Language Index

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-86573-9 - Endangered Languages: An Introduction Sarah G. Thomason Index More information

Language index

||Gana, 106, 110 Bininj, 31, 40, 78 Bitterroot Salish, see Salish-Pend d’Oreille. Abenaki, Eastern, 96, 176; Western, 96, 176 Blackfoot, 74, 78, 90, 96, 176 Aboriginal English (Australia), 121 Bosnian, 87 Aboriginal languages (Australia), 9, 17, 31, 56, Brahui, 63 58, 62, 106, 110, 132, 133 Breton, 25, 39, 179 Afro-Asiatic languages, 49, 175, 180, 194, 198 Bulgarian, 194 Ainu, 10 Buryat, 19 Akkadian, 1, 42, 43, 177, 194 Bushman, see San. Albanian, 28, 40, 66, 185; Arbëresh Albanian, 28, 40; Arvanitika Albanian, 28, 40, 66, 72 Cacaopera, 45 Aleut, 50–52, 104, 155, 183, 188; see also Bering Carrier, 31, 41, 170, 174 Aleut, Mednyj Aleut Catalan, 192 Algic languages, 97, 109, 176; see also Caucasian languages, 148 Algonquian languages, Ritwan languages. Celtic languages, 25, 46, 179, 183, Algonquian languages, 57, 62, 95–97, 101, 104, 185 108, 109, 162, 166, 176, 187, 191 Central Torres Strait, 9 Ambonese Malay, see Malay. Chadic languages, 175 Anatolian languages, 43 Chantyal, 31, 40 Apache, 177 Chatino, Zenzontepec, 192 Apachean languages, 177 Chehalis, Lower, see Lower Chehalis. Arabic, 1, 19, 22, 37, 43, 49, 63, 65, 101, 194; Chehalis, Upper, see Upper Chehalis. Classical Arabic, 8, 103 Cheyenne, 96, 176 Arapaho, 78, 96, 176; Northern Arapaho, 73, 90, Chinese languages (“dialects”), 22, 35, 37, 41, 92 48, 69, 101, 196; Mandarin, 35; Arawakan languages, 81 Wu, 118; see also Putonghua, Arbëresh, see Albanian. Chinook, Clackamas, see Clackamas Armenian, 185 Chinook. Arrernte, 9; see also Mpartnwe Arrernte Chinook, Lower (Shoalwater), 20 Arvanitika, see Albanian. Chinook, Shoalwater, see Chinook, Lower. Athabaskan languages, 27, 31, 45, 177 Chinookan languages, 29, 31; see also Chinook, Athabaskan-Eyak languages, 27, 177 Lower; Clackamas Chinook; Wasco; Atsina (Gros Ventre), 96, 176 Wishram. Austronesian languages, 7, 64, 177, 178, 182, Chorote, 32 187, 188 Chukchi, 19 Aymara, 101, 103–104, 110, 192 Clackamas Chinook, 32 Clallam (Klallam), 10, 193 Balto-Slavic languages, 194 Coast Salish languages, 193 Baluchi, 63 Coeur d’Alene, 10, 193 Bantu languages, 63, 65, 102, 178, 179, 196 Columbian, 10, 193 Barí, 84, 92 Colville-Okanagan, 10, 144, 193 Basque, 186 Comox-Sliammon, 10, 193 Bella Coola, 10, 193 Copper Island Aleut, see Mednyj Aleut. Berber languages, 22, 175 Coptic, 1, 8, 49, 66, 69, 155, 180, 182; see also Bering Aleut, 52 Egyptian.

214

Language index 215

Cornish, 46–48, 49, 52, 53, 57, 66, 69, 153, Gaulish, 179 154–155, 172, 179 German, 22, 37, 63, 75, 98–100, 101, 181; High Cowlitz, 10, 193 German, 98–100; Low German, 98–100; Cree, 96, 104, 110, 176 Standard German, 100; see also Croatian, 87, 194 Pennsylvania German Cupeño, 63 Gooniyandi, 166 Cushitic languages, 49, 63, 64, 65, 88, 175, 180 Greek, 22, 24, 28, 42, 43, 49, 185; Asia Minor Czech, 22, 63, 101, 194 Greek, 22, 38; Attic Greek, 43; Modern Greek, 43; Standard Greek, 24 Dahalo, 88 Gros Ventre, see Atsina. Dakota, 28, 40 Gujarati, 101 Damin, 102, 109 Gurindji Kriol, 149 Danish, 101 Delaware, 7, 32, 96, 176; Munsee, 96; Unami, 96 Hadza, 186 Dogon languages, 83, 84, 91, 101, 105 Halkomelem (Halq’emeylem), 10, 166, 193 Dravidian languages, 63 Hawaiian, 165, 178 Dutch, 22 Hebrew, 6, 8, 43, 88, 101, 184, 194; Ephraimite Dyirbal, 62, 71 Hebrew, 44, 67; Gileadite Hebrew, 44; Modern Israeli Hebrew, 6, 8, 156, 159 East Slavic languages, 194 Hindi, 87, 101, 185 East Sutherland Gaelic, see Gaelic, Scottish. Hittite, 11, 42, 43, 184–185 Egyptian, 1, 8, 19, 42, 48–49, 52, 66, 69, 153, Hixkaryana, 103, 109 155, 175, 180, 182; Demotic, 48; Old Hokan languages, 163 Egyptian, 48; Middle Egyptian, 48; Late Hungarian, 6, 22, 25, 101, 197; American Egyptian, 48; see also Coptic. Hungarian, 6, 61, 71; Canadian Hungarian, Enets, Forest, 166, 197 170, 174; McKeesport Hungarian, 61, 62, 67 English, 4, 12, 16, 20, 21, 22, 29, 32, 33, 34, 37, 46, 47, 48, 53, 54, 56, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 67, Illinois, see Miami-Illinois. 74, 75, 77, 78, 83, 87, 90, 94, 101, 103, 108, Indic languages, 185 124, 131, 139–140, 143, 156, 169, 176, 180, Indo-European languages, 43, 179, 184, 185, 188, 194; see also Aboriginal English, 186, 194 Middle English, Old English, Standard Indonesian, 101, 178 English. Ingrian, see Ižora. Eskimoan languages, 82–83, 84, 91, 101, 105, Innu-aimun, 173 187; see also Yupik Interior Salish, 193 Estonian, 18, 26, 183, 197 Inuttut, 172 Etchemin, 96 Iranian languages, 63, 185, 186 Ethiopic Semitic languages, 63 Irish Gaelic, see Gaelic, Irish. Even, 19 Iroquoian languages, 20, 95 Evenki, 185 Italian, 22, 24, 28, 43, 192 Eyak, 27, 40, 45–46, 49, 52, 66, 69, 78, 153, 154, Itonama, 10 172, 177 Ižora (Ingrian), 65, 72

Finnic languages, 8, 16, 65, 183, 197 Japanese, 37, 76–77, 101 Finnish, 101, 183, 197 Jumaytepeque Xinca, see Xinca. Flathead, see Salish-Pend d’Oreille, Forest Enets, see Enets, Forest, Kalispel, 10, 144, 193 Fox, see Meskwaki, Kannad.a, 101 French, 25, 37, 39, 43, 63, 75, 90, 101, 104, 110, Kansa (Kanza), see Kaw. 131, 139, 192 Karelian, 166 Karo Batak, 118 Gaelic, Irish, 85, 92, 103, 183 Karuk, 163, 173 Gaelic, Scottish, 13, 34–35, 41, 53–54, 70, 85, Kaw, 111, 146 92, 108, 151, 179, 183; East Sutherland Khinalug, 148 Gaelic, 53–54, 55, 66, 70, 71, 120–121 Khoe, 106 Galician, 192 Khoisan languages, 102, 106, 179, 186 Gamilaraay, 57, 71 Klallam, see Clallam.

216 Language index

Korean, 76–77, 90, 101 Mixe, Eastern, 192 Kriol (Australia), 121 Mixean, Sayula, 192 Kunwinjku, 106, 110 Mohawk, 166, 174 Kurrama, 58 Mohegan, 95, 96, 108 Kutenai, 10 Montana Salish, see Salish-Pend d’Oreille. Montana Salish-Kalispel-Spokane, 10; see also Laha, 64, 65, 67, 72 Salish-Pend d’Oreille. Lakota, 166 Mparntwe Arrernte, 106, 110 Lao, 22 Muhhekaneew, see Mohegan. Lapp, see Saami. Munda languages, 185 Lardil, 102, 109 Mundari, 185 Latin, 8, 42, 43, 48, 155, 177, 179, 180, Muniche, 10 185 Munsee Delaware, see Delaware. Latvian, 37 Múra, 191 Leco, 10 Lenape, see Delaware. Nahuatl, 19, 55; Tlaxcalan Nahuatl, 55, 70 Lenca, 10, 45 Nanticoke, 96 Light Warlpiri, 121, 149 Narragansett, 96 Lillooet, 10, 193 Navajo, 5, 16, 36, 79–80 Loup, 96 Nez Perce, 7, 16, 32, 190 Lower Chehalis, 193 Niger-Congo languages, 178 Luiseño, 63 Nilo-Saharan languages, 49, 188 Lule, 60, 71 Nilotic languages, 49, 188 Lule-Vilela languages, 60 Nivaclé, 32 Lushootseed, 193 Nomlaki, 163, 173 Nooksack, 10, 193 Ma’a (Mbugu), 65, 68, 72, 178 Norse, 63 Maasai, 49–50, 53, 70, 155, 188 Norwegian, 17, 23, 28, 38, 101 Macedonian, 194 Mahican, 96, 176 Ojibwe, 166, 176; Central, 96; Eastern, 96; Malay, 64, 101, 178; Ambonese Malay, 64, 72 Northwestern, 96 Malayalam, 118 Okanagan, see Colville-Okanagan. Maliseet-Passamaquoddy (Maliseet), 3, 70, 96 Old Church Slavic, 42, 43, 194 Mam, 61; Tuxtla Chico Mam, 61, 71 Old English, 42, 43, 64, 180 Mande languages, 119 Old Irish, 42, 43, 183 Mandinka, 119 Manx, 179 Panyjima, 1, 58 Maori, 6, 16, 165–166, 174, 178, 187, 188 Passamaquoddy, see Maliseet-Passamaquoddy Mapuzugun, 168 Pend d’Oreille, see Salish-Pend d’Oreille. Marathi, 101 Pennsylvania Dutch, see Pennsylvania German. Martuthunira, 1, 15, 58 Pennsylvania German, 22–23, 26, 36, 39 Massachusett, 96, 176; see also Wampanoag. Pentlatch, 193 Matsigenka, 81–82, 91 Persian, 185 Mayan languages, 61, 101 “Pidgin Nomlaki”, 163 Media Lengua, 104, 110 Pipil, 61; Teotepeque Pipil, 61, 71 Mednyj Aleut (Copper Island Aleut), 50–52, 53, Pirahã, 5, 16, 121, 149, 191 66, 70, 104–105, 110, 153, 155, 164, 172, Pitjantjatjara, 9 178, 183, 188 Polish, 22, 24, 37, 101, 194 Menomini, 62, 96 Polynesian languages, 6, 165, 178 Meskwaki (Fox), 81, 82, 91, 96, 101, 110, 176; Pomo, 77, 90; Elem Pomo, 150 see also Sauk-Fox. Portuguese, 5, 37, 43, 75, 90, 101, 192 Miami-Illinois (Miami), 57, 96, 162–163, 164, Potawatomi, 96, 176 173, 176 Powhatan, 96, 176 Michif, 104, 110, 178 Proto-Algonquian, 97 Micmac, 96 Proto-Semitic, 64 Middle English, 181 Proto-Xincan, 62 Miriwoong, 166 Provençal, 192

Language index 217

Puelche, 10 Squamish, 10, 193 Putonghua (Standard Chinese), 35, 37 Standard (Mandarin) Chinese, see Putonghua. Standard English, 33, 34 Quechua, 19, 38, 81–82, 91, 104, 192 Straits Salish, 193 Quechuan languages, 101, 192 Sumerian, 1, 42, 43, 44, 48, 69, 177, 195 Quinault, 10, 193 Susquehannock, 20, 38, 67 Quiripi, 96 Swahili, 37, 63, 88, 178 Swedish, 23, 28, 40, 161; American Swedish, Ritwan languages, 96, 108, 109; see also Wiyot, 29, 34 Yurok. Romance languages, 43, 179, 185, 192 Tadzhik see Tajik. Romanian, 43, 192 Tahitian, 178 Romansh, 192 Taiap, 19 Russian, 18, 26, 27, 51–52, 66, 101, 105, 155, Tajik, 63 166, 169, 170, 172, 183, 185, 188, 194 Takelma, 79, 80, 90, 101 Rusyn (Ruthenian), 25 Tamboran, 45, 67, 69 Ruthenian, see Rusyn. Tamil, 101 Taushiro, 10 Saami (Sámi; Lapp), 39, 91, 101, 102, 109, 161, Teotepeque Pipil, see Pipil. 166, 197; Lule Saami, 161; Northern Saami, Thai, 37, 101, 196 83, 84; Pite Saami, 161–162, 173; Southern Thompson Salish, 10, 84, 92, 107, 110, 193 Saami, 23, 26, 28, 36; Standard Saami, 28 Tillamook, 10, 193 Sahaptian languages, 190 Tlaxcalan Nahuatl, see Nahuatl. Sahaptin, 32 Tlingit, 27, 28, 39–40, 45, 46, 52 Salishan languages, 10, 144, 187, 193 Tocharian, 185 Salish-Pend d’Oreille, 20, 21, 37, 42, 55–56, Toda, 88 58–89, 66, 77, 80–81, 82, 89, 90, 92, 101, Tok Pisin, 7, 19, 161, 182, 185 102–103, 109, 124–125, 131, 132–133, 134, Toro Tegu, 91, 161 135, 136, 138–140, 142–145, 154, 186, 190, Torres Strait Islander languages, 9 193, 194 Tsamosan languages (Upper Chehalis, Lower Sámi, see Saami. Chehalis, Cowlitz, Quinault), 10, 193 Samoan, 106, 110 Tukano (Tucano), 31 San, 26, 36, 39 Tungusic languages, 185 San Miguel Chimalapa, 192 Turkic languages, 63 Sanskrit, 8, 16, 42, 43 Turkish, 22, 101, 103, 198 Sauk-Fox, 96; see also Meskwaki. Tuxtla Chico Mam, see Mam. Scottish Gaelic see Gaelic, Scottish. Twana, 10, 193 Sechelt, 10, 193 Semitic languages, 1, 43, 63, 64, 175, 184, 194; Udmurt (a. k. a., Votyak), 27, 40, 169, 197 see also Ethiopic Semitic. Unami Delaware, see Delaware. Serbian, 87, 194 Upper Chehalis, 10, 193 Serbo-Croatian, 87, 123–124, 131, 132; Standard Uralic languages, 27, 65, 83, 166, 187, 197 Serbo-Croatian, 123, 132 Urdu, 87, 101 Seri, 106, 110 Uto-Aztecan languages, 61 Seto, 18, 26 Uzbek, 63 Shambala, 65, 178 Shawnee, 96, 176 Veps, 8, 16, 27, 40, 183, 197 Shuswap, 10, 193 Vietnamese, 22, 37, 101, 196 Siouan languages, 28, 146, 166 Vilela, 60–61, 62, 71 Slavic languages, 194 Votic, 65, 67, 72, 197 Slovak, 22, 25, 194 Votyak, see Udmurt. Slovenian, 194 Snohomish, 10 Wampanoag, 96, 109, 171, 176; see also South Slavic languages, 194 Massachusett. Spanish, 12, 21, 22, 30, 37, 43, 55, 61, 62, 81–82, Warlpiri, 9; see also Light Warlpiri. 87, 101, 104, 131, 169, 192 Wasco (Chinook), 31, 32; see also Chinookan Spokane, 10, 144, 152 languages.

218 Language index

Wayeyi, 94, 105, 108 Yámana, 10 Welsh, 48, 179 Yiddish, 156 West Slavic languages, 194 Yindjibarndi, 1, 58 Wichí, 32 Yingkarta, 56, 71 Wintuan languages, 163 Yuchi, 10 Wishram (Chinook), 31, 32; see also Chinookan Yupik, 19 languages. Yurok, 96, 97, 108, 109 see also Ritwan Wiyot, 96, 97, 108, 109; see also Ritwan languages languages. Zapotecan languages, 30, 40; Coapan Northern Xinca, 61, 62; Jumaytepeque Xinca, 61–62, 71 Zapotec, 192; Juchitán (Isthmus Zapotec), 30, 40, 192; Lachixío Zapotec, 192 Yaaku, 49–50, 52, 53, 66, 67, 69–70, 153, 154, Zoque, Western/Oaxaca, 192 155, 172, 198 Zoquean, Ayapa Gulf, 192 Zulu, 118, 179, 196

Names index

Ahlers, Jocelyn, 150 Chelliah, Shobhana L., 116 Aikio, Ante, 109 Chirac, Jacques, 24–25, 39 Aitchison, Jean, 72 Chomsky, Noam, 121 Alexander, Danny, 155 Churchill, Ward, 38 Allen, Elsie, 90 Colapinto, John, 149 Amherst, Lord Jeffrey, 38 Collins, James, 72 Anderson, Greg, 148 Conn, Barry J., 148 Ariste, Paul, 72 Cooper, James Fenimore, 96 Aristophanes, 43 Costa, David, 162, 164, 173 Aristotle, 43 Craig, Colette, 13, 114, 146, 147; see also Austin, Peter K., 14, 41, 71, 147, 149, 150, 151, Colette Grinevald, 152, 172 Crowley, Terry, 116, 117 Crystal, David, 14, 68, 72, 157, 158, 172 Baird, Jessie Little Doe, 109, 171 Cunningham, Graham, 69 Baker, Colin, 171 Czaykowska-Higgins, Ewa, 150 Bakker, Peter, 110 Baldwin, Daryl, 162–163, 173 Dauenhauer, Nora Marks, 39, 153 Baldwin, Jarrid, 173 Dauenhauer, Richard, 39, 153 Baldwin, Jessie, 173 Dawkins, R. M., 38 Baldwin, Karen, 173 Dench, Alan, 1, 15, 56, 58, 71 Baron, Dennis, 25, 39 de Reuse, Willem J., 116 Bavin, Edith, 71 Derbyshire, Desmond, 109 Beaverhead, Pete, 80 Derhemi, Eda, 28, 40 Bechert, Johannes, 115, 147 d’Errico, Peter, 38 Ben-Yehuda, Eliezer, 156, 159 Diaz, Rafael, 92 Bernard, H. Russell, 1, 15 Dobrin, Lise M., 148, 151, 161, 172 Berson, Josh, 172 Dorian, Nancy, 3, 13, 15, 40, 42, 53, 54, 55, 66, Bialystok, Ellen, 92–93 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 88–89, 90, 93, 120, Blonk, Matthijs, 70, 155 122, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 196 Bloomﬁeld, Leonard, 62, 71, 99, 100, 109 Dousset, Laurent, 149 Boas, Franz, 114, 147 Drummond, William, 107 Bonaparte, Prince Louis, 47 Dwyer, Arienne, 148 Boswell, James, 107 Bowern, Claire, 116, 117, 150, 168 Edwards, Jonathan, 95 Bradley, David, 14 Edwards, Jonathan, Jr., 95, 108 Bradley, Maya, 14 Emlen, Nicholas Q. (Nick), 38, 40, 91 Brenzinger, Matthias, 14, 15, 69–70 Endo, Fubito, 150 Brown, Thomas, 38 England, Nora C., 13, 146 Buszard-Welcher, Laura, 172 Evans, Nicholas, 14, 106, 110, 114, 147 Everett, Daniel L, , 16, 116, 117, 121, 133, 148, Cahill, Michael, 104, 110 149 Campbell, Lyle, 14, 15, 32, 41, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 108, 109 Farfán, Flores, 14 Carlson, Barry F., 152 Fenyvesi, Anna, 67, 71, 72, 170, 174 Charles I. King of England, 48 Fishman, Joshua, 66, 72, 157, 158, 171, 172

219

220 Names index

Flett, Pauline, 152 Jeanne, Laverne Masayesva, 13, 146 Fortescue, Michael, 91 Jefferson, Thomas, 94, 95, 96, 108 Furbee, N. Louanna, 116 Jim, Rex Lee, 90 Johansen, Inger, 39 Gal, Susan, 38 John, Mary, Sr., 170, 174 Garrett, Rev, John, 47 Johns, Alana, 173 Gippert, Jost, 114, 146, 147, 148 Johnson, Frances, 80, 90 Goddard, Ives, 108, 109 Johnson, Samuel, 94, 95, 107 Golla, Victor, 16 Jones, Marie Smith, 27, 31, 40, 45–46 Golluscio, Lucía, 71 Jukes, Anthony, 148 Golovko, Evgenij V., 70 González, Hebe, 71 Kaufman, Terrence, 72, 129–130, 142, 150, 152, Greenberg, Joseph, 103, 109 190, 191 Grenoble, Lenore A., 4, 14, 16, 116, 149, 156, Keiser, Steven Hartman, 39 157, 158, 159, 164, 165, 166, 171, 172, 173, Kibrik, Aleksandr E., 148 174 Kilpatrick, Paul, 40 Grinevald, Colette, 114, 147, 150; see also King, Jeanette, 16, 187 Colette Craig. Kolbert, Elizabeth, 69 Grondona, Verónica, 32, 41 Kornai, András, 169, 174 Grey, Peter, 108 Koven, Michèle, 75, 90 Krauss, Michael, 13, 46, 69, 79, 111, 142, 146, Haas, Mary, 108 152, 154, 172 Halberstam, David, 76, 77, 90 Kulick, Don, 19, 38, 70 Hale, Ken (Kenneth L, ), 13, 14, 73, 79, 90, 93, Kushala, S., 16 94, 101, 102, 108, 109, 146, 147, 153, 154, 171, 172, 173 Ladefoged, Peter, 13, 88–89, 93 Harbert, Wayne, 38, 158 Leduey, Guillaume, 154 Harmon, David, 2, 15 Lee, Tiffany R., 16 Harrison, K. David, 14, 68, 71, 105, 110, 148, Lehmann, Christian, 115, 147 168 Leonard, Wesley Y., 153, 171, 173 Haugen, Einar, 17, 38 Letsapa, Baagi, 94, 105, 108 Heath, Jeffrey, 91 Lizarralde, Manuel, 92 Hedblom, Folke, 40 Loh, Jonathan, 2, 15 Heine, Bernd, 69–70 Loprieno, Antonio, 69 Henley, Jon, 39 Lord, Nancy, 153, 172 Henry VIII, King of England, 48 Lozano, Elena, 71 Henry, Jim Pepper, 111 Lucy, John, 91–92, 103, 109, 188 Herodotus, 43 Hill, Jane H., 15, 55, 70, 71, 172 Macaulay, Monica, 149 Hill, Kenneth, 55, 70 Mafﬁ, Luisa, 91 Himmelmann, Nikolaus P., 114, 146, 147 Magga, Ole Henrik, 91 Hinton, Leanne, 90, 153, 154, 162, 163, 164, Mair, Victor, 35, 41 165, 166, 171, 172, 173, 174, 188 Maldonaldo, Sergio, 73, 90 Holton, Gary, 174 Malykh, Artyom, 174 Homer, 43 Mandela, Nelson, 74, 75, 90 Howard, Victoria, 32, 41 Mann, John, 47 Huber, Máté, 174 Mannheim, Bruce, 38 Huntington, Samuel P., 87, 92 Martin, Laura, 91 Hurst, Charles, E., 39 Mattina, Anthony, 152 Hymes, Dell, 79, 90 Mayer, Mercer, 151 Mazurkewich, Irene, 173 Ingoldsby, Pat, 73, 75, 77, 90 McCarty, Teresa L., 173 Ivic,´ Pavle, 123 McCauley, Johnny Ray, 111 McConnell, David L., 39 Jackson, Jean, 40 McConvell, Patrick, 10, 17, 149 Jacobs, Melville, 32, 41 McKay, Graham, 17 Jansson, Johanna, 39 McLaughlin, Daniel, 16

Names index 221

McMahon, April, 67, 72 Romaine, Suzanne, 14, 68, 69, 84, 92, 171 Meakins, Felicity, 149 Romanova, Evgenia, 17, 40 Mengarini, Gregory, S. J., 144 Menovšcikov,ˇ G. A., 70 Sakel, Jeanette, 116, 133 Mertz, Elizabeth, 70 Sakiyama, Osamu, 150 Mihas, Elena, 150 Sallabank, Julia, 14 Mitchell, Blackhorse, 90 Salminen, Tapani, 39 Mithun, Marianne, 38, 90, 108, 151 Samarin, William J., 148 Moe, Ron, 151 Samediggi, Rolf Olsen, 39 Moran, Steven, 91 Sapir, Edward, 91, 108, 188 Mosel, Ulrike, 114, 146 Sappho, 43 Mous, Maarten, 70, 72, 155 Sasse, Hans-Jürgen, 66, 72, 116 Muntzel, Martha, 66, 69, 71, 72 Schmidt, Annette, 17, 71 Muysken, Pieter, 110 Shaw, Patricia A., 89 Shirobokova, Larisa, 40 Nash, David, 149, 196 Simpson, Jane, 149, 196 Nathan, David, 169, 174 Sims, Carolyn, 92 Nettle, Daniel, 14 Slate, Clay, 173 Nevins, Andrew, 149 Sophocles, 43 Newman, Paul, 116, 117, 148, 149, 150, 151 Sosa, Lionel, 87, 92 Nicholson, Rangi, 16 Spicer, Edward, 41 Noonan, Michael (Mickey), 40, 150 Splawn, A. J., 16 Norman, Jerry, 69 Spolsky, Bernard, 6, 16 Nuñez, Rafael, 104, 109 Stevens, Minnie, 46 Stoks, Hans, 70, 155 Obama, Barack, 169 Stoyle, Mark, 69 O’Shannessy, Carmel, 119, 121, 149 Supahan, Terry, 163, 173 Sutton, Peter, 132, 133, 151 Palosaari, Naomi, 109 Swadesh, Morris, 143, 178 Papen, Robert A., 110 Swarns, Rachel L., 94, 108 Pata, Cody, 163, 173 Sweetser, Eve, 104, 109 Paulston, Christina Bratt, 39 Payton, Philip J., 69 Teeter, Karl, 108 Peacock, John Hunt, 28, 40 Thieberger, Nicholas, 10, 17, 116, 148, 149 Pemberton, Mary, 69 Thomason, Lucy, 91, 104, 109, 110, 151 Penﬁeld, Susan, 150 Thompson, Laurence C., 92 Pentreath, Dolly, 46–48, 69 Thompson, M. Terry, 92 Perley, Bernard, 3, 15, 16, 70 Timberg, Craig, 39 Pike, Kenneth, 131–132, 150 Tito, Josip Broz, 123 Platero, Paul R., 16 Trautmann, Thomas, 108 Plato, 43 Tsunoda, Tasaku, 171 Poplack, Shana, 179 Turner, Nancy J., 84, 92, 107, 110 Poser, William J., 41, 109, 170, 174 Prensky, Marc, 174 Uhlenbeck, Eugenius M., 13, 116 Pullum, Geoffrey, 91 Underwood, Emily, 90, 92 Puura, Ulrikka, 16 Vakhtin, Nikolai B., 70, 155, 172 Rankin, Robert, 111, 146 Valijärvi, Riitta-Liisa, 173 Rao, Subha J., 16 Vaux, Bert, 116 Ratliff, Martha, 116, 117, 148, 149, 151 Vidal, John, 15 Raymond, Joan, 40 Voltaire, 147 Reichard, Gladys, 91 Reintges, Chris, 69 Watahomigie, Lucille J., 13, 146, 173 Rice, Keren, 148 Watson, Seosamh, 92 Robertson, David, 41 Webster, Anthony K., 90 Robins, R. H., 13 Webster, Donald H., 91 Rogers, Chris, 14 Wengle, John, 149

222 Names index

Whaley, Lindsay J., 4, 14, 16, 149, 156, 157, Woolard, Kathryn, 70 158, 159, 164, 165, 166, 171, 172, 173, Wurm, Stephen A., 57, 116 174 Yamada, Raquel, 150 White Thunder, 62, 71 Yamamoto, Akira Y., 13, 146, 173 Whitworth, Harriet (Alyé), 90 York, Annie Z., 92 Whorf, Benjamin Lee, 91, 188 Wilbur, Joshua, 173 Zenk, Henry, 41 Wilhelm, Andrea, 171 Zepeda, Ofelia, 164, 165, 173 Will, Vanessa, 35, 41 Zibell, Wilfried, 91 Woodbury, Anthony, 76, 90, 147 Zuckermann, Ghil’ad, 90

Subject index

accommodation to English syntax (by language Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger consultants), 138–140 (UNESCO), 2, 4, 14, 16, 34, 45, 47, 48, 49, Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages 96, 153, 171, 177, 192, 197 (UNESCO), 1, 15 attitudes, as a factor in endangerment, 20, 26–32, adjective, predicative, 62, 175 36, 37, 52, 53, 54, 109; important for adult language revitalization programs, 164, 165 revitalization efforts, 30, 156, 158, 162, 163 advantages of learning to speak a consultant’s attrition in a dying language, 42, 44, 57–64, 66, language, 132 67, 71, 153, 177 Advocates for Indigenous California Language Australia, 9, 10, 17, 18, 19, 26, 31, 32, 56, 78, Survival, 167, 174 102, 106, 109, 121, 132, 167, 174 affix, 51, 62, 90, 113, 175, 185, 189, 193, 195 Aztec Empire, 19 affixes, borrowed, 51 affricate, 98, 134 basic vocabulary, 138, 143, 151, 178 Africa, 9, 11, 14, 26, 31, 41, 52, 69, 97, 119, 179, Bering Island, 51, 52; see also Commander 186, 194 Islands. Age of Exploration, 7 bilingualism and language endangerment, 11–12 age of speakers as a factor in endangerment, 5, 7, bilingualism, 11–12, 22, 88, 92–93; stable, 12, 32 8, 18 bilingual mixed languages, 52, 65, 70, 104–105, agreement, 62, 175, 184, 185 110, 155, 178, 188, 189 agreement morphology, lost in attrition, 62 bilingual revitalization programs, 164, 166, 174 Alaska, purchased from Russia, 45 bilinguals, 21, 30, 52 Albania, 28, 124 biological diversity, 2, 15 allophone, 61, 138, 176 blogging and revitalization, 169 American Association for the Advancement of boarding schools as a factor in endangerment, see Science, 168 residential schools. analogic leveling of morphological paradigms in Bolivia, 10, 104, 192 attrition, 62, 176 Book of Common Prayer, English, 48, 69 Andes, 91, 104 borrowing, massive, 64–65, 66, 72 annotation of linguistic records, 112–113 Botswana assimilation policy (targeting the San applied linguistics and revitalization, 111, 160, people), 26, 36, 39 170 Brazil, 5, 30, 31, 103, 121, 191 approval, local, for fieldwork projects, 127 Breath of Life Institute for Indigenous archiving linguistic data, 113, 114, 117 Languages, National, 167, 174 Argentina, 10, 32, 41, 60, 192 British Columbia, 84, 107, 110, 170, 193 Asia, 9, 97 aspect, 62, 176, 183, 185 camps, language and culture, 164 aspect (grammatical category), lost in attrition, 62 Canada, 10, 18, 26, 95 assimilation (in speech sounds), 177 Cape Breton Island (Nova Scotia), 54 assimilation and endangerment, 18, 20, 64; see Cascade Indians, 31 also resistance to complete cultural case (grammatical category), 62, 178, 185; lost in assimilation. attrition, 62, 67 assimilation phonological rules, lost in attrition, casinos, gambling, 158 61, 67 Catalogue of Endangered Languages (EL-Cat), asymmetrical bilingualism/multilingualism, 12, 2, 15 32, 41 Catholic church, 24

223

224 Subject index

cattle-herding economy, 50, 53, 69 decreolization, 72 causative (grammatical category), 64, 179; definitely endangered languages (on UNESCO’s changed as a result of language contact, 64 scale of endangerment), 4, 96 Chaco (Argentina), 32, 60, 71 degemination, 61, 67, 181, 184 Chile, 10, 168, 174, 192 descriptive linguistics (vs, documentary Chilean Education Ministry, 168 linguistics), 112–115, 145 Chirac Foundation (France), 25, 34 devoicing phonological rule, 61, 181; lost in Civil War, U.S., 23, 87 attrition, 61 CLAN (software), 119, 179 dialect shift, 35 classroom-based revitalization programs, 166 dialects and endangerment, 23 click languages, 11, 102 dialects, endangered, 6, 7, 24 click sounds, 101, 106, 179, 186 diaspora fieldwork, 118, 119 CLP, see Cornish Language Partnership dictionaries, talking, and revitalization, 168 code-switching, 104, 121, 149, 161, 179–180 Dictionary of the Kalispel or Flat-Head collaborative fieldwork, 114, 129, 131, 147, 150 Language, 59, 144–145 colonialism as a factor in endangerment, 19 dictionary-making, 111, 136, 142–145 Comité International Permanent des Linguistes digital archiving, 113, 114 (CIPL), 115 digital ascent, 169 Commander Islands (Russia), 51; see also Bering digital immigrant, 174 Island, Mednyj Island. digital native, 169, 174, 181 Committee on Endangered Languages and Their digital technologies and revitalization, 157, 158, Preservation (LSA), 14 163, 167–170, 172; see also blogging; community as the prime mover in revitalization, digital archiving; digital ascent; machine 159–160 translation and revitalization; smartphones community-based revitalization programs, 164, and revitalization; social media and 166 revitalization; dictionaries, talking, and Comparative Method, the (in historical revitalization; texting; twitter and linguistics), 95, 97, 180, 184, 192, 197 revitalization; video streaming and complex sentence types, reduced in attrition, 62 revitalization. conquest as a factor in endangerment, 19–21, 52 diglossia, 157, 181 consultants, selection of (for a fieldwork project), diminutive marking, 79, 101 126, 133–134 disadvantages of learning to speak a consultant’s contact-induced language change, 63–64, 180, language, 132 186, 195; in phonology, 63; in disaster, natural, as a cause of language death, 45 morphosyntax, 63–64 discourse prominence, 104 Copper Island, see Mednyj Island. disease as a factor in endangerment, 2, 18, 20, 37, Cornish Language Development Strategy, 155 45–46, 51, 53, 94, 95, 116 Cornish Language Partnership (CLP), 154–155, ditransitive construction, 138–140, 181 172 diversity, linguistic, 14, 18, 25, 74; a good thing, creole language, 7, 70, 178, 180, 189 25, 37, 74, 76, 85–89, 101; a bad thing, 74, creole (mixed-blood) population, 51, 52, 70 85–89; loss because of standardization, critically endangered languages (on UNESCO’s 32–35 scale of endangerment), 4, 48, 52, 62, 96, documentary linguistics, 112–115, 145, 146–147, 102, 155, 158 148, 159, 178, 181 Croatia, 25 Documentation of Endangered Languages culture loss, 82, 84, 85, 88, 91, 167 (DOBES), 15 culture shift, 74, 75 dominant language of a bilingual, 21, 29, 56, 77 curriculum development for endangered dormancy, language, 3, 13, 42, 46, 153, 167 languages, 160, 170 dormant language, 57, 60, 162, 181 Dorobo (Kenya), 50 data collection techniques for dictionary-making, dual number (grammatical category), 181; lost as 142–145 a result of language contact, 63 data, naturally occurring, 140–141 daughter language, 43, 180 ecological linkages in folk taxonomy, 106 dead language, 42, 180–181 economic factors in revitalization, 158–159 death, language, 3, 15 economic power as a factor in saving languages, death by borrowing, 44 18, 36, 38, 157, 158

Subject index 225

economic pressures as a factor in endangerment, Flathead Culture Committee, see Salish-Pend 18, 21–23, 26, 38, 46, 47, 52, 58, 83, 85, 88 d’Oreille Culture Committee, Ecuador, 104, 192 Flathead Reservation (Montana), 20, 37, 124, education, and endangerment, 34, 36, 38, 41, 54, 135, 137, 144; opened to White settlement, 56; in endangered languages, 34, 156, 157, 20, 37, 56, 133 158, 159, 163, 166 folk taxonomy, 105–106; see also ethnobotany, ELAN (software), 119, 182 ethnozoology EL-Cat, see Catalogue of Endangered Languages. Foreign Policy magazine, 87, 92 electronic technology and revitalization, see France, 24, 25, 39, 90, 179, 187; minority digital technologies and revitalization. language status in, 24–25, 39 elicitation, of word-lists, 136, 138; of paradigms, fricative, 61, 79, 98, 175, 183, 187, 188, 197 116, 117, 119, 136, 138 frog stories (stimuli for text collection), 151 El Salvador, 10, 44, 61, 69 Endangered Languages Project, 15 geminate consonants, 61, 183; degeminated in English Only movement (monolingual), 21, 38, attrition, 61 87, 88, 182 gender (grammatical category), 63, 184; lost as a English Plus movement (bilingual), 23, 88, 182 result of language contact, 63 Ephraimites, 44, 67, 88 genetic relationship of languages, 108, 143, 178, Eskimo words for ‘snow’, 82–83, 91 184, 192 Estonian Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages, 18, genocide as a cause of language death, 18, 37, 44 37 genres of texts, 113 ethics, fieldwork, 116, 117, 126, 127, 141–142, Gileadites, 44, 88 148 globalization and endangerment, 154 Ethiopia, 63 glottalization of consonants, 62, 134, 184, 190; ethnobotany, 58, 73, 84–85, 92, 105, 106–107, extended in attrition, 62, 71 110, 115, 117, 129, 148, 183; see also folk government support as a factor in saving taxonomy languages, 6, 18, 36, 156, 162 ethnography and linguistic fieldwork, 113, 115, grammaticality judgment, 126, 141, 184 148 grasshoppers, 83, 105 ethnolect, 28 Great Plains (U.S.), 28, 95, 96 Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 5, 8–9, 10, Greece, 22, 24, 28, 40, 66 45, 52, 60, 62, 90, 191 Greek Orthodox church, 24 ethnozoology, 73, 105, 115, 129; see also folk Green Book of Endangered Languages, 153, 154, taxonomy 171, 172, 173 European Charter on Regional and Minority Languages, 25 Hangul, 76 exclusive ‘we’, see inclusive/exclusive ‘we’ Hans Rausing Endangered Languages Project distinction. (SOAS), 14, 15, 161 exogamy, 30, 40, 183 Hell Gate Treaty (1855), 20 expressive devices in verbal art, 79–80 High German Consonant Shift, 98–100 extinct languages (on UNESCO’s scale of Hindu religion, 8 endangerment), 4, 60, 95, 108, 177 Hindus, 87 Eyak Corporation of Alaska, 154 historical linguistics, 94, 95 Eyak Language Project, 154, 172 Hittite Empire, 43 Eyak Preservation Council, 154 Holocaust, the, 68 homogeneity, linguistic, 85–87; as a promoter of failed revitalization efforts, value of, 170–171 peace, 85–87 family-based revitalization programs, 164, 165 Humanities Forum (Alaska), 154 farming economy, 58 Hungary, 197 field methods classes, 118–120, 149 hunter-gatherers, 20, 26, 50, 58, 125 fieldwork, linguistic, 54, 56, 58, 112, 116ff., 153 identity, cultural, 34, 40, 41 fieldwork textbooks, 116–117, 148 identity, ethnic, 31, 40, 50 Fieldworks (software), 119, 183 identity, language as a symbol of, 3, 31 financial resources in revitalization efforts, 157 immersion revitalization programs, 6, 164, 165 finite verb inflection, 51, 183, 188, 195; immigrants’ languages, loss of, 22, 40 borrowed, 51 Inca Empire, 19, 38

226 Subject index

inclusive/exclusive “we” distinction, 62, 63, 185; language shift, 2, 18, 22, 25, 35, 45, 47, 50, 52, lost in attrition, 62, 71; lost as a result of 64, 74–75, 84, 156, 159, 172, 187, 196; see language contact, 62, 63 also dialect shift. India, 88, 185 “language suicide”, 44, 67–68, 72 Indian Peace Commission (U, S, , 1868), 86–87, language suppression policies, 18, 24, 25, 37, 92 76–77 inflectional morphology, 51, 105, 183, 185 Language Vitality and Endangerment Framework innate linguistic features, 100 (UNESCO), 4, 19, 27, 189–90, 193, 198 Institutional Review Board (IRB), 127, 141, 142, lateral fricative, 61, 187; as an expressive device 150, 185 meaning ‘small size, condescension’, 79; International Committee for the Defense of the lost in attrition, 61 Breton Language, 39 lexical elaboration, 83, 101, 105 International Congress of Linguists, 14th, 115, lexicography, see dictionary-making. 147 lexifier language (of a pidgin or creole language), International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 127, 150, 180 185 lingua franca, 19, 156, 161, 187 intonation, 138, 191 “linguicide”, 67 intransitive verb, 139, 186 linguistic fieldwork, see fieldwork, linguistic. IPA, see International Phonetic Alphabet. linguistic relativity hypothesis (Sapir-Whorf iPhone apps for endangered languages, 158 hypothesis), 83–84, 91–92, 103–104, 109, IRB, see Institutional Review Board. 187–188 irregularities, grammatical, lost in semi-speakers, linguistics, descriptive, see descriptive linguistics. 55; see also regularization of irregular Linguistic Society of America (LSA), 14 paradigms in attrition. Linguistic Survey of Scotland, Gaelic Division, isogloss, 100, 186 120 isolate (a language with no relatives), 10, 43, 45, loanwords, 53, 64, 105 106, 163, 186 loss of artistic expression, 79–82 isolation, geographical, as a factor in saving loss of cultural knowledge, 58, 106, 107 languages, 22–23, 26, 36, 47 loss of vocabulary in endangered languages, 57–59, 71, 106 Jesuit missionaries, 144–145 machine translation and revitalization, 168 Kansas, 146 macro-historical factors in endangerment, 2, 18, Karelia, 27 38 Kenneth L, Hale Award (LSA), 14 macrovariables in revitalization efforts, 156, 172 Kenya, 49, 88, 154, 180, 188, 198 Mali, 83 ‘Khinalug 2007: Creating a Digital Portrait of an Maliseet First Nation, 3 Endangered Language’ (documentary film), Mapuche community (Chile), 168–169, 174 148 markedness, 61–62, 188; marked sounds, lost in kibbutzim and the revival of Hebrew, 156, 159 attrition, 60, 61 kinship systems, 10, 77–78, 117, 148 Master/Apprentice Language Learning Program, kinship terms, Salish-Pend d’Oreille, 77–78, 90 164, 165, 166–167, 171, 174, 188; Eight Kohanga Reo (Language Nest) program Points of Learning in, 166–167 (New Zealand), 187 media, social, and revitalization, 158, 168 Korean War, 76 medicinal plants, knowledge of, 84–85, 94, 105, 106–107, 125, 170 labialized velar consonants, 63, 186, 190; Mednyj Island (Copper Island), 50–52; see also acquired as a result of language contact, Commander Islands. 63–64 Melanesia, 148, 151, 172 Lajamanu (Australia), 121 melting-pot ideology, 23–24, 36, 37, 188–189 “Lament for Eyak”, 46 Mesopotamia, 43 language family, 10, 14, 27, 43, 45, 49, 60, 62, metadata, 113, 117 65, 95–97, 175, 177, 184, 186, 189 Mexico, 12, 21, 30, 40, 84, 87, 129, 131, 133, “language genocide”, 67–68 151, 190, 191 “language murder”, 67–68, 72 Miami Nation, 162 language nests, 6, 165–166, 167, 187, 188 Miami Tribe of Oklahoma, 153, 162–163; language, sacred (of a religion), 8, 156 Language Committee, 153

Subject index 227

Miami University (Ohio), 162–163 parallel project approach to language Microsoft, 168–169, 174 documentation, 129–130, 150, 190, 191 microvariables in revitalization efforts, pear stories (stimuli for text collection), 151 156, 172 pedagogical materials for endangered languages, MinorEuRus Conference (Helsinki, 2013), 174 160 minority language rights, 23, 24, 34 pedagogy, language, 117 Misión La Paz (Argentina), 32, 41 person (grammatical category), 51, 62, 80, 81, mixed languages, see bilingual mixed languages. 140 models, theoretical, of language death, 66–67 personality transplant, 75, 90 monolingual demonstration, 131–132, 150–151 Peru, 10, 81, 91, 192 monolingual fieldwork, 117, 131–132, 138, 148, pharyngeal consonants, 134, 190 149, 150 philology and revitalization, 160, 162 monolingualism, 54 phoneme, 60, 138, 176, 191 moribund language, 4, 6, 111, 142, 189 phonological attrition, 60–62, 79 morpheme, 61, 183, 189 phonology, 60, 177, 191 morphology, 51, 59, 83, 102, 188, 189; attrition pidgin language, 7, 8, 16, 178, 180, 182, 187, in, 62, 79; see also inflectional morphology. 189, 191–192 morphosyntax, 62, 80, 117, 189 Pilbara, 1, 15, 71 multilingualism, 11, 58, 156; non-prestigious, 32; Pite Saami Documentation Project, 161, 173 prestigious, 31–32, 41 Pittsburgh, PA, 24, 38, 61 multimedia linguistic corpora, 114, 168 politics as a factor in endangerment, 18, 24–26 multinational pharmaceutical companies, 107 possessive morphology, lost in attrition, 62, 67 Muslim conquest of Egypt, 19, 49 power and revitalization, 157, 158 Muslims, 19, 49, 87 pragmatics, 117, 191 Myaamia Project/Myaamia Center, 162–163, 173 prefix, 64, 175, 189, 191, 195 ‘Myaamiaki Eemamwiciki: The Miami preparation for a field session, 119, 124, 135–136 Awakening’ (documentary film), 171 prestige, as a factor in language endangerment, 21, 50; as a factor in revitalization, 36, 157, names, personal, borrowed from French, 139 158 nation-states, 52 Principles for Revitalization of First Nations New Guinea, 97 Languages, Canada, 1990, 73 New Zealand, 6, 165–166, 188 property, intellectual, 168 nonstandard dialects, 34, 100 prosodic features, 113, 138, 189, 191 Norway, 23, 26, 36, 39 proto-language, 97, 180, 184, 192, 197 number of speakers, 42; as a factor in saving Proyecto para la Documentación de las Lenguas languages, 36 de Meso-América (PDLMA; Mexico), 129–130, 192 obviative (in Algonquian morphosyntax), 81, psychological stress during fieldwork, 122–125 101, 104, 110, 190, 191 Official English laws, 21, 39, 182 quantifiers, 62 official language laws, 25 official languages in nations, 25, 36, 104 reciprocal kin terms, 78 OLAC (Open Languages Archives Community), reclamation revival programs, 164, 165, 181 15 reconstruction of unattested ancestral words, 95, Old Order Amish, 23, 39 97, 180 Old Order Mennonite, 23 Red Book of Endangered Languages (UNESCO), onomatopoeia, see sound symbolism. 14, 39, 153, 171, 192 orthography, 33, 34, 117, 127, 145, 156, 157, reduplication, 144, 185, 189 161, 162; as a factor in revitalization, 34, Reformation, English, 48 159, 160 regularity hypothesis (of sound change), 97, 192 ownership of stories and songs, 142, 151 regularization of irregular paradigms in attrition, 55, 62 Pacific Northwest linguistic area, 31, 41, 187, 190 reindeer economy, 26, 83, 84, 91, 101 Pan-American Highway, 30 religion as a factor in endangerment, 8, 22, 24, 28 Papua New Guinea, 7, 19, 38, 161 rememberer, 56–57, 66, 128, 192 paradigm (set of grammatical forms), 62, 117, replacement, grammatical and lexical, as a route 136, 138, 141, 190 to language death, 64–65, 153

228 Subject index

Report to the President by the Indian Peace smallpox as a factor in language endangerment, Commission, January 9, 1868, 86–87, 92 20, 45, 51, 52, 53 residential schools as a factor in endangerment, smartphones and revitalization, 158, 168 12, 20, 26, 27, 37, 52, 56, 77, 90 Smithsonian Institution, 167 resistance to complete cultural assimilation, 64, social media, see media, social. 65, 77; Irish resistance, 77; Native American sound symbolism, 81, 103, 109, 144, 194 resistance, 77 South America, 97 Resource Network for Linguistic Diversity in SOV word order, see Subject-Object-Verb word Australia, 167, 174 order. reversing language shift, 40, 157, 172 standard dialect, 6, 33, 194 revitalization programs, 29, 56, 155; see also standardization as a factor in endangerment, 18, adult language revitalization programs, 32–35, 37; and endangerment of bilingual revitalization programs, nonstandard dialects), 18, 32–35, 100; and classroom-based revitalization programs, power, 33–34 community-based revitalization programs, status of minority languages, 6, 88 family-based revitalization programs, stem (of a word), 51, 139, 175, 185, 189, 191, immersion revitalization programs. 195 revival programs, 48, 50, 126; see also stigmatization of nonstandard forms, 33 reclamation revival program. stop consonant, 98–100, 195 Revolutionary War, U.S., 87 structural features, borrowed, 63–64 Rhenish Fan, 98–100, 109 Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order, 63, 103, Rhineland, the, 98–100 194; acquired as a result of language root (of a word), 82, 83, 103, 113, 139, 144, 175, contact, 63 189, 193, 195 subordinate clauses, 63, 183, 195; reduced in Russia, 8, 9, 45, 188, 197 attrition, 63 Russian-American Company, 51 suffix, 51, 80, 175, 189, 195 Russian in Siberia, 19 suffixes, borrowed, 51 Sumbawa (Indonesia), 45 “safe” language, 4, 36–37, 101, 158, 169, support, official, as a factor in saving languages, 193 6, 18, 36, 156, 162 Salish-Pend d’Oreille Culture Committee (St, Swadesh list, 143, 151 Ignatius, MT), 124, 127, 150 Sweden, 23, 26, 29, 36, 39, 161–162 salvage linguistics, 3, 56, 58, 116, 126, 128, 134, syntax, 62, 189, 196; attrition in, 62–63, 79 193 Sámi University College, 28, 29 talking dictionaries and revitalization, see Sanskrit villages, 8, 16 dictionaries, talking, and revitalization. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, see linguistic relativity techniques for collecting linguistic data, 135, hypothesis. 138–141, 142–145, 151 school-based revitalization programs, 164–165 technology and fieldwork, 116, 119, 126 School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS; technology and revitalization, see digital London), 14, 147, 161 technologies and revitalization. semantic domains, 57, 82, 83, 101, 105, 106, 142, tense (grammatical category), 51, 183, 185, 143, 151, 194 196 semi-speaker, 28, 50, 53, 54–56, 57, 59, 66, 67, texting and revitalization, 169 70, 71, 128, 153, 160, 177, 194 ‘The Linguists’ (2008 documentary film), 148 Serbia, 25 three-generation rule (shift pattern for immigrant severely endangered languages (on UNESCO’s languages), 12, 24, 196 scale of endangerment), 4, 96 time and space orientation, 103–104 shibboleth, 44, 69 tip, 42, 44, 53–54, 66, 69, 70, 153, 196 shift, see language shift. tone distinctions, 63, 191, 196; lost as a result of Siberia, 19, 166, 185 language contact, 63 simplification of linguistic structure in attrition, toponymy, 117, 148, 196 54, 60–63 tracking characters in stories, grammatical sleeping languages, 3, 68, 156, 181 devices for, 80–81 Slovak Republic language policy, 25 Transcriber (software), 196 Slovakia, 25, 39 transitive verb, 80–81, 139, 181, 196 smallpox-infected blankets, 20, 38 truncation, 102, 103, 109

Subject index 229

twitter and revitalization, 168, 169 Vepsän Seura-Vepsian Society, 40 typology, 109, 188, 195, 196–197 verbal art, 73, 79–82 Verb-Object-Subject word order (VOS), 139 unattested language, 95, 97, 177, 180, 184, 192, video streaming and revitalization, 168 197 vocabulary, basic, see basic vocabulary UNESCO, 1, 2, 4, 14, 16, 19, 27, 34, 36, 45, 47, voiced sounds, 61, 71, 181, 197 48, 49, 52, 60, 62, 96, 102, 109, 116, 153, voiceless sounds, 61, 71, 181, 198 155, 171, 177, 189, 191, 192, 193, vowel harmony, 61, 198; lost in attrition, 61; lost 197, 198 as a result of language contact, 63 United States, 5, 10, 12, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, VSO word order, 103, 198 39, 45, 77, 86–88, 95, 115, 127, 158 vulnerable languages (on UNESCO’s scale of universal human learning strategies, 100–101 endangerment), 4, 95, 97, 108, 177, 189, universal linguistic features, 10, 11, 100–101 191 uvular consonants, 60–61, 186, 197 Warradjan Aboriginal Culture Centre, Kakadu, variation, individual, 141–142, 151 31 variation, interspeaker, 142 ‘We Still Live Here – Âs Nutayumeân’ variation, intraspeaker, 141, 142 (documentary ﬁlm), 96, 171 Vaupès (Brazil), 30, 32, 40 World War II, 76 velar consonants, 60–61, 186, 197 writing, ancient, 1 velar fricative as an expressive device meaning ‘large size’, 79–80, 90 Yinka-Déné Language Institute, 174 velar/uvular phonological distinction, lost in Yokiri (Peru), 81–82, 91 attrition, 60–61, 71 Yugoslavia (former), 87, 123–124, 127, 128, 131, Venezuela, 84 132