Read Ebook {PDF EPUB} The City of Corinth and the Secret Diary by L.A. Francis Corinth Legends and History. Corinth is the name of an ancient Greek polis (city-state) and nearby isthmus that lent its name to a set of Panhellenic games, a war, and a style of architecture. In works attributed to Homer, you may find Corinth referred to as Ephyre. Corinth in the Middle of Greece. That it is called 'isthmus' means it is a neck of land, but the Isthmus of Corinth serves as more of a Hellenic waist separating the upper, mainland part of Greece and the lower Peloponnesian parts. The city of Corinth was a rich, important, cosmopolitan, commercial area, having one harbor that allowed trade with Asia, and another that led to Italy. From the 6th century B.C., the Diolkos, a paved route up to six meters wide designed for a fast passage, led from the Gulf of Corinth on the west to the Saronic Gulf on the east. Passage From the Mainland to the Peloponnese. The land route from Attica into the Peloponnese passed through Corinth. A nine-kilometer section of rocks (the Sceironian rocks) along the land route from Athens made it treacherous—especially when brigands took advantage of the landscape—but there was also a sea route from the Piraeus past Salamis. Corinth in Greek Mythology. According to Greek mythology, Sisyphus, a grandfather of Bellerophon—the Greek hero who rode Pegasus the winged horse—founded Corinth. (This may be a story invented by Eumelos, a poet of the Bacchiadae family.) This makes the city not one of the Dorian cities—like those in the Peloponnese—founded by the Heracleidae, but Aeolian). The Corinthians, however, claimed descent from Aletes, who was a descendant of Hercules from the Dorian invasion. Pausanias explains that at the time when the Heracleidae invaded the Peloponnese, Corinth was ruled by descendants of Sisyphus named Doeidas and Hyanthidas, who abdicated in favor of Aletes whose family kept the throne for five generations until the first of the Bacchiads, Bacchis., gained control. Theseus, Sinis, and Sisyphus are among the names from mythology associated with Corinth, as the second century A.D. geographer Pausanias says: Pre-Historic and Legendary Corinth. Archaeological finds show that Corinth was inhabited in the Neolithic and early Helladic periods. Australian classicist and archaeologist Thomas James Dunbabin (1911-1955) says the nu-theta (nth) in the name Corinth shows it is a pre-Greek name. The oldest preserved building survives from the 6th century B.C. It is a temple, probably to Apollo. The earliest ruler's name is Bakkhis, who may have ruled in the ninth century. Cypselus overthrew Bakkhis' successors, the Bacchiads, c.657 B.C., after which Periander became the tyrant. He is credited with having created the Diolkos. In c. 585, an oligarchical council of 80 replaced the last tyrant. Corinth colonized Syracuse and Corcyra at about the same time it got rid of its kings. Pausanias gives another account of this early, confusing, legendary period of Corinthian history: Classical Corinth. In the middle of the sixth century, Corinth allied with Spartan, but later opposed the Spartan King Cleomenes' political interventions in Athens. It was aggressive actions of Corinth against Megara that led to the Peloponnesian War. Although Athens and Corinth were at odds during this war, by the time of the Corinthian War (395-386 B.C.), Corinth had joined Argos, Boeotia, and Athens against Sparta. Hellenistic and Roman Era Corinth. After the Greeks lost to Philip of Macedonia at Chaeronea, the Greeks signed terms Philip insisted on so he could turn his attention to Persia. They made oaths not to overthrow Philip or his successors, or one another, in exchange for local autonomy and were joined together in a federation that we today call the League of Corinth. Members of the Corinthian League were responsible for levies of troops (for use by Philip) depending on the size of the city. Romans besieged Corinth during the second Macedonian War, but the city continued in Macedonian hands until the Romans decreed it independent and part of the Achaean confederacy after Rome defeated the Macedonians a Cynoscephalae. Rome kept a garrison in Corinth's Acrocorinth—the city's high spot and citadel. Corinth failed to treat Rome with the respect it demanded. Strabo describes how Corinth provoked Rome: Roman consul Lucius Mummius destroyed Corinth in 146 B.C., looting it, killing the men, selling the children and women, and burning what remained. By the time of the New Testament's St. Paul (author of Corinthians ), Corinth was a booming Roman town, having been made a colony by Julius Caesar in 44 B.C.—Colonia Laus Iulia Corinthiensis. Rome rebuilt the city in Roman fashion, and settled it, mostly with freedmen, who grew prosperous within two generations. In the early 70s A.D., Emperor Vespasian established a second Roman colony at Corinth—Colonia Iulia Flavia Augusta Corinthiensis. It had an amphitheater, a circus, and other characteristic buildings and monuments. After the Roman conquest, the official language of Corinth was Latin until the time of Emperor Hadrian, when it became Greek. Located by the Isthmus, Corinth was responsible for the Isthmian Games, second in importance to the Olympics and held every two years in the spring. Also known as: Ephyra (old name) Examples: The highpoint or citadel of Corinth was called the Acrocorinth. Thucydides 1.13 says Corinth was the first Greek city to build war galleys: The City of Corinth and the Secret Diary by L.A. Francis. Acts 18:2 He found a certain Jew named Aquila, a man of Pontus by race, who had recently come from Italy, with his wife Priscilla, because Claudius had commanded all the Jews to depart from Rome. He came to them, Acts 18:5 But when Silas and Timothy came down from Macedonia, Paul was compelled by the Spirit, testifying to the Jews that Jesus was the Christ. Acts 19:1 It happened that, while Apollos was at Corinth, Paul, having passed through the upper country, came to Ephesus, and found certain disciples. 1 Corinthians 1:2 to the assembly of God which is at Corinth; those who are sanctified in Christ Jesus, called to be saints, with all who call on the name of our Lord Jesus Christ in every place, both theirs and ours: 2 Corinthians 1:1 Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus through the will of God, and Timothy our brother, to the assembly of God which is at Corinth, with all the saints who are in the whole of Achaia: 2 Corinthians 1:23 But I call God for a witness to my soul, that I didn't come to Corinth to spare you. 2 Timothy 4:20 Erastus remained at Corinth, but I left Trophimus at Miletus sick. kor'-inth (Korinthos, "ornament"): A celebrated city of the Peloponnesus, capital of Corinthia, which lay North of Argolis, and with the isthmus joined the peninsula to the mainland. Corinth had three good harbors (Lechaeum, on the Corinthian, and Cenchrea and Schoenus on the Saronic Gulf), and thus commanded the traffic of both the eastern and the western seas. The larger ships could not be hauled across the isthmus (Acts 27:6, 37); smaller vessels were taken over by means of a ship tramway with wooden rails. The Phoenicians, who settled here very early, left many traces of their civilization in the industrial arts, such as dyeing and weaving, as well as in their religion and mythology. The Corinthian cult of Aphrodite, of Melikertes (Melkart) and of Athene Phoenike are of Phoenician origin. Poseidon, too, and other sea deities were held in high esteem in the commercial city. Various arts were cultivated and the Corinthians, even in the earliest times, were famous for their cleverness, inventiveness and artistic sense, and they prided themselves on surpassing the other Greeks in the embellishment of their city and in the adornment of their temples. There were many celebrated painters in Corinth, and the city became famous for the Corinthian order of architecture: an order, which, by the way, though held in high esteem by the Romans, was very little used by the Greeks themselves. It was here, too, that the dithyramb (hymn to Dionysus) was first arranged artistically to be sung by a chorus; and the Isthmian games, held every two years, were celebrated just outside the city on the isthmus near the Saronic Gulf. But the commercial and materialistic spirit prevailed later. Not a single Corinthian distinguished himself in literature. Statesmen, however, there were in abundance: Periander, Phidon, Timoleon. Harbors are few on the Corinthian Gulf. Hence, no other city could wrest the commerce of these waters from Corinth. According to Thucydides, the first ships of war were built here in 664 B.C. In those early days Corinth held a leading position among the Greek cities; but in consequence of her great material prosperity she would not risk all as Athens did, and win eternal supremacy over men: she had too much to lose to jeopardize her material interests for principle, and she soon sank into the second class. But when Athens, Thebes, Sparta and Argos fell away, Corinth came to the front again as the wealthiest and most important city in Greece; and when it was destroyed by Mummius in 146 B.C., the treasures of art carried to Rome were as great as those of Athens. Delos became the commercial center for a time; but when Julius Caesar restored Corinth a century later (46 B.C.), it grew so rapidly that the Roman colony soon became again one of the most prominent centers in Greece. When Paul visited Corinth, he found it the metropolis of the Peloponnesus. Jews flocked to this center of trade (Acts 18:1-18 Romans 16:21 1 Corinthians 9:20), the natural site for a great mart, and flourishing under the lavish hand of the Caesars; and this is one reason why Paul remained there so long (Acts 18:11) instead of sojourning in the old seats of aristocracy, such as Argos, Sparta and Athens. He found a strong Jewish nucleus to begin with; and it was in direct communication with Ephesus. But earthquake, malaria, and the harsh Turkish rule finally swept everything away except seven columns of one old Doric temple, the only object above ground left today to mark the site of the ancient city of wealth and luxury and immorality-the city of vice paragraph excellence in the Roman world. Near the temple have been excavated the ruins of the famous fount of Peirene, so celebrated in Greek literature. Directly South of the city is the high rock (over 1,800 ft.) Acrocorinthus, which formed an impregnable fortress. Traces of the old ship-canal across the isthmus (attempted by Nero in 66-67 A.D.) were to be seen before excavations were begun for the present canal. At this time the city was thoroughly Roman. Hence, the many Latin names in the New Testament: Lucius, Tertius, Gaius, Erastus, Quartus (Romans 16:21-23), Crispus, Titus Justus (Acts 18:7, 8), Fortunatus, Achaicus (1 Corinthians 16:17). According to the testimony of Dio Chrysostomus, Corinth had become in the 2nd century of our era the richest city in Greece. Its monuments and public buildings and art treasures are described in detail by Pausanias. The church in Corinth consisted principally of non-Jews (1 Corinthians 12:2). Paul had no intention at first of making the city a base of operations (Acts 18:1; Acts 16:9, 10); for he wished to return to Thessalonica (1 Thessalonians 2:17, 18). His plans were changed by a revelation (Acts 18:9, 10). The Lord commanded him to speak boldly, and he did so, remaining in the city eighteen months. Finding strong opposition in the synagogue he left the Jews and went to the Gentiles (Acts 18:6). Nevertheless, Crispus, the ruler of the synagogue and his household were believers and baptisms were numerous (Acts 18:8); but no Corinthians were baptized by Paul himself except Crispus, Gaius and some of the household of Stephanas (1 Corinthians 1:14, 16) "the firstfruits of Achaia" (1 Corinthians 16:15). One of these, Gaius, was Paul's host the next time he visited the city (Romans 16:23). Silas and Timothy, who had been left at Berea, came on to Corinth about 45 days after Paul's arrival. It was at this time that Paul wrote his first Epistle to the Thessalonians (1 Thessalonians 3:6). During Gallio's administration the Jews accused Paul, but the proconsul refused to allow the case to be brought to trial. This decision must have been looked upon with favor by a large majority of the Corinthians, who had a great dislike for the Jews (Acts 18:17). Paul became acquainted also with Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:18, 26 Romans 16:3 2 Timothy 4:19), and later they accompanied him to Ephesus. Within a few years after Paul's first visit to Corinth the Christians had increased so rapidly that they made quite a large congregation, but it was composed mainly of the lower classes: they were neither `learned, influential, nor of noble birth' (1 Corinthians 1:26). Paul probably left Corinth to attend the celebration of the feast at Jerusalem (Acts 18:21). Little is known of the history of the church in Corinth after his departure. Apollos came from Ephesus with a letter of recommendation to the brethren in Achaia (Acts 18:27 2 Corinthians 3:1); and he exercised a powerful influence (Acts 18:27, 28 1 Corinthians 1:12); and Paul came down later from Macedonia. His first letter to the Corinthians was written from Ephesus. Both Titus and Timothy were sent to Corinth from Ephesus (2 Corinthians 7:13, 15 1 Corinthians 4:17), and Timothy returned by land, meeting Paul in Macedonia (2 Corinthians 1:1), who visited Greece again in 56-57 or 57-58. Leake, Travels in the Morea, IlI, 229-304; Peloponnesiaca, 392; Curtius, Peloponnesos, II, 514; Clark, Peloponnesus, 42-61; Conybeare and Howson, The Life and Epistles' of Paul, chapter xii; Ramsay, "Corinth" (in HDB); Holm, History of Greece, I, 286; II, 142, and 306-16; III, 31- 44, and 283; IV, 221, 251, 347 and 410-12. COR'INTH, the splendid capital of Achaia, 46 ms. w. of Athens, Cenchrea was its e. seaport. It is now desolate except that the little miserable village Gortho occupies a part of its ancient site. The City of Corinth and the Secret Diary by L.A. Francis. This is the view of the ancient city center looking from the Acrocorinth (with a big telephoto lens). On the left the standing columns of the Temple of Apollo are visible. On the right side the Lechaion Road can be seen. In between the two (and slightly down) is the ancient agora. Temple of Apollo. The lower city was the location of the Temple of Apollo while the Acrocorinth was dominated by the Temple of Aphrodite. Greek writers in the 5th-4th centuries BC characterized Corinth as a city of commercialized love and a “Corinthian girl” meant a prostitute. The Corinthian church of Paul’s day struggled with worldliness and sexual sin, both of which were typical of this cosmopolitan city. The temple originally had 38 columns of the Doric order; 7 are standing today. Bema. Paul spent 18 months in the city before the Jews of the city charged him with breaking the law and brought him before Gallio at the city’s place of judgment (bema). The mention of Gallio provides an anchor for New Testament chronology as we know from Roman sources that Gallio was proconsul of Achaia from June 51 to May 52. Standing on this platform, the proconsul dismissed the charges against Paul as a dispute of Jewish law and not of a criminal nature. Agora. In Corinth Paul met Aquila and Priscilla, Jews recently expelled by Emperor Claudius from Rome. The three of these were tentmakers (or leather workers) and may have had their place of business in the city’s commercial marketplace (agora). This would have afforded Paul numerous occasions to speak with customers and passers-by of the resurrection of Christ. Acts notes that Paul spent each Shabbat trying to persuade Jews and Greeks. Lechaion Road. This main road ran from the city to the northern port of Lechaion, thus its name. The road was about 40 feet wide and included sidewalks and drainage channels. Steps along the road indicate that passage was not intended for wheeled vehicles. Erastus Inscription. In 1929 this inscription was found mentioning Erastus as the one who paid for the paving of the street in return for his appointment as a city officer. It is likely that this is the same Erastus mentioned by Paul as sending greetings to the church at Rome (Rom 16:23). If so, Paul’s influence apparently extended to wealthy and influential Roman citizens of Corinth. Temple of Aphrodite. The acropolis of Corinth is known as Acrocorinth, and it rises about 1800 feet above the surrounding plain. At the highest summit was the Temple of Aphrodite. Interpretations that this was the location of the 1000 temple prostitutes have been challenged. Download all of our Greece photos! $34.00 $49.99 FREE SHIPPING. Related Websites. For related photographs, see our Corinth Area page. Corinth (Ancient History Encyclopedia). A good overview of the city’s history and remains. Corinth (Personal Webpage). A page that looks at Corinth in connection with Paul. AncientCorinth.net. As one might expect, this website has a wealth of information. Ancient Corinth and Acrocorinth (GreeceTravel.com). This article has interesting information and lots of lovely photos. Corinth Legends and History (ThoughtCo.). The page delivers what its title promises, with the help of long quotes from ancient sources. Corinth Computer Project. “A computerized architectural and topographical survey of the Roman colony of Corinth.” Provides detailed plans of the main structures and streets plus three dimensional images of the topography. Site Catalog Name: Corinth (Perseus Digital Library). Contains a concise description and history of the site plus 25 photos of various features. Ancient Corinth in 1945 (YouTube). This documentary includes fascinating old footage of the site! What Was the City and Church of Corinth Like? — An Excerpt from Ralph Martin's "2 Corinthians (WBC)" One of the disadvantages we have as 21st century Christians is how removed we are from the original context of Scripture. This disadvantage is compounded for preachers and teachers who are tasked with connecting that world and their problems to our world and our problems. Ralph Martin expertly and diligently bridges that gap in his newly revised 2 Corinthians (Word Biblical Commentary). In his generous introduction he provides a birds-eye view of the historical context and conditions that drove Paul to write his letter, some of which we covered on Tuesday. In our excerpt today we travel to the city itself and the church Paul planted there. Martin’s travelogue covers Corinth’s various facets, including commercial, political, and ecclesial. Read and share it with colleagues to better understand why Martin calls Corinth “the ‘Vanity Fair’ of the Roman Empire.” Then add his important commentary to your library to better connect Corinth’s world to your peoples’ world. First-century Corinth was the leading commercial center of southern Greece. Its favorable geographical situation contributed to this, for it was located on the isthmus connecting northern Greece with the Peloponnesus, and it boasted two harbors, Lechaeum to the west and Cenchreae to the east. It thus became an emporium for seaborne merchandise passing in either direction, and a considerable number of roads converged on it. Sailors were able to avoid the dangerous route around the Peloponnesus, and a more northerly trip across the Aegean Sea, away from storms, was made possible. Tribute to Corinth’s topographical position, which made unnecessary the voyage around Cape Malea, is given in Strabo: “To land their cargoes here was a welcome alternative to the voyage to Malea for merchants from both Italy and Asia.” Like most seaports throughout history, Corinth took on an international reputation. Of this fact Cicero’s treatise De republica is cognizant: “Maritime cities also suggest a certain corruption and degeneration of morals; for they receive a mixture of strange languages and customs, and import foreign ways as well as foreign merchandise, so that none of their ancestral institutions can possibly remain unchanged.” There must have been considerable intermixing of races in its population, and this resulted in a variety of religious cults. Corinth’s chief shrine was the temple of Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love and life. In Corinth her cult appeared in a debased form, because of the admixture of certain oriental influences. This meant a low moral tone and sexual perversion in a possibly attested cult of sacred prostitution. In such a place, by the grace of God and the ministry of his servant Paul, a church was formed. A large proportion of its members must have been drawn from the pagan world, with its heterogeneous standards of life and conduct. Yet they would be familiar with Jewish teaching as converts to the faith of the synagogue (Acts 18:4). Not surprisingly, issues of Christian morality and behavior dominate the first epistle to the Corinthians; and in 2 Cor 6:14–18 a strong warning is issued against association with unbelievers. “Also, the tendencies to factiousness and instability have a real psychological basis in both the blend and the clash of racial character to be found in such a cosmopolitan city." A section of the church belonged to the Jewish colony, the so-called Dispersion, that was naturally represented in such a commercial center. Jewish exiles from Sicyon (to the northwest of Corinth) may have fled when their city was destroyed in 146 b.c. There were common trade links to draw them. Murphy-O’Connor remarks that after a.d. 67, when Vespasian sent six thousand young men to work on the Corinth canal, the nucleus of Jewish communities in Corinth would have been augmented. Jewish legal rights in such situations include the right to assembly, permission to send the temple tax to Jerusalem, and exemption from any civic activity that would violate their Sabbath observance. Smallwood suggests that by Paul’s time the Jewish presence at Corinth would be considered a politeuma, i.e., a corporation of resident aliens with permanent rights of domicile and empowered to manage its own affairs through self-appointed officials. Hence we read of a synagogue ruler (Acts 18:8, 17), and a debated inscription [SYN]AGŌ GĒ HEBR[AIŌ N], “Synagogue of the Hebrews,” may testify to the site of their meeting place. Acts 18:1–11 tells us that the church was formed as a result of Paul’s preaching in the local synagogue. Nonetheless, it is probably correct to assume that the preponderance of the church members were Gentile, converted to Christ from a pagan milieu. These were called to be God’s people in the “Vanity Fair” of the Roman Empire. Murphy-O’Connor writes of Corinth in Paul’s day as “a wide-open boomtown,” comparing it with San Francisco of the gold rush days. In the first century the city was heavily populated, and its place as a political and commercial center can be gauged from the Romans’ having made it, in 27 b.c., the capital city of the senatorial province of Achaia in southern Greece. Strabo gives the account of Caesar Augustus’s determination to create two kinds of Roman province in 27 b.c.: “provinces of Caesar,” or imperial provinces, and “provinces of the people,” or senatorial provinces, governed by a proconsul. Achaia fell into the latter category until a.d. 15, when “it was decided to relieve them [Achaia, Macedonia] of their proconsular government for the time being and transfer them to the emperor.” And while its reputation for moral corruption made the “Corinthian life” synonymous with luxury and licentiousness, its pretensions to philosophy and literary culture made the phrase “Corinthian words” a token of polished and cultivated speech; but this tribute is much later than Paul’s day. In this great and busy center Paul spent a year and a half or more in the course of his second missionary journey (Acts 18:11, 18), having arrived in the city probably in the winter of a.d. 50/51.27 Paul found hospitality in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, a Jewish couple, eminent for their devotion, who had come from Rome following the decree of Claudius in a.d. 49. With them Paul carried on his trade of tent making. Beginning his ministry in the synagogue, Paul was soon compelled by the opposition of the Jews to seek another place of meeting, which he found in the house of Justus, a converted proselyte. There he preached the gospel, encouraged by a vision from God. Divine blessing was manifest in the conversion of his hearers and in the establishment of a Christian community, despite the Jews’ attempt to invoke the civil power against him (Acts 18:4–18). The converts seem to have been drawn from the lower classes (1 Cor 1:26–29), but not exclusively so (cf. 1 Cor 4:10; 10:27; 11:17– 34; 12:24–25). They were not free from the prevailing tendency to intellectual pride (cf. 1 Cor 1:18–20; 3:18, 19; 8:1). Added to this was a proneness to sensual sin, equally characteristic of their native city (1 Cor 5:1–11; 6:15–18; 11:21), though there is probably a theological reason for these symptoms. Internal evidence from the first canonical letter suggests that several features marred the life of this church. There was a factious spirit that divided the church into rival groups and showed itself in bickering that drew them to civil courts to settle their disputes (chap. 6). This party rivalry destroyed the unity of Christ’s body (chap. 12) and was seen even at the Lord’s table meal (11:17–34). Also, the Corinthians boasted of their “knowledge” (8:1) and “freedom” (6:12; 8:9; 10:23). These two terms have suggested to some scholars that a species of Judeo-gnostic thought and practice had penetrated the church and influenced the thinking and conduct of some of the members. But arguing against this is R. McL. Wilson.33 Much turns on the precise definition of gnosticism, a slippery term. Numerous signs of this “heretical theology in Corinth” (Schmithals’s expression) have been identified: the value placed on esoteric “knowledge” (γνῶσις); and “freedom” (ἐλευθερία, ἐλεύθερος) claimed and used in many ways. To these Corinthian catchwords must be added “spiritual” (πνευματικός), which is found fourteen times in 1 Corinthians as against four times in the other undisputed Pauline letters. Individual Corinthians evidently set themselves above the constraints of community order and control, and each church member became a law to himself or herself (1 Cor 8:9; 10:23; 14:32–40). Other signs were a denial of a future resurrection (chap. 15; cf. 2 Tim 2:18); a high value placed on sacramental efficacy as conferring “protection” (chap. 10), with a devaluating of ethical seriousness; an importance attached to demonstrations of the Spirit (τὰ πνευματικά; chap. 14); the setting up of a clique of Spirit-endowed persons (14:37); strange marriage practices (chap. 7; cf. 1 Tim 4:3); and possibly a disavowal of interest in the earthly Jesus, with a resulting concentration on the heavenly eon Christ (12:3), and a consequent passing over of the kerygma centered in the cross (1:18–19, 23). In 1 Cor 2:8 the christological title “Lord of glory” is probably borrowed from Paul’s Corinthian opponents and turned against them, as it is anchored in the cross, namely, by insisting that Jesus became Lord only by first submitting to humiliation and death. When we turn to 2 Corinthians we find that the data available to us to attempt a description of the Corinthians’ “theology” are not the same. Whereas in 1 Corinthians the church leaders and members have written to consult Paul, and whereas he had received rumored reports (1 Cor 1:11; 11:18) of the problems there, in the Second Letter the sources of information are more indirect. We have to infer from the texts the nature of the debate between Paul and his congregation, some of whom at least seemed to be under the influence of intruding teachers, especially emissaries referred to in chaps. 10–13. Already in 2 Cor 2:17; 3:1–18; 4:2–6, in the canonical sequence of the letter, Paul is confronting those whose teaching is at odds with his version of the kerygma, and we will have to discuss the most likely reason for the way these texts set the ground of the debate. Part of the reason is personal: Paul is accused of vacillation and insincerity. But there is a theological difference between his message and the “gospel” brought to Corinth (11:4). Its “alien” character is in part christological (5:16), in part eschatological (5:1–10), in part related to the presence and power of “spirit” (πνεῦμα; 11:4) that conferred presumed authority on these teachers. At its heart was evidently an exegesis of the Old Testament and in particular an understanding of the role of Moses. The latter gave them an assurance that they were superior to Paul, who looked distinctly “inferior” by comparison (see 11:5, 6; 12:11). The point at issue has to do with rhetorical prowess and a commanding presence, two features that Paul’s ministry lacked. On the negative side, as Jervell and Holmberg have suggested, was the undeniable fact that, although Paul was known as a remarkable leader in the churches (12:12), he was a weak person physically (10:10) and could not heal himself (12:7; cf. Gal 4:13–14). The Corinthian adversaries may well have reasoned that he was no demonstration of God’s power since his claim to be an apostle and his experience of weakness contradicted each other. For them “a sick charismatic and wonderworker [would be] astonishing” as being a contradictio in adjecto, a contradiction in terms. They insinuated, there- fore, that he was no true apostle since they took as their criterion the picture of the itinerant “holy man” preacher, whose credentials were the possession of the spirit (πνεῦμα) and the right to claim the Corinthian province as their jurisdiction (10:13–18), evidently in the name of the Ü berapostel, the “super-apostles,” in Jerusalem (11:5; 12:11). The question is posed to the interpreter at this point: Can we identify, however tentatively, the type of “charismatic” ministry brought by these teachers that stands at odds with Paul’s self-conscious defense of his apostleship? In a later section we will try to set this question in a broader framework. Here we may pause to reflect on J. M. Robinson’s conclusion: “Paul was primarily confronted with a distorting transmission of traditions about Jesus as a glorious miracle worker, and he replied, with an ironic presentation of himself within that succession, to document the invalidity of such a scope for the traditions; and by repudiating such knowledge of Jesus.”