High forest (woodland) High forest is a term for a woodland or forest with a well-developed natural structure. It is used in both ecology and woodland management, particularly in contrast with even-aged woodland types such as coppice and planted woodland. In a high forest the trees range in age from young seedlings and saplings through to mature trees and veteran trees, and there are well-developed layers of canopy trees, shrubs and ground vegetation, as well as occasional clearings. High forest may occur as a result of the natural development of woodland without human interference, or it may be created and maintained through deliberate management. It usually has greater biodiversity than even-aged woodland, because it has a greater range of microhabitats within it (thus providing niches for more organisms), and because it is more similar to the natural woodland to which woodland organisms are adapted. Once fully established, high forest may require less regular woodland management than some other woodland types such as coppice, and for this reason (as well as the potential for increased biodiversity), it is sometimes chosen as a deliberate management aim for neglected woodland. In many climates, a lack of woodland management in plantation or coppice may eventually produce high forest, as trees fall and new ones grow. However, this natural process is likely to take many decades on its own, and so deliberate thinning and selective felling may be used to speed up development of high forest. Ecotone From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia An ecotone is a transition area between two adjacent but different plant communities, such as forest and grassland. It may appear on the ground as a gradual blending of the two communities across a broad area, or it may manifest itself as a sharp boundary line. Changes in the physical environment may produce a sharp boundary, as in the example of the interface between areas of forest and cleared land (Krummholz). Elsewhere, a more gradually blended interface area will be found, where species from each community will be found together as well as unique local species. Mountain ranges often create such ecotones, due to the wide variety of climatic conditions experienced on their slopes. They may also provide a boundary between species due to the obstructive nature of their terrain; Mont Ventoux in France is a good example, marking the boundary between the flora and fauna of northern and southern France. Most wetlands are ecotones. Ecotones are particularly significant for mobile animals, as they can exploit more than one set of habitats within a short distance. This can produce an edge effect along the boundary line, with the area displaying a greater than usual diversity of species. The phenomenon of increased variety of plants as well as animals at the community junction is called the Edge effect and is essentially due to a locally broader range of suitable environmental conditions or ecological niches. The word was coined from a combination of eco(logy) plus -tone, from the Greek tonos or tension – in other words, a place where ecologies are in tension. Sacred groves of India From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For the article about sacred groves in general, see Sacred grove Sacred groves in India refer to forest fragments of varying sizes, which are communally protected, and which usually have a significant religious connotation for the protecting community. Hunting and logging are usually strictly prohibited within these patches. [1] Other forms of forest usage like honey collection and deadwood collection are sometimes allowed on a sustainable basis. Sacred groves did not enjoy protection via federal legislation in India. Some NGOs work with local villagers to protect such groves. Traditionally, and in some cases even today, members of the community take turns to protect the grove. [2] However, the introduction of the protected area category community reserves under the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection to community held lands, which could include sacred groves. Indian sacred groves are sometimes associated with temples / monasteries / shrines or with burial grounds (which is the case in Shinto and Ryukyuan religion-based sacred groves respectively in Japan). Sacred groves may be loosely used to refer to other natural habitat protected on religious grounds, such as Alpine Meadows. Historical references to sacred groves can be obtained from ancient classics as far back as Kalidasa's Vikramuurvashiiya. [edit] Beliefs Typically, such groves are associated with the concept of a "presiding deity". While most of these sacred deities are associated with local Hindu gods, sacred groves of Islamic and Buddhist origins, and some based on smaller local religions and folk religions (like the folk deities ayyanar and amman ) are also known of. There are over 1000 deities associated with sacred groves in the states of Kerala and Karnataka alone. In Kodagu in Karnataka the martial community of Kodavas maintained Deva kadus dedicated to Aiyappa the forest god. [edit] Locations Sacred groves are scattered all over the country, and are referred to by different names in different parts of India. Sacred groves occur in a variety of places - from scrub forests in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan maintained by the Bishnois, to rain forests in the Kerala Western Ghats. Himachal Pradesh in the North and Kerala in the South are specifically known for their large numbers of sacred groves. The Kodavas of Karnataka alone maintained over a 1000 sacred groves in their region. [3] Around 14,000 sacred groves have been reported from all over India, which act as reservoirs of rare fauna, and more often rare flora, amid rural and even urban settings. Experts believe that the total number of sacred groves could be as high as 100,000. [4] [5] It is estimated that around 1000 km² of unexploited land is inside sacred groves. Some of the more famous groves are the kavus of Kerala, which are located in the Western Ghats and have enormous biodiversity; and the law kyntangs of Meghalaya - sacred groves associated with every village (two large groves being in Mawphlang and Mausmai) to appease the forest spirit. Among the largest sacred groves of India are the ones in Hariyali, near Ganchar in Chamoli District of Uttarakhand, and the Deodar grove in Shipin near Simla in Himachal Pradesh. Kodagu, a small region of about 4000 sq.km. in Karnataka, had over a 1000 sacred groves. No of State Local name References groves Andhra 750 B. R. P. Rao [6] Pradesh Gumpa forests Arunachal 65 (since attached Dudley et al. [7] Pradesh to monasteries) Assam 40 Than, Madaico Sarna, Devlas, Chhattisgarh 600* Mandar, Budhadev SERBC document Goa NA* [8] Gujarat 29* Haryana 248 Himachal 5000 Deo bhumi Pradesh Sarna more than 500 " Jaherthan" in Godda of Jharkhand 21* Marine Carrin [9] Jharkhand<Saurabh Gunjan>[email protected] Devarakadu, Karnataka 1424 Gadgil et al. [10] Devarkan Kerala 2000 Kavu M. Jayarajan [11] Madhya Devkot, Matikot, 21* Pradesh Devsthali, Budhadev Deorai/Devrai (Pune, Ratnagiri, Waghchaure et al. Maharashtra 1600 Raigarh, Kolhapur [12] districts) Gamkhap, Mauhak Khumbongyam et Manipur 365 (sacred bamboo al. [13] reserves) Law kyntang, Upadhyay et al. Meghalaya 79 Law lyngdhoh [14] Orissa 322* Jahera, Thakuramma Ramanujam et al. Pondicherry 108 Kovil Kadu [15] Oran (Jaiselmer, Jodhpur, Bikaner), Kenkri (Ajmer), Rajasthan 9* Vani (Mewar), Shamlat deh, Devbani (Alwar), Jogmaya Gumpa forests S. S. Dash [16] Sikkim 56 (since attached Dudley et al. [7] to monasteries) M. Amrithalingam Tamil Nadu 503 Kovil Kadu [17] Uttarakhand 18* Deobhumi, Bugyal Anthwal et al. [18] (sacred alpine meadows) Garamthan, Harithan, West Bengal 670* Jahera, Sabitrithan, R. K. Bhakat [19] Santalburithan All numbers are quoted from the records of the C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre of the Government of India. Starred numbers are likely to increase. The centre also maintains a complete list of identified sacred groves in India, most of which is online. [20] [edit] Uses Traditional uses: One of the most important traditional uses of sacred groves was that it acted as a repository for various Ayurvedic medicines. Other uses involved a source of replenishable resources like fruits and honey. However, in most sacred groves it was taboo to hunt or chop wood. The vegetation cover helps reduce soil erosion and prevents desertification, as in Rajasthan. The groves are often associated with ponds and streams, and meet water requirements of local communities. They sometimes help in recharging aquifers as well. Modern uses: In modern times, sacred groves have become biodiversity hotspots, as various species seek refuge in the areas due to progressive habitat destruction, and hunting. Sacred groves often contain plant and animal species that have become extinct in neighboring areas. They therefore harbor great genetic diversity. Besides this, sacred groves in urban landscapes act as "lungs" to the city as well, providing much needed vegetation cover. [edit] Threats Threats to the grove include urbanization, over-exploitation of resources (like overgrazing and excessive fuelwood collection), and environmental destruction due to religious practices. While many of the groves are looked upon as abode of Hindu gods, in the recent past a number of them have been partially cleared for construction of shrines and temples. [4] Other threats to the sacred groves include invasion by invasive species, like the invasive weeds Chromolaena odorata, Lantana camara and Prosopis juliflora. [edit] Traditions A large number of distinct local art forms and folk traditions are associated with the deities of sacred groves, and are an important cultural aspect closely associated with sacred traditions. Ritualistic dances and dramatizations based on the local deities that protect the groves are called Theyyam in Kerala and Nagmandalam, among other names, in Karnataka. Often, elaborate rituals and traditions are associated with sacred groves [21], as are associated folk tales and folk mythology.