony over the USA Patriot Act; contentious debate over the treatment and legal status of terrorist detainees; disputes over the legal and constitutional propriety of the National Security Agency’s wireless surveillance program; and other affiliated topics such as homeland security, the complexities of counterinsurgency warfare, and U.S. relations with Islamic countries. As these words are being written, public attention is riveted on the release of the Iraq Study Group’s 2006 report containing possible suggestions for dealing with what has become an increasingly frustrating situation in that country, and which has claimed significant U.S. military casualties and financial resources. This work urges that increased public attention be focused on the growing impor- tance of space as a U.S. and international security priority and highlights the extensive historical documentation of how this growth evolved. It is likely that most individuals do not realize how important space has become to their personal lives and to domestic and international economics and security. If you use a cell phone, it contains a Global Posi- tioning System (GPS) that uses space assets to track your location. When you make an In- ternet e-commerce purchase, satellites may be used. Every time you use an ATM at a bank, xi www.abc-clio.com ABC-CLIO 1-800-368-6868 xii Introduction satellites are involved, and they are also involved when international currency or stock market transactions occur. Space plays a critical role in telecommunications. When you watch coverage of news or sporting events from other domestic or international locales, satellite technology is being used. GPS systems are used to guide commercial airlines and container ships to their destinations. Police, fire departments, and ambulances also rely on GPS satellites. Tracking the development and evolution of storms such as hurricanes also requires satel- lites. This technology can be used to monitor the locations of convicted sex offenders, lost children, or relatives with Alzheimer’s disease. Computer networks such as the Internet also make extensive use of space-based assets. The U.S. intelligence community uses satellites to detect troop and ship movements, watch and listen in on the conversations of hostile government national leaders and terror- ists, monitor and verify compliance with international arms control agreements, and other tasks. U.S. and other military forces use satellite technology to locate friendly and hostile ships at sea, provide weapons targeting information to friendly forces, give troops information on the physical terrain and environment they are operating in, provide meteorological and other environmental information about areas of operations, detect and track the flight path of incoming ballistic missiles while attempting to destroy these missiles, provide navigational information to friendly forces in unfamiliar environments, and numerous other activities. All of these factors highlight the crucial need for unimpeded domestic and international access to space resources. Our way of life would be significantly changed if we did not have access to space. We would not be able to use the Internet, a cell phone, or other elec- tronic communication devices. We would live in a world without near real-time access to information from all corners of the globe, such as meteorological information on an incoming storm. Such scenarios could happen if there were attacks on U.S. or other inter- national civilian or military space assets by terrorists, electronic sabotage such as electro- magnetic pulse, or attacks against these assets by nations or organizations opposed to market economics and international political pluralism. Space has been a center of civilian and military activity since it became technologi- cally possible to reach it and work there. A significant body of international political, diplomatic, and legal work has sought to promote an image of space as an idyllic venue of international cooperation and harmony. The United Nations and that organization’s Office for Outer Space Affairs (OOSA) have sought to present this image, and some suc- cess has been achieved in convincing many sectors of international political opinion of the laudability of this utopian vision. However, space has also been an arena of historical, contemporary, and future interest to world militaries as a venue for military intelligence and potential operations. The for- mer Soviet Union made extensive efforts to achieve a military presence in space, and its successor, the Russian Federation, still retains significant military space assets. The United States is currently the nation with the largest military presence in space, has produced www.abc-clio.com ABC-CLIO 1-800-368-6868 Introduction xiii significant military space doctrinal and operational documentation, and has the greatest dependence on space assets for its national security. China is developing an increasing interest in military space that may prove antithetical to U.S. national security interests. The European Union is also showing greater interest in space’s military potential, and countries such as India, Israel, and Japan are also interested in using space as a means of defending their national interests. Space Warfare and Defense chronicles the historical development and evolution of military space policy of the United States and other countries with particular emphasis on the Soviet Union/Russian Federation, China, and the European Union through early 2007. This work demonstrates that while significant information on this subject is clas- sified, significant amounts of substantive information on military space programs are available in U.S.
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