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Oracular Prophecy and Psychology in Ancient Greek Warfare

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ORACULAR PROPHECY AND PSYCHOLOGY IN ANCIENT GREEK WARFARE Peter McCallum BA (Hons) MA A thesis submitted to the University of Wales Trinity Saint David in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Classics University of Wales Trinity Saint David June 2017 Director of Studies: Dr Errietta Bissa Second Supervisor: Dr Kyle Erickson Abstract This thesis examines the role of oracular divination in warfare in Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic Greece, and assesses the extent to which it affected the psychology and military decision-making of ancient Greek poleis. By using a wide range of ancient literary, epigraphical, archaeological, and iconographical evidence and relevant modern scholarship, this thesis will fully explore the role of the Oracle in warfare, especially the influence of the major Oracles at Delphi, Dodona, Olympia, Didyma, and Ammon on the foreign policies and military strategies of poleis and their psychological preparation for war; as well as the effect of oracular prophecies on a commander’s decision- making and tactics on the battlefield, and on the psychology and reactions of soldiers before and during battle. This thesis contends that oracular prophecy played a fundamental and integral part in ancient Greek warfare, and that the act of consulting the Oracles, and the subsequent prognostications issued by the Oracles, had powerful psychological effects on both the polis citizenry and soldiery, which in turn had a major influence and impact upon military strategy and tactics, and ultimately on the outcome of conflicts in the ancient Greek world. Declarations/Statements DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed ...................................................................... (candidate) Date ........................................................................ STATEMENT 1 This thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Where correction services have been used the extent and nature of the correction is clearly marked in a footnote(s). Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Signed ..................................................................... (candidate) Date ........................................................................ STATEMENT 2 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter- library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed ..................................................................... (candidate) Date ........................................................................ STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for deposit in the University’s digital repository. Signed ..................................................................... (candidate) Date ........................................................................ Acknowledgements I would like to thank my thesis supervisors, Dr Errietta Bissa and Dr Kyle Erickson, for their continual assistance throughout my research, and for reading numerous drafts and providing many helpful comments and suggestions along the way. I would also like to thank Dr Federico Santangelo for his initial guidance and direction in my research, and Dr Pauline Hanesworth for her assistance early on as well. Notes on Abbreviation and Spelling Names of ancient authors and titles, and other standard reference works, where possible, have been abbreviated according to the system used by the Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed. With regards to the spelling of Greek words, I have for the most part preferred direct transliteration rather than Latinisation. However, for well-known proper names I have stayed with the familiar anglicised form (thus Thucydides not Thoukydides, Syracuse not Syrakousai). Although I have tried to be as consistent as possible in this approach, perfect consistency in the transliteration of Greek words is virtually impossible to attain. Oracular Prophecy and Psychology in Ancient Greek Warfare CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 Review of scholarship on Oracles and divination in ancient Greek warfare ......................... 3 Aims and methodology .......................................................................................................... 8 The Sources ...................................................................................................................... 10 The use of the term ‘psychology’ .................................................................................... 29 CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................... 36 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 36 2. Why consult the gods on matters of war? ..................................................................... 36 2.1 Consulting the gods in war: Xenophon as a case study ......................................... 39 2.2 Xenophon as a paradigm for ancient Greek religious views ................................. 45 2.3 Psychological reasons for consulting the Oracles on matters of war .................... 50 2.4 Divine guidance and managing risk ...................................................................... 51 2.5 ‘With god on our side’: consultation for divine sanction and support .................. 53 2.6 Oracles obtained for divine sanction and their psychological effects ................... 59 3. Bones transferral and the impact on psychology .......................................................... 66 3.1 The role of the Oracle: instigator or enabler .......................................................... 77 3.2 The importance of the hero in ancient Greek warfare ........................................... 84 3.3 Bones transferral: conclusions ............................................................................... 94 4. Private consultations by ordinary soldiers and commanders ........................................ 94 5. Consultation for advice on military command by poleis and strategoi ........................ 98 6. Requests for divine protection and aid ........................................................................ 106 7. Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 109 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................... 112 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 112 2. Divine intervention ..................................................................................................... 113 3. Invocation of gods and heroes in war ......................................................................... 121 3.1 Hero Invocation: the use of the hero in battle ..................................................... 123 4. Military epiphanies ..................................................................................................... 124 5. Wider belief of the supernatural in war ...................................................................... 132 6. Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 136 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 138 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 138 SECTION ONE: POSITIVE ORACULAR RESPONSES AND THE FULFILMENT OF ORACULAR COMMANDS ............................................................................................. 140 2. Positive affirmation leading to positive effects on morale .................................. 140 3. Deliberate fulfilment of a conditioned prognostication: effects on battlefield tactics and psychology ................................................................................................... 168 4. Fulfilment of oracular prophecies: direct obedience to oracular advice on military strategy and tactics ......................................................................................................... 189 5. Accidental fulfilment of oracular prophecies: effects on psychology and military decision-making ............................................................................................................. 205 6. Advice on military alliances ................................................................................ 217 7. Fulfilment of oracular prophecies: psychological effects on enemy morale ....... 241 8. Conclusions: deliberate fulfilment of oracular prophecies .................................. 242 SECTION TWO: MISLEADING AND NEGATIVE ORACULAR RESPONSES AND THE FULFILMENT OF ORACULAR COMMANDS .................................................... 244 9. Fulfilment of oracular prophecies: lulled into false hope and erroneous military decisions by misleading prophecies ..............................................................................
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