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Towards a Holistic Understanding of Rural Livelihood Systems: the Case of the Bine, Western Province, Papua New Guinea

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Lincoln University Digital Thesis Copyright Statement The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). This thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: you will use the copy only for the purposes of research or private study you will recognise the author's right to be identified as the author of the thesis and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate you will obtain the author's permission before publishing any material from the thesis. Towards a Holistic Understanding of Rural Livelihood Systems: The Case of the Bine, Western Province, Papua New Guinea A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Lincoln University by Modowa Trevor Gumoi Lincoln University 2010 Declaration To the best of my knowledge, this work has not previously been submitted, either in whole or in part for a degree at this or any other university. This thesis is my original work and contains no materials previously published or written by any other persons. All source material used has been explicitly identified and acknowledged. Modowa Trevor Gumoi ii Abstract of a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Abstract Towards a Holistic Understanding of Rural Livelihood Systems: The Case of the Bine, Western Province, Papua New Guinea by Modowa Trevor Gumoi This exploratory village-level case study sought to gain in-depth insights and a holistic understanding into the livelihood system of the rural Bine community in Papua New Guinea. This involved the identification of the components and mechanics of the livelihood system unique to the case study area, their interconnectedness and the contexts in which they exist, to discover, describe and explain changes to the livelihood system and reasons why, how villagers live, what enables them to survive daily amidst adversity, how they respond to pressures on their livelihoods, and what drives their livelihoods decisions and choices. This study is predominantly qualitative, using primary data collected from three remote villages during two field visits in 2007 and 2008 aimed at capturing diversity. Secondary data sources were also utilized. Whilst the constructivist-interpretivist research paradigm that is amenable to soft systems thinking was the overarching research paradigm, elements of grounded theory and phenomenology formed the methodological basis of this study. A plethora of sustainable livelihoods frameworks and a composite of complementary research frameworks, multi-disciplinary schools of thought, theories, models and an assortment of data collection and analyses methods were employed. The livelihood system of the Bine comprises of livelihood strategies, assets and resources; the decision environment; aspirations; structures, processes, policies, institutions, organizations; and the vulnerability context. Of these, livelihood strategies are the main determinant of Bine survival. Semi-subsistence agriculture, in the form of extensive polycultural forest cultivation iii and intensive savannah monoculture, was and is the dominant livelihood strategy of the Bine. The other livelihood strategies undertaken by the Bine are foraging; hunting; fishing; exploitation of sago and coconuts; mat and basket weaving, broom making, marijuana cultivation, sale of labour, prostitution, marketing activities and trade with Torres Strait Islanders of Australia. The asset and resource base of the Bine livelihood system comprises the natural environment (i.e. land, forests, savannah grasslands, rivers, creeks, swamps, and the sea); physical assets; and human, social, financial, political and cultural assets and resources. The Bine make decisions regarding livelihood strategies in the context of the nuclear household. The primary aim for the Bine engaging in livelihood strategies is survival followed by cash. Both internal and external structures, processes, institutions and organizations influence decisions regarding livelihood strategies. The impact of policies alien to the Bine is also evident. The vulnerability context of the Bine is mainly natural and human. The natural include floods, droughts, change in climate and weather patterns, seasons, the natural resource base, and lack of physical infrastructure while the human include sorcery, acculturation and daily stress situations such as social obligations. The livelihood system of the Bine and the village economy have been in transition. The reasons and factors responsible for the transition and their influences are varied and manifest in various forms. They include the introduction of money and the overarching and dominant external economic, political and social systems, structures, institutions, processes and policies that have been beyond the control of the villagers. Internal systems, structures, institutions, and processes have also induced change. Deliberate and conscious action on the part of villagers in response to challenges, opportunities, changes and necessity have also contributed to changes in the livelihood system. Although in transition, the basis for Bine social existence over generations has been the traditional social structures, processes, relationships, and networks centred on a totemic clan system. The system is bound and cemented by kinship and founded on the principles of trust, reciprocity, distribution and exchange relations within and between families. The livelihood system of the Bine has been a continuous process of adaptation to environmental and material conditions as evidenced by the Bine undertaking a range of livelihood strategies. iv The study findings both confirm and contradict the various schools of thought, theories and models. There is no one school of thought, theory or model that explains all aspects of the livelihood system of the Bine. The Bine, let alone their livelihood system, have never been subject to empirical investigation so this study fills this void. This study is also the first of its kind to conduct a meticulous review of the plethora of sustainable livelihood frameworks. Moreover, this study was also an opportunity to gain in-depth insights and understanding into changes to rural livelihood systems in a specific context to allow spatial comparisons with similar studies elsewhere. Keywords: Livelihood sytems, rural, holistic, Bine community, Western Province, Papua New Guinea v Acknowledgements My academic and research journey sprouted from humble and difficult beginnings given my atypical upbringing and mediocre educational achievements in the earlier years of my schooling life. The journey was one of encountering numerous but varied challenges and opportunities. While the opportunities provided enlightment and direction into the future and were therefore warmly embraced, the completion of this thesis depended largely on overcoming the challenges, which often were in the form of solitude, trials and tribulations. Accordingly, many people and institutions played pivotal roles in assisting me to overcome the challenges and eventually bringing this thesis to the required standards as a piece of scholarly work worthy of examination. My personal satistifaction with the outcome of this thesis cannot be complete without acknowledging and affording, with unreserved sincerity, commendation and appreciation where it is due. This is culturally obligatory and a self conviction. First and foremost, my sincere and heartfelt thanks and gratitude to my learned supervisory team comprising Professor Keith Woodford (Major Supervisor) and Dr. Rupert Tipples (Associate Supervisor). Undoubtedly, this thesis would not have been finalized without your strenuous efforts and guidance, assiduousness, encouragement, colossal contributions (both academic and otherwise) and unreserved impartation of knowledge and wisdom. I will forever be grateful for your personal sacrifices and your time afforded to me. The special bond and relationship created in the course of writing this thesis will remain intact and, in perpetuaty, be cherished my living days. My thanks and appreciation to the numerous colleagues, friends, and family who afforded assistance through a multiplicity of ways. I benefitted tremendously from interactions and friendship with my colleagues at Lincoln University. Thank you to Mariana Aragao Pereira, Sabrina Mohd Rashid, Lise Morton, Gillian Kabwe, Rohitha Rosario, Truong Quan, Mahendra Khanal, Ludia Wambrauw, Dorothy Tavoa, Guy Trafford, Marvin Pangborn, Esther Water, Michael Prince, Sisa Kini, Fred Saeni, Davidson Lloyd and numerous others. My work colleagues in the Economics Department at the University of Papua New Guinea need mentioning also for their inputs. The numerous individuals from the Bine tribe and government officials who provided data and information. To you I say thank you because vi without your crucial inputs this thesis would never have been realized. Special commendation are in order to the Seneka family (Robert, Lisa, Seneka and Janellie) for opening their home and lives and for the love, support and hospitality offered to a stranger during my tenure at Lincoln. I will always cherish you in my heart. I also acknowledge the unreserved love, support, encouragement and prayers of my family who have always been my source of inspiration to reach for the skies. All praise and honour are due to my creator, the source of all knowledge and wisdom and in whom I find
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