Notes

Introduction

1. For definitions of plantations, see P. P. Courtenay, Plantation Agriculture (London, Bell and Hyman, 1980), 7–19; Paul E. Lovejoy, “Plantations in the Economy of the Caliphate,” Journal of African History 19, 3 (1978): 341–68; Frederick Cooper, Plantation Slavery on the East Coast of Africa (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1977), 2–20; Jay R. Mandle, “The Plantation Economy: An Essay in Definition,” in Eugene D. Genovese, ed., The Slave Economies: Volume 1 Historical and Theoretical Perspectives (New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1973), 223–24. 2. Paul E. Lovejoy, “The Characteristics of Plantations in the Nineteenth-Century (Islamic West Africa),” American Historical Review 84 (1979): 1271. 3. Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956), 31. 4. Ibid., 36. 5. Such as Jay Mandle, The Root of Black Poverty: The Southern Economy After the Civil War (Durham, NC, Duke University Press, 1978), 3–15; M. G. Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation in Two Societies,” Social and Economic Studies 3, 3–4 (1954): 239–90; and M. G. Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation in Two Societies,” M. G. Smith, ed., The Plural Society in the British West Indies (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1965), 116–61. 6. See the works of Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery. A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000); and “Characteristics of Plantations,” 1270–85 for more on this viewpoint. 7. Lovejoy, “Characteristics of Plantations,” 1270–85. 8. Ibid., 1267–92. However scholars may differ in their definition of “plantation,” most would agree that the features highlighted in this last definition are among essential characteristics. 9. Some of the important works on plantations in the American and Caribbean societies include, Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713 (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1972); Richard Sheridan, Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623–1775 (Aylesbury, Ginn, 1974); Vera Rubin, ed., Plantation Systems of the New World (Washington, Pan American Union, 1959); and Vera 138 NOTES

Rubin and Arthur Tuden, eds., Comparative Perspectives on Slavery in New World Plantation Societies (New York, New York Academy of Sciences, 1977). 10. Neil Skinner, “The Origin of the Name Hausa,” Africa 38 (1968): 253–57; and Lovejoy, “Characteristics of Plantations,” 1279. 11. Polly Hill, Rural Hausa: A Village and a Setting (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1972), 38–56; and her Population, Prosperity and Poverty: Rural , 1900–1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 205–7. It should be noted here that in Farmers and the State in Colonial Kano: Land Tenure and the Legal Imagination (Bloomington, IN, Indiana University Press, 2005), Steven Pierce suggests that the term gandu does not refer to a “thing” (namely plantations or households) as most other writers have argued. Rather it refers (right from the start) to a set of interacting obligations, which both constituted the basic relations between commoners and the government and provided families with access to land. In my opinion, however, his failure to reinterpret references to the term in question in, among other historical materials, the Kano Chronicles undermines his conclusion that gandu refers to a set of interacting obligations right from the start. 12. Lovejoy, “Plantations in the Economy,” 344. 13. The ambiguity of the concept rinji is also discussed in ibid., 343–44, and in his “Characteristics of Plantations,” 1279–80. 14. H. Brunschvig, “Abd,” The Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 1 (Leiden, Brill, 1960), 24–40. 15. Nehemia Levtzion, “The Western Maghrib and Sudan,” in the Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 3, ed. Roland Oliver (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1977), 447. 16. E. R. Toledano, Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East (Washington, University of Washington Press, 1998), 81. 17. Cooper, East Coast of Africa. 18. For further details on the agricultural economy of Songhay, see, for instance, Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 33; and John O. Hunwick, “Notes on Slavery in the Songhay Empire,” in John Ralph Willis, Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa, Volume 2, The servile estate (London, Frank Cass, 1985), 25. 19. Allan G. B. Fisher and Humphrey J. Fisher, Slavery and Muslim Society in Africa: The Institution in Saharan and Sudanic Africa and the Trans-Saharan Trade (London, C. Hurst, 1970), 111. 20. Lovejoy, “Characteristics of Plantations,” 1278–79. 21. Good example of studies rooted in this perspective include Bala Achi, “The Gandu System in the Economy of Hausaland,” in Magazine 57, 3–4 (1989): 49–59, which obviously focuses on Hausaland, while Adamu Mohammed Fika, The Kano Civil War and British Overrule 1882–1940 (Ibadan, Oxford University Press, 1978) focuses on Kano in particular. 22. Mahmud Modibbo Tukur, “The Imposition of British Colonial Domination on the Sokoto Caliphate, Borno and Neighbouring States, 1897–1914,” (Ph.D. dissertation, , 1979), 821–34. NOTES 139

23. See Yusufu Bala Usman, The Transformation of Katsina 1400–1883 (, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1981); and Ibrahim Jumare, “Land Tenure in the Sokoto Sultanate of Nigeria,” (Ph.D. dissertation, York University, 1995). 24. Joseph E. Inikori, “Slavery in Africa and the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” in Alusine Jalloh and Stephen E. Maizlish, eds., The African Diaspora (Arlington, University of Texas at Arlington, 1996), 39–72. 25. See Richard L. Roberts, Warriors, Merchants and Slaves: The State and the Economy in the Middle Valley, 1700–1914 (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1987); and John O. Hunwick, “Notes on Slavery in the Songhay Empire,” in Willis, Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa, 16–32. 26. See, for example, Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation”; Jan S. Hogendorn, “The Economics of Slave Use on Two ‘Plantations’ in the Zaria of the Sokoto Caliphate,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 10 (1977): 369–83; Ibrahim Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society at Dorayi in Kano Emirate,” in P. E. Lovejoy P. E., Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton, NJ, Markus Wiener, 2004), 125–48; Ann O’Hear, Power Relations in Nigeria: Ilorin Slaves and Their Successors (Rochester, University of Rochester Press, 1997); Sean Arnold Stilwell, Paradoxes of Power: The Kano “Mamluks” and Male Royal Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate, 1804–1903 (Portsmouth, Heinemann, 2004) and Lovejoy, “Characteristics of Plantations.” 27. See, for instance, Hogendorn, “Economics of Slave Use”; and Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery. 28. Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society at Dorayi.” 29. Hogendorn, “Economics of Slave Use”; and Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation.” 30. See, for instance, John Edward Philips, “Slavery on Two Ribat in Kano and Sokoto,” in Paul E. Lovejoy ed., Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton, Markus Weiner, 2004), 111–24; and Nasiru Ibrahim Dantiye, “Taxation and Hakimai’s Envoys: The Status of the Ribats of , , Babura, and their Resident Rulers within the Administrative System of Kano Emirate,” in B. M. Barkindo, ed., Kano and Some of her Neighbours (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1985). 31. Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation.” 32. For the views of Phillips and his supporters, see, for instance, Ulrich Bonnell Phillips, American Negro Slavery (New York, D. Appleton, 1918); Ralph Betts Flanders, Plantation Slavery in Georgia (Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 1933); Rosser Howard Taylor, Slaveholding in North Carolina, an Economic View (Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 1926); Charles Sackett Sydnor, Slavery in Mississippi (New York, Peter Smith Publishing, 1933); and Charles S. Davies, The Cotton Kingdom in Alabama (Montgomery, Alabama State Department of Archives and History, 1939). For critics of Phillips’ interpretation, see, for instance, Kenneth M. Stammp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1956). 33. See, for instance, Michael Watts, Silent Violence: Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1983), 77–78; 140 NOTES

Polly Hill, “From Slavery to Freedom: The Case of Farm-Slavery in Nigerian Hausaland,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 18, 3 (1976): 397; and Inikori, “Slavery in Africa.” 34. See, for instance, Hogendorn, “Economics of Slave Use”; and Lovejoy, “Characteristics of Plantations” and “Plantations in the Economy.” 35. Inikori, “Slavery in Africa”; and Igor Kopytoff and Suzzane Miers, “Introduction: African ‘Slavery’ as an Institution of Marginality,” in Igor Kopytoff and Suzzane Miers, eds., Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1977) are good examples of works that argue that slave manumission/intergenerational slave mobility was continuous in Africa. 36. Jan S. Hogendorn, “The Origins of the Groundnut Trade in Northern Nigeria,” in Carl K. Either and Carl Liedholm, eds., Growth and Development of the Nigerian Economy (East Lansing, Michigan State University Press, 1970), 30–66. Also see his Nigerian Groundnut Exports: Origins and Early Development (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, Michigan State University Press, 1978). 37. Hogendorn, Nigerian Groundnut Exports, 104. 38. For further discussion on this position, see, for instance, Robert Shenton, The Development of Capitalism in Northern Nigeria (London and Toronto, James Currey and University of Toronto, 1986); Michael Watts, Silent Violence; and Louise Lennihan, “Rights in Men and Rights in land: Slavery, Wage Labor, and Smallholder Agriculture in Northern Nigeria,” Slavery and Abolition 3, 2 (1982); 111–39. 39. Paul E. Lovejoy and Jan S. Hogendorn, Slow Death for Slavery. The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993). 40. Steven Pierce, Farmers and the State in Colonial Kano: Land Tenure and the Legal Imagination (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2005). 41. Gareth Austin, “Cash Crops and Freedom: Export Agriculture and the Decline of Slavery in Colonial West Africa,” International Review of Social History 54 (2009): 1–37. 42. See, for instance, Michael Craton and James Walvin, A Jamaican Plantation: The History of Worthy Park 1670–1970 (Toronto, Univeristy of Toronto Press, 1970). 43. Frederick Cooper, “The Problem of Slavery in African Studies,” Journal of African History XX (1979): 103–26. 44. Frederick Cooper, “Islam and Cultural Hegemony: The Ideology of Slaveowners on the East African Coast,” in Paul E. Lovejoy, ed., The Ideology of Slavery in Africa (Beverly Hill, London, Sage, 1981), 271–307. 45. For instance, Murray Gordon, Slavery in the Arab World (New York, New Amsterdam Books, 1989), 54 advances this view. 46. Good examples of works that question the widespread existence of plantation slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate, for instance, include Watts, Silent Violence; and Hill, “From Slavery to Freedom.” 47. For instance, see Lovejoy, “Characteristics of Plantations”; Hogendorn, “Economics of Slave Use”; and Mahadi, “The State and the NOTES 141

Economy: The Sarauta System and It’s Roles in Shaping the Society and Economy of Kano with Particular Reference to the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” (Ph.D. dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, 1982). 48. Jonathan P. Berkey, “Circumcision Circumscribed: Female Excision and Cultural Accommodation in the Medieval near East,” in International Journal of Middle East Studies 28, 1 (Feb. 1996): 21. Also, for further insight on this approach, see Richard Antoun, “On the Modesty of Women in Arab Muslim Villages: A Study in the Accommodation of Traditions,” American Anthropologist 70, 4 (1968): 671–97. 49. C. H. Robinson, Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred Miles Through the Central Sudan (London, Sampson Low, Marston, 1897); P. L. Monteil, De Saint-Louis a Tripoli par le lac Tchad (Paris, Felix Alcan, 1908); H. Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, (London, Frank Cass, 1965); and H. Clapperton, Journal of a Second Expedition into the Interior of Africa from the Bight of Benin to Socaccatoo (London, Frank Cass, 1966). 50. Neil Skinner, Mahmudu Koki: Kano Malam (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1977). 51. The dictionary in question is G. P. Bargery, A Hausa-English Dictionary and English-Hausa Vocabulary (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1993). 52. The text was written during the reign of Emir Abdullahi Dabo, 1855–1882. 53. “Taqyid akhbar jama’at al-Shaykh alladhina bi kanu wa ma jara baynahum wa bayna al-taghut al-Wali min al-hurub,” by Muhammad b. Salih; “Infaq al-Maisur” and “Diya al Siyasa” by Mohammad Bello; “Al-I’lan” by Adam b. Muhammad al-Arabi b. Adam al-Funduki al-Kanawi,” and “Wasiyyat al-maghili ila Abi Abdullah Muhammad b. Ya’ub,” by Al-Maghili are good examples of Arabic sources used in this work. 54. For details on the techniques Lovejoy used, see Caravans of Kola. A History of the Hausa Kola Trade (1700–1900) (Zaria and Ibadan, Ahmadu Bello University Press and Ibadan University Press, 1980), 5–9. 55. For details on the techniques used in this project, see P. E. Lovejoy and J. S. Hogendorn, “Oral Data Collection and the Economic History of the Central Savanna,” in Savanna 7, 1 (1978): 71–74. 56. For instance, the collection of Lovejoy’s students, such as Jumare, are also deposited in the center. 57. I was in Kano primarily in relation to a document preservation project funded by the British Library, through the Endangered Archives Programme. I, how- ever, was fortunate to meet Yunusa, and, therefore, used that opportunity to, among other things, jointly interview the above two informants with him. At Fanisau, we first visited the house of the village head for permission to interview residents of the settlement. During the visit, we were informed that AbulAzizi is the best person to contact on the history of Fanisau. Later, AbdulAzizi also referred us to Kanyan Amana for details on private estates in nineteenth-century Fanisau. 142 NOTES

58. For more details on Madugu Kosai, see Chapter 2 in this study. 59. Murray Last, The Sokoto Caliphate (London, Longman, 1967); R. A. Adeleye, Power and Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria, 1804–1906: The Sokoto Caliphate and its Enemies (New York, Humanities Press, 1971); Abubakar, Sa’ad, The Lamibe of Fombina. A Political History of Adamawa 1809–1901 (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1977); Michael Mason, Foundations of the Kingdom (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1981); Fika, Kano Civil War; and M. G. Smith, Government in Kano 1350–1950 (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1977). Of these works, we have found Smith’s the most useful for our discussions on the political movements in the Kano Emirate in this study. 60. For instance, Lovejoy, “Characteristics of Plantations”; Hogendorn, “Economy of Slave Use”; and Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation.” 61. A good example of works based on misleading perspective is Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation.” 62. Yusuf Yunusa, “Slavery in Ninteenth Century Kano” (B. A. Essay, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1976); Abdulrazak Giginyu Sa’idu, “History of a Slave Village in Kano: Gandun Nassarawa” (B. A. Essay, Bayero University Kano, 1981); P. J. Shea, “ Development of an Export Oriented Dyed Cloth Industry in Kano Emirate in the 19th Century” (Ph.D. dissertation, Wisconsin, 1975); and Nasiru Ibrahim Dantiye, “A Study of the Origins, Status and Defensive Role of Four Kano Frontier Strongholds (Ribats) in the Emirate Period (1809–1903)” (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1985). 63. See Chapter 4 for a detailed discussion on ribats.

Chapter 1

1. The following account of the history of Kano is largely based on R. A. Adeleye, “Hausaland and Borno, 1600–1800,” in J. F. A. Ajayi and M. Crowder, eds., History of West Africa, Vol. 1 (New York, Columbia University Press, 1971), 577–624; Abdullahi Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” : The Sarauta System and It’s Roles in Shaping the Society and Economy of Kano with Particular Reference to the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” (Ph.D. dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, 1982); and M. G. Smith, Government in Kano 1350–1950 (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1977). 2. For more detailed accounts on Kano’s early history, including on state forma- tion in the area during the pre-jihad era, see, for instance, Mahadi, “State and the Economy”; and Smith, Government in Kano. 3. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 99–192. 4. Ibid., 158–74. 5. Ibid., 222–24. 6. Ibid., 199–221. 7. For a discussion of Islam, see John Weir Chamberlin, “The Development of Islamic Education in Kano City, Nigeria, with Emphasis on Legal Education in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries” (Ph.D. dissertation Columbia NOTES 143

University, 1975), 82–86; Smith, Government in Kano, 185–202; and H. R. Palmer, “Kano Chronicle,” in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 38, (1908): 58–98. 8. For relevant details on the spread of Islam in West Africa, see, for instance, Nehemia Levtzion and Rabdall Pouwels, eds., The History of Islam in Africa (Athens, OH, Ohio University Press; Oxford, James Currey; Cape Town, David Philip, 2000), 63–226. 9. Smith, Government in Kano. 116. 10. For further details on the increasing importance of Islam in Kano and the Sokoto Caliphate, see Mahadi, “State and the Economy”; and Ibrahim Sulaiman, The Islamic State and the Challenge of History. Ideals, Policies and Operation of the Sokoto Caliphate (London and New York, Mansell, 1987). 11. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 172–74. 12. T. H. Baldwin, trans., The Obligation of Princes (Beirut, Imprimerie Catholique, 1932). 13. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 177–82. 14. For detailed discussion on the continuing use of slave officials in Kano after Rumfa’s reign, see, for instance, Sean Arnold Stilwell, Paradoxes of Power: The Kano “Mamluks” and Male Royal Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate, 1804–1903 (Portsmouth, Heinemann, 2004). 15. Smith, Government in Kano, 136–72. 16. For more details on the background of estate owners in the New World and on the East African coast, see, for instance, James Walvin, Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Short Illustrated History (Jackson, University of Mississippi Press, 1983); Michael Craton, Sinews of Empire: A Short History of British Slavery (London and New York, Anchor Books, 1974); and Frederick Cooper, Plantation Slavery on the East African Coast (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1977). 17. For further details on the influence of expanding international trade on plantation development in Africa, see, for instance, Richard L. Roberts, Warriors, Merchants and Slaves: The State and the Economy in the Middle Niger Valley, 1700–1914 (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1987); and Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery. A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000). 18. See Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 24–36; and Martin Klein and Paul E. Lovejoy, “Slavery in West Africa,” in H. A. Gemery and J. S. Hogendorn, eds., The Uncommon Market. Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade (New York, Academic Press, 1979), 200–201. 19. Mervyn Hiskett, “The Image of Slaves in Hausa Literature,” in John Ralph Willis, ed., Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa Volume 2, The Servile Estate (London, Frank Cass, 1985), 106–25. It is significant to note here that Tsamia was the ninth sarkin Kano. 20. Hiskett, “Image of Slaves in Hausa Literature,” 106. 21. Palmer, “Kano Chronicle,” 76. 22. Smith, Government in Kano, 124–25. 144 NOTES

23. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 193; and Bala Achi, “The Gandu System in the Economy of Hausaland,” in Nigeria Magazine 57, 3–4 (1989): 50. 24. Palmer, “Kano Chronicle,” 84. However, as gandu, it seems that ibdabu also subsequently assumed the status of place name. The discussion of plantation development under the reign of sarkin Kano Kutumbi below illustrates this fact. 25. See, for instance, Ibrahim Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society at Dorayi in Kano Emirate,” in P. E. Lovejoy, Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton, NJ, Markus Wiener, 2004), 125–48. 26. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 189. 27. Although this figure must not be taken at face value, it does suggest that Dawuda was instrumental in the foundation of many plantations in early Kano. 28. Smith, Government in Kano, 127. 29. Ibid., 126; and Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 476. 30. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 193; and Achi, “Gandu System,” 50. 31. Discussion of the wars between Kano and its external enemies before the nineteenth century is provided in Smith, Government in Kano, 107–72. 32. A state/confederacy centered along the Benue valley in what is now North Eastern Nigeria. 33. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 220–23; and John E. Philips, “Ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate: Selected Studies, 1804–1903” (Ph.D. dissertation University of California, 1992), 143–45. 34. Smith, Government in Kano, 32 footnote. 35. Paul E. Lovejoy and Stephen Baier, “The Desert-Side Economy of the Central Sudan,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 8, 4 (1975): 551–81. 36. Ibid., 568, 569, and 577. It should be noted, however, that apart from Tuareg, other peoples, for instance from Borno, also settled in Kano before the nineteenth century, due to similar factors, and such migrations are discussed in detail by Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 103–26, among other works. 37. This fact is highlighted in Smith, Government in Kano, 33; and it establishes, as other works have done, that non-state officials also owned plantations in the period before the jihad in Kano. 38. Smith, Government in Kano, 33. 39. Suzanne Miers, Britain and the Ending of the Slave Trade (New York, Africana, 1975), 118–20; and Suzanne Miers and Kopytoff Igor, eds., Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1977), 4–5, 17. 40. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 2–5; and Gwyn Campbell, “Introduction: Slavery and other forms of Unfree Labor in the Indian Ocean World,” Slavery and Abolition 24, 2 (2003): xxiii–xxiv. 41. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery,71–72; and Campbell, “Introduction,” xv. 42. For more details on barori in Kano and their relationship, see, for instance, Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 472–89. NOTES 145

43. Ibid., 433, 472–489. 44. See, for instance, Smith, Government in Kano, 261; Mahdi, “State and the Economy,” 461; and Lovejoy, “Plantations in the Economy;” 349–51. 45. Smith, Government in Kano, 190. 46. Ibid., 216. 47. See, for instance, Murray Last, The Sokoto Caliphate (London, Longman, 1967). 48. The works of Muhammad Bello include Infaq al-maysur fi ta’arikh bilad al-takrur, Shams al-zahira fi minhaj ahl al-ilm wa al-basira, Al-ghayth al-wabl fi sirat al- al-adl, and Tanbih al-sahib ala ahkami al-makasib. 49. NAK, SNP 6/4 C.111/1908 W. P. Hewby, Report on Kano Emirate, July 10, 1908, Festing report; and Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 461, indicates that virtually all masu sarauta owned estates in nineteenth-century Kano. 50. Chamberlin, “Islamic Education in Kano city,” 83–84. 51. H. Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, Vol. 1(London, Frank Cass, 1965), 510. 52. Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society,” 126 and 130, and other secondary sources confirm this fact. 53. E. W. Bovill, ed., Missions to the Niger. Volume IV. The Bornu Mission 1822–25, Part III (London, Cambridge University Press, 1966), 638–39. 54. Ibid., 639. 55. Ibid., 641. 56. For instance, see Polly Hill, Population, Prosperity and Poverty: Rural Kano, 1900–1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 58–59. 57. NAK, SNP 6/4 C.111/1908 W. P. Hewby, Report on Kano Emirate, July 10, 1908, Festing report; and Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 461, indicate the ownership of estates by virtually all masu sarauta in nineteenth-century Kano, while Jan S. Hogendorn and Paul E. Lovejoy, Slow Death for Slavery. The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993), 131, provide the estimate cited above. 58. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 463. 59. Ibid.; and Hogendorn and Lovejoy, Slow Death for Slavery, 132–33. 60. The shamaki was the slave official who managed other plantations for the emir as well, including those in the Dawaki ta Kudu area. 61. District Notebook as cited in Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 461; Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society,” 129; and Hogendorn and Lovejoy, Slow Death for Slavery, 133. 62. Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society,” 132; Hogendorn and Lovejoy, Slow Death for Slavery, 133; and Chinedu N. Ubah, Government and Administration of Kano Emirate, 1900–1930 (Nsukka, University of Nsukka Press, 1985), 57. 63. Michael Watts, Silent Violence: Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1983), 101–3. 64. Nevertheless, this is not to suggest that the nineteenth-century droughts did not cause a lot of hardship for residents of affected regions while they lasted. See Watts, Silent Violence, 101; as Gowers learned, “[T]he 1855 drought is 146 NOTES

particularly noted, for instance, to have resulted in the disappearance of gero, dawa, wheat and rice in the Kano city market for thirty days thereby forcing residents to eat vultures.” NAK SNP 17 K2151, Principal famines of Hausaland, 1926. 65. E. W. Bovill, Missions to the Niger. 650; Barth, Travels and Discoveries, Vol. 1, 510; and C. H. Robinson, Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred Miles Through the Central Sudan (London, Sampson Low, Marston, 1897), 113. 66. Willis Pritchett, “Slavery and the Economy of Kano Emirate 1810–1903” (M. A. Thesis, Southern Connecticut State University, 1990), 39. 67. Abdullahi Mahadi, “The Military and Economic Nerve of the Sokoto Caliphate: An Examination of the Position of Kano within the Caliphate,” in B. M. Barkindo, ed., Kano and Some of her Neighbours (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1985),” 201–2. 68. Barth, Travels and Discoveries, Vol. 1, 511. 69. Robinson, Hausaland, 113. 70. P. J. Shea, “Development of an Export Oriented Dyed Cloth Industry in Kano Emirate in the 19th Century” (Ph.D. dissertation, Wisconsin, 1975), 74–75. 71. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 502 and 574; and Shea, “Development of an Export Dyed Cloth Industry,” 109 and 162–63. 72. Agalawa and Tokarawa refer to two corporate groups in Hausaland. Members of these groups were originally lowly placed slaves in Tuareg or Berber society of the Saharan region of Africa. Although the Agalawa (who initially primarily lived at the southern end of the Tuareg commercial network) had belonged in the Tuareg society as farmers while the Tokarawa belonged in the same society as herders, once they were both introduced to Kano and other parts of Hausaland, they assimilated the Hausa culture, emancipated themselves, established notable trading ventures, and constituted communities. While in Hausaland, they also continued to share a common sense of identity. 73. For family traditions on migrations to Kano Emirate, see Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Malam Muhammad Kasari (67 years when interviewed; his tes- timony was recorded at Madigawa ward, Kano, on December 24, 1969), Malam Salihu (60 years when interviewed; his testimony was recorded at Kumurya, Kano Emirate, on January 28, 1970), Malam Ibrahim (50 years when inter- viewed; his testimony was recorded at Dunkura, Kano Emirate, on January 27, 1970), and Malam Iliyasu (72 years when interviewed; his testimony was recorded at Dunkura, Kano Emirate, on January 27, 1970). See also Lovejoy, Caravans of Kola. A History of the Hausa Kola Trade (1700–1900) (Zaria and Ibadan, Ahmadu Bello University Press and Ibadan University Press, 1980), 86, among other works, for a discussion of the reasons for the movement of these merchant groups into Kano. 74. Testimonies of Malam Iliyasu, Malam Ibrahim, and Malam Musa Husaini (35 years when interviewed; his testimony was recorded at Kano on December 26, 1969). 75. For further details on the corporate structure of these groups, see Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Alhaji Inuwa Yahya (69 years when NOTES 147

interviewed; his testimony was recorded at Kano on October 25, 1969), Alhaji Abdullahi Nagudu (72 years when interviewed; his testimony was recorded at Kano on October 25 and December 28, 1969, and June 14, 1970), Alhaji Adamu Bagwanje, (83 years when interviewed; his testimony was recorded at Kano on August 18 and 22, September 10, and November 8, 1969, and June 13, 1970). See also Lovejoy, Caravans of Kola, 75–93. It should be noted that the Kano merchant groups also traded in slaves, ivory, ostrich feath- ers, hides, skins, and cattle. Of all these, however, they were more renowned for kola trade. 76. The organization and operations of the trading activities of the Agalawa and other powerful merchant groups in the Kano Emirate are epitomized by Madugu Kosai, who will be discussed below. 77. See Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Alhaji Inuwa Yahya, Alhaji Abdullahi Nagudu, Alhaji Adamu Bagwanje; Barth, Travels and Discoveries, Vol. 1, 514; and Lovejoy, Caravans of Kola, 91. 78. See Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u (Fanisau, July 13, 1975), Malam Isyaku (Dorayi, Kano, September 17, 1975), and Yusuf Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” (B. A. Essay, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1976), 39–40. Also see Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Miko Hamshaki (Kano, September 8, 1969), Alhaji Muhammadu Isa Indole (December 27, 1969, and January 18, 1970), and Lovejoy, Caravans of Kola, 86–93. 79. See Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u, Malam Isyaku, and Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” 39. Also see Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Miko Hamshaki, Alhaji Muhammadu Isa Indole, and Lovejoy, Caravans of Kola, 86–93. 80. Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Alhaji Inuwa Yahya, Alhaji Abdullahi Nagudu, Alhaji Adamu Bagwanje, and Lovejoy, Caravans of Kola, 92, largely provide the details on the Kano long distance traders used herein. 81. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 489. 82. For discussion on the growth of the administrative machinery in nineteenth century Kano, see Ubah, Government and Administration, 5–30. 83. M. G. Smith, The Economy of Hausa Communities of Zaria (London, H. M. Stationery Office, 1965), 81. 84. The literature on the jihad in Kano includes Ibrahim Ado-Kurawa, The Jihad in Kano (Kano, Kurawa Holdings, 1989) among others already cited. 85. For further details on the Sokoto Caliphate policy, see Last, Sokoto Caliphate, 63–89, and Sulaiman, Challenge of History. 86. See Chapter 4 for a comprehensive definition of ribat. Note that ribat is also referred to as sansani in this study. 87. Smith, Government in Kano, 26–28, among other pages discusses the shifting political boundary of Kasar Kano. 88. David Carl Tambo, “The Sokoto Caliphate Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 9, 2 (1976): 187–217. 148 NOTES

89. Ibid., 200–201. 90. Located around the region of the Sokoto Caliphate. 91. Dantiye, “A Study of the Origins, Status and Defensive Role of Four Kano Frontier Strongholds (Ribats) in the Emirate Period (1809–1903)” (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1985), 25–26. 92. Ibid., 27. 93. Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society,” 137; and Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 653. 94. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 444–547. 95. For further details on this trend, see, for instance, Daniel Pipes, Slave Soldiers and Islam: The Genesis of a Military System (New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1981), 62–86. 96. That Kano was politically more stable than in earlier periods and than other in the metropolitan region of the caliphate has been adequately documented elsewhere (see, for instance, R. A. Adeleye, Power and Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria, 1804–1906: The Sokoto Caliphate and its Enemies (New York, Humanities Press, 1971), 37 and 62–69; and Mahadi, “Military and Economic Nerve,” 193–94. Nevertheless, it suffices to note here that as other emirates of the Sokoto Caliphate, Kano was characterized by periodic political instability throughout the nineteenth century. Unlike other emirates like Sokoto, Ilorin, and Katsina, however, Kano, in most cases, better contained the continuous conflicts or even wars that it experienced. Given this fact, it became more secure and this partly fostered the movement of people and capital into the emirate. Of course, this in turn fostered the foundation of estates in Kano. 97. Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society,” 130.

Chapter 2

1. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u (Fanisau, July 13, 1975). 2. E. W. Bovill, ed., Missions to the Niger. Volume IV. The Bornu Mission 1822–25, Part III (London, Cambridge University Press, 1966), 646. 3. In essence sansan is another name for ribat. 4. See Abdullahi Mahadi, “State and the Economy: The Sarauta System and It’s Roles in Shaping the Society and Economy of Kano with Particular Reference to the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” (Ph.D. dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, 1982), 140–41; and Palmer, “Kano Chronicle,” in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 38, (1908): 63. It is interesting to note that a colonial administrative record, SNP KAN PRO 1/11/1, 1961–62: History, also indicates that Fanisau was already in existence before the nine- teenth century. 5. Mohammed Bashir Salau and Yusufu Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Uthman AbdulAzizi (aged 73, when he was interviewed at Fanisau, January 10, 2008). NOTES 149

6. Palmer, “Kano Chronicle,” 63. Unfortunately, outside this reference to Gambarjado’s residence at Fanisau, we do not know anything more about his biography or activities in the settlement. 7. For such reference, see Yusuf Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” (B. A. Essay, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1976), 55. 8. Bovill, Missions to the Niger, 644. 9. Ruqayyatu Ahmed Rufa’i, Gidan Rumfa: The Kano Palace (Kano, Triumph Publishing, 1995), 4. 10. Dahiru Yahaya, “Crisis and Continuity: Emirship of Kano in an Ideological Society,” paper presented at the Conference on the Role of Traditional Rulers in the Governance of Nigeria, organized by the Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan, September 11–14, 1984. 11. Thurstan Shaw, Nigeria: Its Archaeology and Early History (London, Thames and Hudson, 1978), 163; Bassey W. Es Andah, “An Archaeological View of the Urbanization Process in the Earliest West African States,” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 8 (1976): 11; and Nasiru Ibrahim Dantiye, “Study of the Origins, Status and Defensive Role of Four Kano Frontier Strongholds (Ribats) in the Emirate Period (1809–1903),” (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1985), 40. 12. Important works by Al-Maghili on Kano include The Obligation of Princes, trans. T. H. Baldwin (Beirut, Imprimerie Catholique, 1932). 13. Both Fanisau and Panisau are used in Palmer, “Kano Chronicle,” 63 and 77, as well as in other secondary sources, while European travelers who vis- ited Kano during the nineteenth century used variants of these terms in their journals. 14. See B.A.W. Trevallion, Metropolitan Kano Report on Twenty Year Development Plan 1963–1983 (London, Neame,1967). 15. See M. J. Mortimore and J. Wilson, Land and People in the Kano Closed-Settled Zone: A Survey of Some Aspects of Rural Economy in the Ungogo District, Kano Province (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1965); and M. J. Mortimore, “Land and Population Pressure in the Kano Closed Settled Zone, Northern Nigeria,” Advancement of Science (1968): 677–86. 16. Ruqayyatu Ahmed Rufa’i, Gidan Rumfa: The Kano Palace (Kano, Triumph Publishing, 1995), 28. 17. This subecological zone has a radius of about twenty five miles and receives an adequate supply of rainfall for the cultivation of crops and other economic activities. 18. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 56–93, not only identifies these ecological zones but also provides a more comprehensive picture of their nature. 19. Adamu Mohammed Fika, The Kano Civil War and British Overrule 1882–1940 (Ibadan, Oxford University Press, 1978), 1. 20. For more details on Fanisau rivers, see Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u and Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Uthman AbdulAzizi. 21. Mortimore and Wilson, Land and People, 23. 150 NOTES

22. Ibid., 1. 23. For further information on the wet season and other geographical conditions in other regions of Nigeria, see R. K. Udo, Geographical Regions of Nigeria (Ibadan, Heinemann, 1971); and K. M. Buchanan and J. C. Pugh, Land and People in Nigeria: The Human Geography of Nigeria and its Environmental Background (London: University of London Press, 1966). 24. Mortimore and Wilson, Land and People, 2–3; and Fika, Kano Civil War, 2. 25. For further details on the soil type, see M. J. Mortimore, “Population Distribution, Settlement and soils in Kano Province, Northern Nigeria, 1931–62,” in John C. Caldwell and Chuka Okonjo, eds., The Population of Tropical Africa (New York, Columbia University Press, 1968), 298–306; Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 68–77; and Mortimore and Wilson, Land and People, 4. 26. Mortimore and Wilson, Land and People, 4–6. 27. John E. Philips, “Ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate: Selected Studies, 1804–1903,” (Ph.D. dissertation University of California, 1992); and Dantiye, “Kano Frontier Strongholds,” are the two most significant works in this regard. 28. The following account on Dan Tunku derives largely from SNP 7/3834/1912 Kano Province: Kazaure Emirate Assessment Report and KAN N.A 1/11/1, 1961–62: Ungogo History. 29. SNP 7/3834/1912. 30. A major battle of the jihad in Kano fought about 40 kilometers north of Kano city. 31. Located about 84 miles northwest of Kano. 32. Located in present-day Katsina state of Northern Nigeria, Daura is also currently a city, an emirate, and a Area in the state in question. 33. Ibrahim Ado-Kurawa, The Jihad in Kano (Kano, Kurawa Holdings, 1989), 51. It is important to note that Kazaure is a town in present-day Jigawa State. 34. M. G. Smith, Government in Kano 1350–1950 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1977), 232. 35. Administrative headquarters of Ungogo Local Government Area. 36. Administrative headquarters of Local Government Area. 37. Smith, Government in Kano, 232; Ibrahim Ado-Kurawa, Sullubawan Dabo (Kano, Kurawa Holdings, 1990), 6; and Dantiye, “Kano Frontier Strongholds,” 90–93. 38. Bovill, ed., Missions to the Niger. Vol. IV, 644. 39. Ibid. 40. Ibid., 649–50. This does not, however, mean that the figures provided by Clapperton should be taken at face value. 41. Jamie Bruce Lockhart and Paul E. Lovejoy, eds., Hugh Clapperton into the Interior of Africa Records of Second Expedition 1825–1827 (Leiden, Brill, 2005), 265. 42. Ibid., 274. 43. Damagaram refers to the Zinder region of present-day Niger Republic 44. A major town in present-day Niger Republic. 45. Located in north eastern Nigeria, specifically in the region of present-day Borno State. NOTES 151

46. Located about 20 kilometers south of present day Nigeria’s northern border with Niger. 47. Dantiye, “Kano Frontier Strongholds,” 93. 48. Philips, “Ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate,” 437–45; and Paul E. Lovejoy, “Plantations in the Economy of the Sokoto Caliphate,” Journal of African History 19, 3 (1978): 341–68. 49. Outside the droughts experienced throughout the Kano Emirate in 1847 and 1855, others that occurred in the 1830s, 1863, 1873, 1884, 1889, and 1890 are not acknowledged in any sources to have affected Fanisau. In view of the rela- tive favorable nineteenth-century climatic conditions in the settlement, it is not surprising that estates were established in the region. 50. It should be noted here that both climatic factors and the end of the Atlantic Slave Trade also influenced the growth of private estates in Fanisau. This chapter will say more on these private holdings. 51. For further discussions on increased use of slaves in nineteenth-century Africa, see, for instance, Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery. A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000), 140–64. 52. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 53. See, for example, Claude Meillassoux, The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1991), 73–77. 54. Before proceeding further, it is important to note that Fanisau and Kano were not involved in warfare all through the nineteenth century. Indeed, outside war periods there were also stable periods experienced in these societies. In the case of Fanisau, however, available records do not allow me to precisely determine the changing situation of the settlement, and this in turn does not allow for a precise explanation of the changes related to the methods of slave and land acquisition there. Regardless of this fact, however, I recognize that the difference in the level of stability experienced in Fanisau and its immediate environs must have had an influence on the method of slave and land acquisition in the settlement as well as in Kano, in general. 55. J. S. Hogendorn, “Slave Acquisition and Delivery in Precolonial Hausaland,” in R. Dumett and B. K. Schwartz, eds., West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspective (New York, Mouton Publishers, 1980), 477–93; and Philip Burnham, “Raiders and Traders in Adamawa: Slavery as a Regional System,” in James L. Watson, ed., Asian and African Systems of Slavery (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1980), 43–72. 56. Smith, Government in Kano, 201. 57. Ado-Kurawa, Jihad in Kano, 51. 58. Zariya refers to the Zaria region in present-day . 59. A town in present-day Katsina State. 60. A prominent unit of present-day Local Government Area of . 61. Ado-Kurawa, Jihad in Kano, 53. 152 NOTES

62. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u; Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Uthman AbdulAzizi; and Philip, “Ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate,” 430. 63. Damagaram refers to the Zinder region of present-day Niger Republic. 64. Bovill, ed., Missions to the Niger, Vol. IV, 644, 649–50; and cited in Smith, Government in Kano, 232. 65. One of the earlier skirmishes during the reign of Mohammed Bello is also associ- ated with Fanisau as will be highlighted further in the next chapter. 66. Located in the region of present-day Kano state. 67. Alhaji Muhammadu Nalado, Kano State Jiya Da Yau (Zaria, Jangari Cultural Organisation, 1968), 9–10; C. G. B. Gidley, “Mantanfas-A Study in Oral Tradition,” in African Language Studies VI, (965): 37; Alhaji Abubakar Dokaji, Kano ta Dabo Cigari (Zaria, Gaskiya Corporation, 1958), 69; and SNP KAN PRO 1/11/1. 68. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Mohammadu Rabi’u. 69. Ibid. 70. Ibid.; Smith, Government in Kano, 233–35; and Mohammed Bashir Salau, “Slaves in a Muslim City: A Survey of Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” in Behnaz A. Mirzai, Ismael Musah Montana and Paul E. Lovejoy, eds., Slavery, Islam and Diaspora (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2009), 93. 71. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Mallam Idrisu Dan Maisoro (Hausawa Ward, Kano, August 7, 1975). 72. Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, eds., Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1977), 28. 73. Gwyn Campbell, “Introduction : Slavery and Other Forms of Unfree Labor in the Indian Ocean World,” Slavery and Abolition 24, 2 (2003): xviii. 74. Situated between present day Kano and Bauchi, the Ningi region was then mainly inhabited by stateless people who spoke a variety of Chadic and Plateau languages. 75. For more details on the raids on the Ningi region, see Adell Patton, Jr., “An Islamic Frontier Polity: The Ningi Mountains of Northern Nigeria, 1846–1902,” in The African Frontier, ed. Igor Kopytoff (Bloomington, IN, 1987), 193–213; and M. G. Smith, Government in Kano, 274–77. However, this is not to suggest that Muslims were not also enslaved from the Ningi region. 76. This is not to suggest that all those enslaved through foreign warfare were retained at Fanisau. However, the specific evidence on those introduced into the settlement indicate that a significant number of enslaved prisoners ended up there, even though in most cases temporarily. See also Paul E. Lovejoy, Abdullahi Mahadi, and Mansur Ibrahim Mukhtar, “C. L. Temples ‘Notes on the history of Kano’,” Sudanic Africa: A Journal of Historical Sources 4 (1993): 7–76 for details on the Warji raid cited above. 77. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Rabi’u (Fanisau, July 13, 1975) and Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki (Fanisau, April 3, 1975). 78. A major town in present-day Niger Republic. 79. Yunusa, “Slavery in the Nineteenth Century Kano,” 1–4; and Smith, Government in Kano, 276–78. NOTES 153

80. For introductory details on the pattern of the Atlantic voyage to the New World, see, for instance, James Walvin, Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Short Illustrated History (Jackson, University Press of Mississippi, 1983), 40–64. 81. J. S. Hogendorn, “Slave Acquisition and Delivery in Precolonial Hausaland,” 477–93. 82. Located about three-quarters to three miles south of the ancient wall of Kano city. 83. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Malam Isyaku (Dorayi, Kano, September 17, 1975) and Dan Rimin Kano (Kano city, December 12, 1975, and the 30th day of the same month). 84. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Dan Rimin Kano and Muhammadu Rabi’u (Fanisau, July 13, 1975). For a discussion on the humusi practice in the Sokoto Caliphate case, see, for instance, Mahdi Adamu, “The Delivery of Slaves from the Central Sudan to the Bight of Benin in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth centuries,” in H. A Gemery and J. S. Hogendorn, eds., The Uncommon Market. Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade (New York, Academic Press, 1979), 167. 85. See Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 325–27 for further details on such gifts or gaisuwa. 86. Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” 56. 87. Ibid., 57. 88. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 89. For valuable discussions on the natural increase of the U.S. slave population, see Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, W. W. Norton, 1989), 123–26; and C. Vann Woodward, American Counterpoint: Slavery and Racism in the North/South Dialogue (Oxford, Oxford University Press,1983), 91. 90. Located in what is now the northeastern region of Nigeria. 91. Located in what is now in modern Nigeria. 92. Located in what is now the northeastern region of Nigeria. 93. Gonja or Gwanja was the province north of the Asante.Empire. 94. See Abdullahi Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 628–742, for more details on the role of the state in trade during the nineteenth century. 95. Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” 10. Although this figure must not be taken at face value, it should be stated that the number of slaves displayed for sale at Kano did not remain constant through time. 96. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Mohammed Rabi’u. 97. Thus, for instance, even at the end of the nineteenth century, emir Kano Aliyu is said to have ensured his effective control of several estates including Fanisau. 98. Neil Skinner, ed. and trans., Alhaji Mahmudu K’oki: Kano Malam (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1977), 54; and Ibrahim Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society at Dorayi in Kano Emirate,” in P. E. Lovejoy, ed., Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton, NJ., Markus Wiener, 2004), 130. 99. Emir’s main palace in Kano city. 154 NOTES

100. Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 215. According to Imam Imoru the trumpet conveys the following message, “ready riders, ready riders!” harama barade, harama barade! And the cymbals were beaten to convey another message, “untie the hobbles, horsemen!” 101. Skinner, Alhaji Mahmudu K’oki, 54. 102. Ibid. 103. Ibid., and Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 215. 104. A good example of works that refer to Fanisau as the emir’s summer residence is Chinedu N. Ubah, Government and Administration of Kano Emirate, 1900–1930 (Nsukka, University of Nsukka Press, 1985), 17, footnote 97. 105. Skinner, Alhaji Mahmudu K’oki, 54. 106. In ibid. Mahmudu Koki mentioned that concubines accompanied the emir to Fanisau but was silent about their sexual roles. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Mohammadu Rab’iu; Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Uthman AbdulAzizi, on the other hand, indicates the occurrence of sexual relations between the Kano nobles and concubines at Fanisau. 107. Both Cairo and Tunis are cities located in North Africa. 108. Rudolf Prietze, “Hausa Singers” (Ph.D. dissertation, Universitaet zu Goettingen, 1916), 28. A reader may also wish to read the notes that, to some extent, explain this portion of the song in page 29 of the dissertation. 109. Lockhart and Lovejoy, Hugh Clapperton, 274. 110. Rufa’i, Gidan Rumfa, 28. 111. Smith, Government in Kano, 316; and Murray Last, The Sokoto Caliphate (London, Longman, 1967), 202–3. 112. Ibid. 113. Lockhart and Lovejoy, Hugh Clapperton, 269. 114. Bovill, ed., Missions to the Niger, Vol. IV, 644. 115. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Mohammed Rabi’u. 116. Bovill, ed., Missions to the Niger. Vol. IV, 645. 117. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 649. 118. For details on Lander’s visit, see his journal in H. Clapperton’s Journal of Second Expedition into the Interior of Africa from the Bight of Benin to Socaccatoo (London, Frank Cass, 1966), 287. 119. Lockhart and Lovejoy, Hugh Clapperton, 269. 120. Ibid. 121. Ibid., 270. 122. For details on the presentation of gifts to rulers in the region known as the Sokoto Caliphate in general, see Louis Brenner, “The North African Trading Community in the Nineteenth-Century Central Sudan,” in Aspects of West African Islam, edited by D. F. McCall and N. R. Benett (Boston: Boston University Press, 1971), 141. However, although there is no acknowledged example at Fanisau, the emirs in Hausaland also present gifts to important foreigners. 123. Bovill, ed., Missions to the Niger. Vol. IV, 644. NOTES 155

124. Ibid. 125. Lockhart and Lovejoy, Hugh Clapperton, 269. 126. None of the extant source materials suggests this but it is clear that these freeborn top state officials had residences at Fanisau. 127. For further details on the administration of Kano districts and ribats, see, for instance, Ubah, Government and Administration, 17–20; and Dantiye, “Kano Frontier Strongholds,” 117–82. 128. Sean A. Stilwell, “The Kano Mamluks: Royal Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate, 1807–1903” (Ph.D. dissertation, York University, 1999), 113. 129. Ibid., 136. 130. Ibid., 107–8. 131. Stilwell, “Kano Mamluks”; and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 132. Ubah, Government and Administration, 17; and testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u and Sarkin Yaki (Kurawa ward on December 30, 1975). 133. Ubah, Government and Administration, 17. 134. Philips, “Ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate,” 437–45. 135. Ibid., 322; and his “Slavery in Two Ribats in Kano and Sokoto,” in P. E. Lovejoy, ed., Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton, NJ., Markus Wiener, 2004), 111–12. 136. Philips, “Ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate,” 322–23, and his “Slavery in Two Ribats in Kano and Sokoto,” 111. 137. For more details on the land tenure policy in the Sokoto Caliphate in general, see, for instance, Ibrahim Muhammad Jumare, “Land Tenure in the Sokoto Sultanate of Nigeria,” (Ph.D. dissertation, York University, 1995); Last, Sokoto Caliphate, 77; and Hussaina J. Abdullahi and Ibrahim Hamza, “Women and Land in Northern Nigeria: The Need for Independent Ownership Rights,” in L. Muthoni Wanyeki, ed., Women and Land in Africa: Culture, Religion and Realizing Women’s Rights (London, Zed Books, 2003), 145–47. See also the next chapter’s further discussion on chaffa and humusi as they relate to Fanisau. However, it should be mentioned that the land policy in the Sokoto Caliphate in general was also tied to making land accessible for purposes of building ribats and estates. Indeed, this was what partly influenced the formation of such features in Fanisau. 138. That Kosai settled there before that date is also suggested by Mohammed Bashir Salau and Yusufu Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana (aged 105, when he was interviewed at Zango Uku, January 10, 2008). 139. For further discussion on land confiscation in nineteenth century Kano, see Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 459; and Paul E. Lovejoy, “Alhaji Ahmad el-Fellati ibn ibn Muhammad Manga: Personal Malam to Emir Muhammad Bello of Kano.” (forthcoming). 140. Lovejoy, “Alhaji Ahmad el-Fellati.” 141. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 142. Ibid. 143. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. 156 NOTES

144. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Uthman AbdulAzizi. 145. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 146. Ibid. 147. Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society,” 133. 148. Ibid. 149. Ibid. 150. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 151. Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society,” 133. 152. Ibid. 153. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki. 154. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Uthman AbdulAzizi. 155. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. 156. Of course, this included meeting the increasing demand of the industrial sector in the Kano Emirate. 157. For good discussions on absentee estate holders in non-African contexts, see, for example, Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713 (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1972); and Lowell Joseph Ragatz, The Fall of the Planter Class in the British Caribbean, 1763–1833: A Study in Social and Economic History (New York, Century,1928). 158. It is probable that Kosai established his estate at Fanisau even before he became a caravan leader in the 1890s. 159. Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Miko Hamshaki (Kano, September 8, 1969), Alhaji Ibrahim (Kazaure, April 21, 1970), and Alhaji Bagwanje (Kano, August 18 and 22, September 10, November 8, 1969, and June 13, 1970). 160. Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Miko Hamshaki. 161. Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Alhaji Ibrahim, Miko Hamshaki, and Alhaji Muhammadu Isa Indole (December 27, 1969, and January 18, 1970). 162. Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Alhaji Ibrahim. 163. Ibid. 164. For further details on the compounds of Kano rich men, see Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Alhaji Ibrahim, Bako Madigawa (Madigawa Ward, Kano, December 1, 1969), Alhaji Muhammadu Isa Indole, and Alhaji Audu Ba’are (Kano, January 1, 1970). 165. Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Alhaji Ibrahim, and Miko Hamshaki. 166. Inferred from Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Miko Hamshaki and Alhaji Ibrahim. In fact, according to Sani Kanyan Amana, Kosai had four wives, but usually had two of them based permanently at his Kano residence. 167. For further details on the use of malams by caravan leaders, see Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Miko Hamshaki, Alhaji Muhammadu Isa Indole, and Malam Musa Husaini (35 years when interviewed at Kano on December 26, 1969). 168. Such open fields as well as caravan stopovers were known as zango. 169. Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Miko Hamshaki. NOTES 157

170. Zango here refers to the rest stop at Rimin Azbinawa. 171. Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Miko Hamshaki. 172. According to oral sources, these were the popular destinations of Kano-based caravans during the nineteenth century. However, unlike other madugai who operated together to get to these destinations, Kosai singularly led his caravan to these locations. This does not, however, mean that he did not have assis- tants, as the following discussion will elaborate. 173. For further details on the character of the Kosai-led caravan and other such units, see, for instance, Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Miko Hamshaki, Bako Madigawa, Alhaji Muhammadu Isa Indole, and Mallam Muhammad Kasari (Madigawa ward, Kano, December, 24, 1969). 174. Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Miko Hamshaki. 175. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. 176. See, for instance, Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Alhaji Inuwa Yahya (Kano, October 25, 1969), Miko Hamshaki, and Bako Madigawa. 177. Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Miko Hamshaki. 178. For details on responsibilities of Madugai, see Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Miko Hamshaki, Bako Madigawa, and Alhaji Muhammadu Isa Indole. 179. As Madugu, Kosai was ultimately the caravan leader, but, as others in his capac- ity, he normally remained at the rear of the group while the Jagaba led the expedition at the front. 180. Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Miko Hamshaki. 181. This is not to suggest that some of the items bought at Asante by Kano mer- chants were not purchased from the non-Hausa peoples there. However, oral data seems to suggest that this constituted a relatively small portion of the total goods derived by the Kano merchants. 182. Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Miko Hamshaki. 183. For further details on these trade goods and their sources, see, for instance, Lovejoy Collection: Testimonies of Bako Madigawa and Miko Hamshaki. 184. Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Miko Hamshaki. 185. Ibid. 186. Ibid. 187. Ibid. 188. See Chapter 1 for further details on this connection. 189. Refer Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Miko Hamshaki; Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Uthman AbdulAzizi; and Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana for the names of Kosai’s children. 190. Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Miko Hamshaki; and Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. 191. Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Miko Hamshaki. 192. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 193. Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” 56; and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. It is important to note here that Gogel was located about 7 miles east-south-east of Kano city at a region known as Dawakin ta Kudu. 158 NOTES

194. Abdulrazaq Giginyu Sa’idu, “History of a Slave Village in Kano: Gandun Nassarawa,” (B. A. Essay, Bayero University Kano, 1981). Meanwhile, it is nec- essary to note Gandun Nassarawa was located about 8 kilometers from Kano city center, and that the number of slaves at that estate, as in the emir’s estates in Fanisau probably fluctuated during the nineteenth century. In spite of this probability, available sources still confirm the vastness of the royal estates in Fanisau during this same period. 195. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 241. 196. Smith, Government in Kano, 58, confirms that not all plantations that sub- sisted during the nineteenth century were inherited. 197. In fact Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana sug- gests that when slave children were added during his precolonial stay in the settlement, the total number of slaves owned by Kosai was about 100. As at the royal estates, however, the number of slaves must have fluctuated in such private estates during the nineteenth century. 198. Mahadi, “State and the Economy,” 461. 199. Dantiye, “Kano Frontier Strongholds,” 27. 200. Heinreich Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa Being a Journal of an Expedition Undertaken Under the Auspices of H. B. M’S Government in the Years 1849–1855, Vol. 1, (London, Frank Cass, 1965), 609. 201. H. L. B. Moody, The Walls and Gates of Kano City (Lagos, Department of Antiquities, Federal Republic of Nigeria,1969), 43. 202. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Mohammed Rabi’u. 203. Ibid. 204. Bovill, ed., Missions to the Niger. Vol. IV, 644. 205. Dantiye, “Kano Frontier Strongholds,” 28. 206. Moody, Walls and Gates, 55. 207. Rufa’i, Gidan Rumfa, 29; and Bovill, ed., Missions to the Niger. Vol. IV, 644. 208. Rufa’i, Gidan Rumfa, 28–32. 209. Bovill, ed., Missions to the Niger. Vol. IV, 645. 210. Rufa’i, Gidan Rumfa, 29. 211. Ibid. 212. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammed Rabi’u. 213. Ibid., and Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Uthman AbdulAzizi. 214. Philips, “Ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate,” 279. 215. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. According to this informant, the government, sometimes after the nine- teenth century, relocated people of the Kanyan Amana community to Zango Uku.

Chapter 3

1. For an example of slaves serving as overseers in another Islamic context out- side Fanisau and the Sokoto Caliphate, see, for instance, Frederick Cooper, NOTES 159

Plantation Slavery on the East Coast of Africa (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1977), 169–70. 2. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki (Fanisau, April 4, 1975) and Muhammadu Rabi’u (Fanisau, July 13, 1975). 3. Sean Stilwell, Paradoxes of Power: The Kano “Mamluks” and Male Royal Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate, 1804–1903 (Portsmouth, N.H., Heinemann, 2004), 109 and Chapter 4 4. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 5. The galadiman shamaki was usually dressed in a gown. 6. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 7. As any slave official, an incompetent galadiman shamaki could be replaced by the emir or could be given even more serious punishment. 8. Yusuf Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth th Century Kano,” (B. A. Essay, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1976) 57. 9. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 10. Ibid., and Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari (aged 54, when he was interviewed at the emir’s palace in Kano, July 11, 1975). Maidawaki Dogari was one of the emir’s bodyguards and a royal slave descendant. 11. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. Obviously, the galadi- man shamaki could also face the emir’s wrath if estate activities were not going right, and this also partly explains his actions here. D. E. Ferguson, “Nineteenth Century Hausaland. Being a Description by Imam Imoru of the Land, Economy and Society of his People” (Ph.D. dissertation University of California, Los Angeles, 1973), 213. 12. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki and Muhammadu Rabi’u. 13. Other slaves, apart from the galadiman shamaki, permanently inhabited the palace at Fanisau. These slaves included concubines and eunuchs and they per- formed several duties within the household. Some of them held titles, which were subordinate to that of the galadiman shamaki. For instance, according to oral data, there was a sarkin gida resident at the Fanisau palace during the nineteenth century. 14. This and other discussions on the responsibilities of the galadiman shamaki are primarily based on the Yunusa Collection, especially the testimonies of Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki and Muhammadu Rabi’u. 15. Stilwell, “Kano Mamluks,” 295. 16. For a discussion on slave soldiers elsewhere, see Daniel Pipes, Slave Soldiers and Islam: The Genesis of a Military System (New Haven and London, Yale University Press,1981); and Peter Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York, Alfred Knopf, 1974), 125–26. 17. Cooper, East Coast of Africa, 190–93. 18. Testimony of Sallaman Kano (Emir’s Palace, Kano, September 20, 1975) and Muhammadu Rabi’u. 160 NOTES

19. Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 20. Ibid. 21. Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 286. Also see Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Sallaman Kano and Malam Abdullahi Adamu (aged 43 years when he was interviewed at Diso ward in Kano city, August 3, 1975). Between 1957 and 1961, Adamu was a Ningi title holder. However, he was a civil servant based in Kano at the time of the interview. 22. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u; and Salau and Yunusa Collection:Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana (Zango Uku January 11, 2008). 23. Ibid. 24. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sallaman Kano. See also Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” 58. 25. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. It is apparent that such collective farm work involving free people is locally known as gayya. For more discussion on gayya, see pages 123–25 below. Meanwhile, it is worth stress- ing that free men in Fanisau comprised only the ex-slaves and free butchers mentioned earlier. It is apparent that free butchers in the settlement were barori or clients of the emir while ex-slaves often remained with their former masters, often in the latters’ households. Ex-slaves could be engaged in differ- ent types of occupation, including trading. However, most of them continued to depend on their former masters for access to land, which they cultivated to make a living. 26. “Authorities” here refers to the relevant privileged slaves, either based in Fanisau or in the Kano royal palace, who, among other responsibilities, often passed on orders from the emir to the rest of the population and often passed on messages from the emir’s slaves in Fanisau to their superiors. 27. Claude Meillassoux, Anthropology of Slavery, trans. by Alide Desnois (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1991), 9–10. 28. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Rabi’u and Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari. 29. Abdulrazaq Giginyu Sa’idu, “History of a Slave Village in Kano: Gandun Nassarawa,” (B. A. Essay, Bayero University Kano, 1981), 38. See also Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Rabi’u, Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari, and Muhammadu Sarkin Yaki Dogari (Kurawa Ward, Kano, September 28, 1975). 30. Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 330. 31. Yunusa, “Slavery in the 19th Century,” 23–24. See also Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Sarkin Yaki Dogari and Sallaman Kano (aged 55, when he was interviewed at the emir’s palace, September 20, 1975). Sallaman Kano was resident at the palace and responsible for the royal holdings at Giwaram and Gogel. 32. Northern Nigerian Annual Report, 1902, 29, as quoted in F. L. Lugard, The Dual Mandate in Tropical Africa (Edinburgh and London, William Blackwood, 1922), 99 fn. 33. Ibid., 199. NOTES 161

34. Yunusa, “Slavery in the 19th Century,” 23–24. See also Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Sarkin Yaki Dogari and Sallaman Kano. 35. Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” 60. See also Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki, Muhammadu Rabi’u, and Sallaman Kano. 36. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Rabi’u and Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari. 37. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. 38. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 39. Ibid. and Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. 40. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Sallaman Kano, Muhammadu Rabi’u, and Alhaji Yunusa Mikail (Tudunwada ward, Kano, August 2, 1975). 41. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 42. Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 66. 43. Ibid., 69. 44. Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth th Century Kano,” 58. 45. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 46. For discussion on work schedule in sugar estates, for instance, see Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713 (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1972). 47. See, for instance, Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u; and Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. 48. NAK, SNP 6/4 C. 111/1908, W. P. Hewby, Report on Kano Emirate, July 10, 1908, Festing report. 49. For further details on the taxation in the Kano Emirate, see, for instance, Tijani Garba, “Taxation in Some Hausa Emirates, c. 1860–1939” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Birmingham, 1986); and J. S. Hogendorn and Paul E. Lovejoy, Slow Death for Slavery. The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993), 128–29. 50. NAK, SNP 6/4 C. 111/1908, W. P. Hewby, Report on Kano Emirate, July 10, 1908, Festing report. 51. The recognition of such rights depended, however, upon the payment of a special tax known as jizya. 52. Hogendorn and Lovejoy, Slow Death for Slavery, 128. 53. NAK, SNP 6/4 C. 111/1908, W. P. Hewby, Report on Kano Emirate, July 10, 1908, Festing report, and also indicated in Hogendorn and Lovejoy, Slow Death for Slavery, 162–72. 54. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. 55. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 56. Heidi J. Nast, Concubines and Power: Five Hundred Years in a Northern Nigerian Palace (Minneapolis/London, University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 122–23. Other works by Nast that examine the Kano palace include “Space, History, and Power: Stories of Spatial and Social Change in the Palace of Kano, Northern Nigeria, circa 1500 to 1990” (Ph.D. dissertation, McGill University, 1992); “Engendering ‘Space’: State Formation and the Restructuring of the 162 NOTES

Kano Palace Following the Islamic Holy War in Northern Nigeria, 1807–1903,” Historical Geography 23 (1993): 62–75; “The Impact of British Imperialism on the Landscape of Female Slavery in the Kano Palace, Northern Nigeria,” Africa 64, 1 (1994): 34–73; and “Islam, Gender, and Slavery in West Africa circa 1500: A Spatial Archaeology of the Kano Palace, Northern Nigeria,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 86, 1 (1996): 44–77. 57. Ibrahim Aliyu Kwaru, “Waziri Allah Bar Sarki, 1865–1917: A Neglected Personality in the Political History of Kano” (Ph.D. Dissertation, Usmanu Danfoddiyo University, Sokoto, 1991), 48 and 54. 58. Kwaru (“Waziri Allah Bar Sarki,” 48) identifies the Fanisau ward within the Gidan Rumfa. The author, however, on page 55 of the same study, mentions that the ward in question was no longer there by 1991, probably “because certain sections have been pulled down in the course of raising modern infrastructures such as the clinic which did not exist in the 19th century.” Kwaru might be right, however, the phasing out of the ward also indicates the relatively insignificant position of the main Fanisau community in Kano today. 59. For further details on transportation in the Kano Emirate and Sokoto Caliphate in general, see M. B. Duffill and P. E. Lovejoy, “Merchants, Porters, and Teamsters in the Nineteenth-Century Central Sudan,” in Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and P. E. Lovejoy, eds., The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, Sage, 1985) 137–68. 60. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 61. C. K. Meek, The Northern Tribes of Nigeria, vol. 1 (London, Oxford University Press,1925), 21. 62. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 63. This is not to suggest that the conveyance of goods to the palace at Kano was always crisis free. 64. See the next chapter for further details on murgu and fansar kai. 65. For further insight on this issue, see Duffill and Lovejoy, “Merchants, Porters, and Teamsters,” 152. 66. Abdullahi Mahadi, “The State and the Economy: The Sarauta System and It’s Roles in Shaping the Society and Economy of Kano with Particular Reference to the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries” (Ph.D. dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, 1982), 496. 67. A. G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (New York, Columbia University Press,1973), 76–77; and Abdullahi Mahadi and Joseph E. Inikori, “Population and Capitalist Development in Precolonial West Africa: Kasar Kano in the Nineteenth Century,” in Dennis D. Cordell and Joel W. Gregory, eds., African Population and Capitalism. Historical Perspectives (Boulder and London, Westview Press, 1987), 62–75 discuss how market development was undermined in West Africa and in the Kano Emirate, respectively, as a result of the low purchasing power of slaves and other factors. 68. On the question of agricultural potential surplus in the savanna areas of Africa, where Fanisau is also located, Martin Klein in a paper presented at Rio argues that NOTES 163

“a hard-working and healthy man could produce in a good year enough grain to feed three or four persons for a year—but those are serious conditions.” Martin Klein, “Was American Slavery Unique?” paper presented at Confronting Slavery: Towards a Dialogue of Cultural Understanding conference, Academia Brasileira de Letras, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, November 22–25, 2007. 69. Ibid.

Chapter 4

1. For a discussion of rewards and incentives in other slave systems, see Frederick Cooper, Plantation Slavery on the East Coast of Africa (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1977), 213–52; and E. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, Pantheon, 1974), especially books 2 and 3 therein. 2. Klein suggests that in the Western Sudan, there is manumission, though probably less than in Asante or the Ottoman empire, but there is a normal progression from gang labour to a status in which slaves work for themselves in exchange for an annual payment. Thus, they are essentially serfs or share- croppers. 3. For a critique of Meillassoux’s relevant argument as advanced in his Anthropology of Slavery, see, for instance, Gwyn Campbell, “Introduction: Slavery and other forms of Unfree Labor in the Indian Ocean World,” Slavery and Abolition, 24, 2 (2003): xxi–xxiii. 4. For a good discussion on such issues as how planters in the antebellum South and northeastern Brazil interacted with their slaves, see, for instance, Genovese, World the Slaves Made, 21–102; and Stuart B. Schwartz, “Patterns of Slaveholdings in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil,” American Historical Review 87, 1 (1982): 55–86; and Ulrich Bonnell Phillips, American Negro Slavery (New York, D. Appleton and Company, 1918). 5. D. E. Ferguson, “Nineteenth Century Hausaland. Being a Description by Imam Imoru of the Land, Economy and Society of his People,” (Ph.D. dissertation University of California, Los Angeles, 1973), 286. Also see Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki (Fanisau, April 3, 1975). 6. Kabiru S. Chafe, State and Economy in the Sokoto Caliphate (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1999), 173. 7. Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 286. Also see Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki. 8. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u (Fanisau, July 13, 1975). 9. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of M. Muhammadu Bakin Zuwo (Bakin Zuwo ward, Kano, October 9, 1975). Also accounts of, Muhammadu Rabi’u indicate that the emir’s slaves were engaged in these acts. 10. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari (Emir’s Palace, Kano, July 11, 1975) and of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 164 NOTES

11. Abdulrazak Giginyu Sa’idu, “History of a Slave Village in Kano: Gandun Nassarawa,” (B. A. Essay, Bayero University Kano, 1981), 130. 12. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Rabi’u and of Alhaji Garba Sarkin Gida (aged 50 years when he was interviewed at Gandun Nassarawa in the Kano Emirate, September 14, 1975). Garba was a slave descendant and was supervising activities at the emir’s residence in the Nassarawa ward of Kano city. 13. Joseph Schacht, An Introduction to Islamic Law (London, Oxford University Press, 1964), 127. See also Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Shu’aibu (aged 36 years when he was interviewed at Hausawa ward in Kano city, August 22, 1975). Shu’aibu taught Arabic and Islamic religious studies while he was also a court official. 14. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of M. Muhammadu Bakin Zuwo, Muhamadu Rabi’u, and of Sallaman Kano (Emir’s Palace, Kano, September 20, 1975). 15. M. G. Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation in Two Societies,” Social and Economic Studies, 3, 3–4 (1954): 126. 16. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 17. Yusufu Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” (B. A. Essay, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1976), 27. 18. According to oral data, slaves used to visit Kano city during public holidays, but they had to get the approval of the gandu or galadiman shamaki to do so. 19. Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 180. 20. Yunusa collection: Interview with M. Muhammadu Bakin Zuwo. 21. Abdullahi Mahadi, “The State and the Economy: The Sarauta System and its Roles in Shaping the Society and Economy of Kano with Particular Reference to the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” (Ph.D. dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, 1982), 424. 22. Yunusa collection: Interview with Rabi’u. However, Idrisu (aged 77 years when he was interviewed by Yunusa at Hausawa Ward Kano, August 7, 1975) cor- roborates this fact in a separate interview thus: “When anyone purchased a slave, that person usually charmed the slave. When the slave tries to escape and goes westward, he sees that he has no where to go. If he goes south, he cannot go anywhere. So also northwards. Allah will make his intellect to be of no use and as such he will not be able to go anywhere. There is a spell cast upon the slave, which makes him unable to run away. Anywhere he goes to, he eventually returns home.” 23. For details on the use of charms in Fanisau and elsewhere in the Kano Emirate, see Salau, “Slaves in a Muslim City: A Survey of Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” in Behnaz A. Mirzai, Ismael Musah Montana, and Paul E. Lovejoy, eds., Slavery, Islam and Diaspora (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2009), 98. Also see Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Alhaji Wada (aged 60 years when he was interviewed at Shahuci ward in Kano City, July 18, 1975) and of M. Idrisu Dan Maisoro (Hausawa Ward, Kano, August 7, 1975). NOTES 165

24. Some slaves had facial marks before arriving at Fanisau, however. The young ones were given marks only at the settlement. For further details, see Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Alhaji Yunusa Mikail (Tudunwada Ward, Kano, August 2, 1975) and Mallam Abdullahi Adamu Ningi (43 years old when inter- viewed at Diso ward, Kano, August 3, 1975). 25. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of M. Muhammadu Bakin Zuwo, Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari, and Muhammadu Rabi’u. See also Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” 16–18. 26. A. J. N. Tremearne, Hausa Superstitions and Customs: An Introduction to the Folk-Lore and the Folk (London, Frank Cass, 1970), 181–82; and Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” 16–17. 27. Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” 17. 28. Ibrahim Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society at Dorayi in Kano Emirate,” in P. E. Lovejoy, ed., Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton, NJ., Markus Wiener, 2004), 137–38. It should be noted that Hamza only refers to the term Gwarawa, but Warjawa and other such ethnic categories were also used. 29. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana (Zango Uku, January 11, 2008). 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 32. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 33. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Mallam Abdullahi Adamu Ningi; and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 34. For a discussion on the place of slave children in other slave systems, see, for instance, Martin Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998), 10–11. 35. See ibid. for a discussion on the relationship between child labor and natality in Western Sudan. 36. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. 37. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 38. See M. G. Smith, Government in Kano 1350–1950 (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1977), 36; and Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” 25. In fact, Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana specifically indicates that slaves employed in private estates, irrespective of their roles, did not have more than one wife. Masters, like Kosai, evidently discouraged their males from having more than one wife. 39. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Uthman AbdulAzizi (Fanisau, January 11, 2008). 40. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Rabi’u and Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari. 41. Yusuf Yunusa and Mohammed Bashir Salau Collection: Testimony of Uthman AbdulAzizi (Fanisau, January 11, 2008). 42. Other works that throw light on the nature of slave marriage in the Kano Emirate include Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society at Dorayi,” 140; Joseph Greenberg, The Influence of Islam on a Sudanese Religion (Seattle and 166 NOTES

London, University of Washington Press, 1966), 130–33; and Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” 25–26. 43. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Alhaji Garba Sarkin Gida and Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari. See also Greenberg, Influence of Islam, 44. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Rabi’u and Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari. 45. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 46. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki, Alhaji Garba Sarkin Gida, and Muhammadu Rabi’u recorded July 13, 1975. 47. Cooper, East Coast of Africa, 195. 48. For more discussion on the institution of concubinage in the Sokoto Caliphate, see Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 231; Sa’idu, “Gandun Nassarawa,” 130–31; Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” 28; and Paul E. Lovejoy, “Concubinage in the Sokoto Caliphate,” Slavery and Abolition 21, 2 (1990): 159–89. 49. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana (Zango Uku, January 11, 2008) indicates that Kosai maintained a concubine in Fanisau. 50. Neil Skinner, ed. and trans., Alhaji Mahmudu Koki: Kano Malam (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1977), 54. See also Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Rabi’u and Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki. 51. Mahadi, “State and Economy,” 466. 52. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Alhaji Wada (Shahuchi, Kano, July 18, 1975). See also Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 231. 53. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Alhaji Wada and Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki. 54. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki. 55. Lovejoy, “Concubinage,” 168–69. 56. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki and Muhammadu Rabi’u. 57. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 58. Ibid. 59. Ibid. 60. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Uthman AbdulAzizi. 61. Ibrahim Muhammad Jumare, “Kwarkwara (Concubinage): A Persistent Phenomenon of Slavery in the Centre of the ‘Sokoto Caliphate,’” Seminar paper, Department of History, Usumanu Danfodiyo University, 1988; and Lovejoy “Concubinage,” 175–76. 62. For a good discussion on self-supporting activities of slaves in other con- texts, see, for instance, Peter Kolchin, “Reevaluating the Antebellum Slave Community: A Comparative Perspective,” Journal of American History 70, 3 (1983): 588–92; Sidney W. Mintz, “Was the Plantation Slave a Proletarian?” Review 2 (1978): 92–96; and Gwendolyn Mildo Hall, Social Control in Slave Plantation Societies: A Comparison of St. Domingue and Cuba (Baltimore, John Hopkins University Press, 1971), 66–68. 63. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. NOTES 167

64. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki. 65. See Chapter 3. 66. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. Indicates that slaves in private holdings, as those in Kanyan Amana, never took part in warfare. 67. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 68. Technically, however, the horse given to the brave slave as reward remained the emir’s property. He could, therefore, reclaim the horse whenever he wished. 69. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Sarkin Yaki Dogari (Kurawa Ward, Kano, September 28, 1975), Sallaman Kano, and Muhammadu Rabi’u. 70. For a discussion on weaving by slaves in Western Sudan, for instance, see Richard L. Roberts, Warriors, Merchants and Slaves: The State and the Economy in the Middle Niger Valley, 1700–1914 (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1987), 125–26; and Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule, 7. 71. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Uthman AbdulAzizi and Sani Kanyan Amana. 72. Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. 73. Colleen Kriger, “Textile Production and Gender in the Sokoto Caliphate,” in Journal of African History 34, 3 (1993): 361–401. 74. Jan S. Hogendorn, “Economics of Slave Use on Two ‘Plantations’ in the Zaria Emirate of the Sokoto Caliphate,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 10 (1977): 377. Also see Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Malam Abdullahi Adamu Ningi. 75. For a discussion of the etymology of this concept, see Paul E. Lovejoy, “Murgu: The Wages of Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate,” Slavery and Abolition 14 (1993): 168–85. 76. It must be mentioned that the arrangements were not necessarily limited to the dry season. The duration of the agreement varied from a very brief period to a lengthy one. 77. Cooper, East Coast of Africa, 189. 78. For the relevant discussion on the Western Sudan, see Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule, 6–7; and Claude Meillassoux, Anthropology of Slavery, trans. Alide Dasnois (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1991), 118–19. 79. Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule, 6. 80. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 81. Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 230. 82. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of M. Muhammadu Bakin Zuwo. He was a Muslim scholar at that date. 83. Ferguson,” Imam Imoru,” 230. 84. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. It is significant to note at this point that various writers suggest that the worth of the cowrie varied during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. For instance, in David Carl Tambo’s “Sokoto Caliphate Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century,” 168 NOTES

International Journal of African Historical Studies 9, 2 (1976): 191, Tambo suggests that by 1820 an exchange rate of 2000 cowries to the silver dollars was in effect while the rate was 5000 cowries to the dollar from the mid- 1860s to the end of the century. 85. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Malam (aged 102 years when he was interviewed at Dambazau Ward in the Kano Emirate, July 31, 1975). Based on his age, his knowledge of slavery in the emirate was remarkable. 86. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 87. According to oral data (for instance, Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Mallam Abdullahi Adamu Ningi), the slaves engaged at the gandun sarki were not eligible for fansar kai. 88. Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 231–32. 89. Ibid. 90. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Alhaji Yunusa Mikail. 91. Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 232. 92. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u and Sarki Yaki (Kurawa Ward, Kano, December 30, 1975). 93. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 94. Lovejoy, “Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate,” 235–36. 95. W. Arafat, “The Attitude of Islam to Slavery,” The Islamic Quarterly 10 (1966): 14. 96. Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 231. 97. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u and Alhaji Yunusa Mikail. 98. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Malam Bawa and Muhammadu Rabi’u. 99. See, for instance, Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 232. 100. The fact that slaves and their descendants remained at the gandun sarki, for instance, illustrates this point. See also Salau and Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Sani Kanyan Amana. 101. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 102. Lovejoy, “Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate,” in his The Ideology of Slavery in Africa, (Beverly Hills, Sage, 1981), 235; and Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 232. 103. Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 232. 104. See, for instance, Cooper, East African Coast, 252. 105. Individual slaves must have resisted conversion to Islam and were either executed or exported. In the face of such realities (and other forms of coer- cion) as well as the possibility of mobility, however, accommodation must have seemed preferable to most slaves. 106. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari.

Chapter 5

1. For further discussion agricultural developments in colonial Northern Nigeria, see, for instance, Robert Shenton, The Development of Capitalism in Northern NOTES 169

Nigeria (London and Toronto; James Currey and University of Toronto, 1986); and Michael Watts, Silent Violence: Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1983). 2. Many of the slave-control strategies described in previous chapters were, as hinted later in this chapter, still used during the colonial era. The concern here is, however, mainly to highlight the more pronounced strategies used under the colonial context that helped to contain slaves in Fanisau. 3. NAK Kano Prof 717/1913. 4. Studies on slave rebellion in other parts of the world include C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Overture and the San Domingo Revolution (New York, Vintage, 1973); Eugene D. Genovese, From Rebellion to Revolution: Afro-American Slave Revolts in the Making of the Modern World (Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press, 1979); Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York, Columbia University Press, 1943); and Michael Cranton, Testing the Chains: Resistance to Slavery in the British West Indies (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1982). 5. For a discussion on factors that made organized rebellion difficult in the Sokoto Caliphate and in other Islamic regions of Africa, see, for instance, Paul E. Lovejoy, “Problems of Slave Control in the Sokoto Caliphate,” in Paul E. Lovejoy ed., Africans in Bondage: Studies in Slavery and the Slave Trade (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), 261; Paul E. Lovejoy, “Fugitive Slaves: Resistance to Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate,” in Gary Y. Okihiro ed., In Resistance (Amherst, University of Massachusetts Press, 1986), 91; and F. Cooper, Plantation Slavery on the East Coast of Africa (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1977). 6. For the debate on whether or not slaves were docile in the context of the Old South, see, for instance, Stanley M. Elkins, Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life (Chicago, Chicago University Press,1959); and Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, Pantheon, 1974). 7. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u (Fanisau, July 13, 1975). 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid. 10. For discussion on the relationship between slave culture and resistance, see, for instance, Cooper, East Coast of Africa, 155–56, 236–37, 257. 11. Among other works, A. J. N. Tremearne, Hausa Superstitions and Customs: An Introduction to the Folk-Lore and the Folk (London, Frank Cass, 1970), 148; D. E. Ferguson, “Nineteenth Century Hausaland. Being a Description by Imam Imoru of the Land, Economy and Society of his People,” (Ph.D. dissertation University of California, Los Angeles, 1973), 189; and Ibrahim Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society at Dorayi in Kano Emirate,” in P. E. Lovejoy, ed., Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton, NJ., Markus Wiener, 2004), 139, establish the widespread practice of bori in Hausaland. 12. Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 189. 13. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 170 NOTES

14. Ibid. 15. Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society,” 140. 16. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid. 19. On the connection between religion and resistance in various slave systems, see, for instance, Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 254; Cooper, East Coast of Africa, 238 and 257; and Lovejoy, “Problems of Slave Control,” 262–64. 20. Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society,” 140. 21. Ibid.; Abdulrazak Giginyu Sa’idu, “History of a Slave Village in Kano: Gandun Nassarawa,” B. A. Essay, Bayero University Kano, 1981), 36; and Ferguson, “Imam Imoru,” 242. 22. Sa’idu, “History of a Slave Village,” 36. Sa’idu also reveals in the same page that “[a] Mallam is called to in order to record the event ‘We want to let so-and-so have his freedom,’ from there the name of the ex-slave is changed to that of a free person. The names of all witnesses were written, the name of the town and time it was done, this was to prevent the sons of the slave-holder from demanding the slave later.” 23. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 24. Ibid. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. 27. For further details, see Sean A. Stilwell, “The Kano Mamluks: Royal Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate, 1807–1903,” (Ph.D. dissertation, York University, 1999), 208–13. 28. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 29. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Alhaji Isyaku (Yakasai, Kano, August 6, 1975) and Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari (Emir’s Palace, Kano, July 11, 1975). 30. The following account of the rebellion is mainly drawn from M. G. Smith, Government in Kano 1350–1950 (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1977), 253–54. However, the accounts of Malam Adamu na Ma’aji, Tarikh Kano, and Alkali Muhammadu Zangi, Taqyid al-Akbar, as well as the works of Adell Patton, Jr., “The Ningi Chiefdom and the African Frontier: Mountaineers and Resistance to the Sokoto Caliphate” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1975); “An Islamic Frontier Polity: The Ningi Mountains of Northern Nigeria, 1846–1902,” in Kopytoff Igor, ed., The African Frontier (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1987), 193–213; and “Ningi Raids and Slavery in Nineteenth Century Sokoto Caliphate,” in Slavery and Abolition 2, 2, (1981): 114–45, are relevant. 31. See Smith, Government in Kano, 253–55. 32. According to Muhammadu Rabi’u, for instance, Hamza could suspend himself in between the ground and the sky with a rug while M. Idrisu Danmaisoro (Hausawa Ward, Kano, August 7, 1975) testified that “Malam MaiMazori of Tsakuwa deceived people by making miracles of killing a person and bringing him back to live.” NOTES 171

33. Smith, Government in Kano, 254. 34. Lovejoy, “Fugitive Slaves,” 71–95. 35. Yusufu Yunusa, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano,” (B. A. Essay, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1976), 41; Lovejoy, “Fugitive Slaves,” 81; and Smith, Government in Kano, 254. 36. Lovejoy, “Problems of Slave Control.” 37. For more details on the Basasa struggles in the region and on the role of slaves in the movement, see, for instance, Smith, Government in Kano, 346. 38. J. S. Hogendorn and Paul E. Lovejoy, Slow Death for Slavery. The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993), 31–63. 39. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 40. Ibid. 41. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Malam Bawa (Dambazau Ward, Kano, July 31, 1975) and M. Idrisu Danmaisoro. 42. Northern Nigeria Annual Report, 1907–08, 613. 43. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Rabi’u, Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki (Fanisau, April 3, 1975), and M. Idrisu Danmaisoro. 44. Navetanes refers to migrant workers who moved to the Senegal region from French colonies of Sudan, Upper Volta, and Guinea. They consisted of free- born migrants as well as freed and escaped slaves. 45. Bernard Moitt, “Slavery and Emancipation in Senegal’s Peanut Basin: The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” International Journal of African Historical Studies, 22 (1989): 27–50. 46. Martin Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998). 47. James F. Searing, “God Alone is King”: Islam and Emancipation in Senegal. The Wolof Kingdoms of Kajoor and Bawol, 1859–1914 (Portsmouth, NH; Oxford; Cape Town, David Philip, Heinemann and James Currey, 2002). 48. Kenneth Swindell and Alieu Jeng. Migrants, Credit and Climate: The Gambian Groundnut Trade, 1834–1934 ( Leiden-Boston, Brill, 2006). 49. Ibid. 50. Ibid. 51. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Alhaji Wada (Shahuchi, Kano, July 18, 1975), Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari, Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki, and M. Idrisu Danmaisoro. 52. Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Muhammadu Rabi’u. 53. Ibid. and Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki. 54. For further details on the various colonial anti-slave flight policies, see, for instance, Hogendorn and Lovejoy, Slow Death for Slavery. 55. NAK Kano Prof. 717/1913 56. Jan S. Hogendorn, Nigerian Groundnut Exports: Origins and Early Development (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1978), 102. 57. NAK Kano Prof. 717/1913. 58. Hogendorn, Nigerian Groundnut Exports, 101. 172 NOTES

59. Chinedu N. Ubah, “Suppression of the Slave Trade in the Nigerian Emirates,” Journal of African History 32, 3 (1991): 447–70. 60. NAK Kano Prof. 717/1913. 61. It is important to note here that Hogendorn’s works fail to acknowledge that the colonial record mentioned the word gayya. In fact, he defines gayya only while discussing other issues not directly related to Fanisau. 62. Only persons in power at the household or communal labor have authority to compel their wards to perform. 63. Polly Hill, Rural Hausa: A Village and a Setting (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1972), 251–52. 64. See pages 82–83 above for further discussion on gayya in Fanisau. 65. Yunusa Collection: Testimonies of Muhammadu Rabi’u and Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki. 66. For evidence on the use of prisoners in production, see, for instance, Yunusa Collection: Testimony of Isyaku (Dorayi, September 17, 1975). 67. Jan S. Hogendorn, “The Origins of the Groundnut Trade in Northern Nigeria,” in Carl K. Either and Carl Liedholm, eds., Growth and Development of the Nigerian Economy (East Lansing, Michigan State University Press, 1970), 39. 68. Ibid., 38–40. 69. Lovejoy Collection: Testimony of Miko Hamshaki (Kano, September 8, November 19, and December 21, 1969 as well as January 31 and June 7, 1970). 70. Ubah, “Suppression of the Slave Trade,” 451. 71. Ibid., 462–63. 72. Ibid. 461–62. 73. Martin Klein, “Women and Slavery in the Western Sudan,” in Claire C. Robertson and Martin A. Klein, eds., Women and Slavery in Africa (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1997), 76. 74. Allan Christelow, Thus Ruled Emir Abbas: Selected Cases from the Records of the Emir of Kano’s Judicial Council (East Lansing, Michigan, Michigan State University Press, 1993), 80–84. 75. Ibid., 84. 76. As Lovejoy and Hogendorn rightly suggest in their Slow Death for Slavery, such land distribution through the emir point to several facts including the recogni- tion of private rights to land within the context of this colonial era. 77. For further details of the emir’s land grant to Dantata, see Christelow, Thus Ruled Emir Abbas, 90; and Hogendorn and Lovejoy, Slow Death for Slavery, 153. 78. Tijaniyya is a Muslim brotherhood founded in Algeria by Ahmed al Tijani (1737–1815). 79. Tukur was the son of Emir Muhammadu Bello while Yusuf, the son of Emir Abdullahi of Kano who died in 1882, was his cousin. 80. I am grateful to Paul Lovejoy who provided further details on Dantata. In terms of his groundnut trading activities, however, Hogendorn stresses that upon arrival in Kano, Dantata established a new trading organization that was based on clientelism, and that it was through this organization that he exclusively NOTES 173

participated in the groundnut boom. He explains further that through his trading organization, Dantata ultimately became the Niger Company’s largest supplier of groundnuts. Further details on Dantata’s trading activities are in Hogerndorn’s Nigerian Groundnut Exports, 85–86, 108, 141, and 142.

Conclusion

1. John E. Philips, “Ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate: Selected Studies, 1804–1903,” (Ph.D. dissertation University of California, 1992), 409–56, provides the most comprehensive general account of the classic roles of ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate. 2. Beside this particular war against Damagaram, Fanisau was also involved in other engagements that took place against that state in the nineteenth century. Bibliography

Oral Sources

The oral data used in this study are on several tapes located at the Harriet Tubman Institute, York University. The transcriptions and translations of the testimonies recorded on most of the tapes are also available in the same location.

1. Paul Lovejoy Collection

Alhaji Abdullahi Nagudu, 72 years when interviewed, Kano City, October 25 and December 28, 1969, and June 14, 1970. Alhaji Adamu Bagwanje, 83 years when interviewed, Kano City, August 18 and 22, September 10, November 8, 1969, and June 13, 1970. Alhaji Inuwa Yahya, 69 years while interviewed, Kano City, October 25, 1969. Alhaji Muhammadu Isa Indole, 60 years old when interviewed, Kano City, December 27, 1969, and January 18, 1970. Audu Ba’are, 100 years when interviewed, Kano City, January 1, 1970. Bako Madigawa, Madigawa Ward, Kano City, December 1, 1969. Malam Ibrahim, 50 years when interviewed, Dunkura, Kano Emirate, January 27, 1970. Malam Iliyasu, 72 years when interviewed, Dunkura, Kano Emirate, January 27, 1970. Malam Muhammad Kasari, 67 years when interviewed, Madigawa ward, Kano, December 24, 1969. Malam Musa Husaini, 35 years when interviewed, Kano City, December 26, 1969. Malam Salihu, 60 years when interviewed, Kumurya, Kano Emirate, January 28, 1970. Miko Hamshaki, 97 years when interviewed, Kano City, Septmeber 8, November 19, and December 21, 1969, as well as January 31 and June 7, 1970.

2. Yusuf Yunusa Collection

Alhaji Garba Sarkin Gida, 50 years when interviewed, Gandun Nassarawa, Kano Emirate, September 14, 1975. Alhaji Wada, 60 years when interviewed, Shahuci, Kano City, July 18, 1975. 176 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dan Rimin Kano, 70 years when interviewed, December 12 and 30, 1975. Gwadabe Maidawaki Dogari, 54 years when interviewed, Emir’s palace, Kano City, July 11, 1975. Hamidu Galadiman Shamaki, 70 years when interviewed, Fanisau, Kano Emirate, April 4, 1975. M. Abdullahi Adamu, 43 years when interviewed, Diso Quarters, Kano Emirate, August 3, 1975. M. Muhammadu, 75 years when interviewed, Bakin Zuwo, Kano Emirate, October 9, 1975. Malam Bawa, 102 years when interviewed, Dambazau Ward, Kano Emirate, July 31, 1975. Mallam Idrisu Dan Maisoro, 77 years when interviewed, Hausawa Ward, Kano City, August 7, 1975. Malam Isyaku, 90 years when interviewed, Dorayi, Kano Emirate, September 17, 1975. Moh. Sarkin Yaki Dogari, 70 years when interviewed, Kurawa Ward, Kano Emirate, September 28, 1975. Muhammadu Rabi’u, 59 years when interviewed, Fanisau, Kano Emirate, July 13, 1975. Sallaman Kano, 55 years when interviewed, Emir’s palace, Kano City, September 20, 1975. Sani Shu’aibu, 36 years when interviewed, Hausawa Ward, Kano City, August 22, 1975.

Archival Materials

National Archives Kaduna (Copies of the National Archives Kaduna files used in this study are also available at the Harriet Tubman Institute, York University.)

a. Secretariat, Northern Province (SNP)

SNP 6/4 C. 111/1908, W. P. Hewby, Report on Kano Emirate, July 10, 1908, Festing report SNP 7/3834/1912 SNP 7/13, 4503/1912, Sifawa and Bodinga Assessment, Sokoto Province report no. 343/1912 SNP 10/4, 252p/1916, Binji District Assessment, Sokoto Province, March 23, 1916 SNP 17 K2151, Principal famines of Hausaland, 1926

b. Official Publications

Northern Nigerian Annual Report, 1902. Northern Nigeria Annual Report, 1907–8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 177

c. Kano District Notebooks

Kumbotso District Notebook

d. Kano Province

Kano Prof 717/1913. 1913 Annual Report on Kano

e. Kano Native Administration

KAN N.A 1/11/1, 1961–62: Ungogo History

Arabic Materials

Abdullahi dan Fodio, Tazyin al-Waraqat. ———, Diya ul-Hukkam. ———, Diya al-Siyasat. Abu Abdullah Muhammad b. Abdulkarim b. Muhammad Al-Maghili, Wasiyyat al-maghili ila Abi Abdullah Muhammad b. Ya’ub. Adam b. Muhammad al-Arabi b. Adam al-Funduki al-Kanawi, Al-I’lan. Muhammad b. Salih, Taqyid akhbar jama’at al-Shaykh alladhina bi kanu wa ma jara baynahum wa bayna al-taghut al-Wali min al-hurub. Mohammad Bello, Al-ghayth al-wabl fi sirat al-imam al-ad. ———, Diya al Siyasa. ———, Infaq al-maysur fi ta’arikh bilad al-takrur. ———, Shams al-zahira fi minhaj ahl al-ilm wa al-basira. ———, Tanbih al-sahib ala ahkami al-makasib. Usman Dan Fodio, Bayan Wujub al Hijra ———, Kitab al-Farq. ———, Siraj al-Ikwan.

Internet Sources

H-Net: Definition of Plantation, http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse. pl?trx=vx&list=h-slavery&month=0405&week=b&msg=ehhuBRf5/ tZhgSVDcqIRHA&user=&pw=, (accessed May 14, 2004). See the H-net Web site for more messages related to this thread.

Unpublished Theses and Scholarly Papers

Aliyu, Y. A., “The Establishment and Development of Emirate Government in Bauchi, 1805–1903” (Ph.D. dissertation, A. B. U. Zaria, 1974). 178 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Augi, A. R., “The Gobir Factor in the Social and Political History of the Rima Basin, c. 1650–1808 AD” (Ph.D. dissertation, A. B. U. Zaria, 1984). Chamberlin, John Weir, “The Development of Islamic Education in Kano City, Nigeria, with Emphasis on Legal Education in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries” (Ph.D. dissertation Columbia University, 1975). Dantiye, Nasiru Ibrahim, “A Study of the Origins, Status and Defensive Role of Four Kano Frontier Strongholds (Ribats) in the Emirate Period (1809–1903)” (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1985). Ferguson, D. E., “Nineteenth Century Hausaland. Being a Description by Imam Imoru of the Land, Economy and Society of his People” (Ph.D. dissertation University of California, Los Angeles, 1973). Garba, Tijani, “Taxation in Some Hausa Emirates, c. 1860–1939” (Ph.D. disserta- tion, University of Birmingham, 1986). Gwarzo, Hassan Ibrahim, “The Life and Teachings of al-Maghili with Particular Reference to the Saharan Jewish Community” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of London, 1972). Irwin, J., “An Emirate of the Niger Bend: A Political History of Liptako in the Nineteenth Century” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1973). Jumare, Ibrahim Muhammad, “Kwarkwara (Concubinage): A Persistent Phenomenon of Slavery in the Centre of the ‘Sokoto Caliphate,’” Seminar paper, Department of History, Usumanu Danfodiyo University, 1988. ———, “Land Tenure in the Sokoto Sultanate of Nigeria” (Ph.D. dissertation, York University, 1995). ———, “Slavery in Sokoto City” (M. A. thesis, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, 1988). Kolapo, Femi James, “Military Turbulence, Population Displacement and Commerce on a Slaving Frontier of the Sokoto Caliphate: Nupe c.1810–1857” (Ph.D. dissertation, York University, 1999). Kwaru Ibrahim Aliyu, “Waziri Allah Bar Sarki, 1865–1917: A Neglected Personality in the Political History of Kano” (Ph.D. dissertation, Usmanu Danfoddiyo University, Sokoto, 1991). Nadama, Garba, “The Rise and Collapse of a Hausa State: A Social and Political History of Zamfara,” (Ph.D. dissertation, A. B. U. Zaria, 1975). Magaji, B. U., “The Role of Slavery in the Economy and Society of Emirate in the Nineteenth Century” (B. A. essay, University of Sokoto, 1986). Mahadi, Abdullahi, “The State and the Economy: The Sarauta System and It’s Roles in Shaping the Society and Economy of Kano with Particular Reference to the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries” (Ph.D. dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, 1982). Nast, Heidi J., “Space, History, and Power: Stories of Spatial and Social Change in the Palace of Kano, Northern Nigeria, circa 1500 to 1990” (Ph.D. dissertation, McGill University, 1992). O’ Hear, Ann, “Slave Roles in Nineteenth Century Ilorin,” Paper Presented at the Tubman Seminar on Slavery at York University, March 31, 1997. BIBLIOGRAPHY 179

Patton, Jr., Adell, “The Ningi Chiefdom and the African Frontier: Mountaineers and Resistance to the Sokoto Caliphate” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1975). Philips, John E., “Ribats in the Sokoto Caliphate: Selected Studies, 1804–1903” (Ph.D. dissertation University of California, 1992). Prietze, Rudolf, “Hausa Singers” (Ph.D. dissertation, Universitaet zu Goettingen, 1916). Pritchett, Willis, “Slavery and the Economy of Kano Emirate 1810–1903” (M. A. thesis, Southern Connecticut State University, 1990). Sa’idu, Abdulrazak Giginyu, “History of a Slave Village in Kano: Gandun Nassarawa” (B. A. essay, Bayero University Kano, 1981). Shea, P. J, “Development of an Export Oriented Dyed Cloth Industry in Kano Emirate in the 19th Century” (Ph.D. dissertation, Wisconsin, 1975). Stilwell, Sean A., “The Kano Mamluks: Royal Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate, 1807–1903” (Ph.D. dissertation, York University, 1999). Tukur, Mahmud Modibbo, “The Imposition of British Colonial Domination on the Sokoto Caliphate, Borno and Neighbouring States, 1897–1914” (Ph.D. dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University, 1979). Yahaya, Dahiru, “Crisis and Continuity. Emirship of Kano in an Ideological Society.” A paper presented at the Conference on the Role of Traditional Rulers in the Governance of Nigeria, organized by the Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan, September 11–14, 1984. Yunusa, Yusufu. “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Kano” (B. A. essay, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1976).

Published Works

Abdullahi, Hussaina J., and Ibrahim Hamza, “Women and Land in Northern Nigeria: The Need for Independent Ownership Rights,” in L. Muthoni Wanyeki, ed., Women and Land in Africa: Culture, Religion and Realizing Women’s Rights (London, Zed Books, 2003). Abubakar, Sa’ad, The Lamibe of Fombina. A Political History of Adamawa 1809–1901 (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1977). ———, “A Survey of the Economy of the Eastern Emirates of the Sokoto Caliphate in the Nineteenth Century,” in Y. B. Usman, ed., Studies in the History of the Sokoto Caliphate: The Sokoto Seminar Papers (Zaria, Department of History, Ahmadu Bello University, 1979), 105–24. Achi, Bala, “The Gandu System in the Economy of Hausaland,” in Nigeria Magazine, 57, 3–4 (1989). Adamu, Mahdi, “The Delivery of Slaves from the Central Sudan to the Bight of Benin in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” in H. A. Gemery and J. S. Hogendorn, eds., The Uncommon Market. Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade (New York, Academic Press, 1979). 180 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adeleye, R. A, “Hausaland and Borno, 1600–1800,” in J. F. A. Ajayi, and M. Crowder, eds., History of West Africa, Vol. 1 (New York, Columbia University Press, 1971). ———, Power and Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria, 1804–1906: The Sokoto Caliphate and its Enemies (New York, Humanities Press, 1971). Ado-Kurawa, Ibrahim, Sullubawan Dabo (Kano, Kurawa Holdings, 1990). ———, The Jihad in Kano (Kano, Kurawa Holdings, 1989). Agiri, Babatunde, “Slavery in Yoruba Society in the 19th Century,” in P. E. Lovejoy, ed., The Ideology of Slavery in Africa (Beverly Hills and London, Sage, 1981). Antoun, Richard, “On the Modesty of Women in Arab Muslim Villages: A Study in the Accomodation of Traditions,” American Anthropologist 70, 4 (1968): 671–97. Aptheker, Herbert, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York, Columbia University Press, 1943). Austin, Gareth, “Cash Crops and Freedom: Export Agriculture and the Decline of Slavery in Colonial West Africa,” in International Review of Social History, 54 (2009): 1–37. Baer, Gabriel, “Slavery in Nineteenth Century Egypt,” Journal of African History 8, 3 (1967): 417–41. Baldwin, T. H., trans., The Obligation of Princes (Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique, 1932). Bargery, G. P., A Hausa-English Dictionary and English-Hausa Vocabulary (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1993). Barth, Heinreich, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa Being a Journal of an Expedition Undertaken Under the Auspices of H. B. M’S Government in the Years 1849–1855, Vol. 1 (London, Frank Cass, 1965). Berkey, Jonathan P., “Circumcision Circumscribed: Female Excision and Cultural Accommodation in the Medieval near East,” in International Journal of Middle East Studies 28, 1 (Feb. 1996): 21. Bovill, E. W. ed., Missions to the Niger. Volume IV. The Bornu Mission 1822–25, Part III (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1966), 638–39. Buchanan, K. M., and J. C. Pugh, Land and People in Nigeria: The Human Geography of Nigeria and its Environmental Background (London, University of London Press, 1966). Burnham, Philip, “Raiders and Traders in Adamawa: Slavery as a Regional System,” in James L. Watson, ed., Asian and African Systems of Slavery (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1980), 43–72. Brooks, George, “Peanut and Colonialism: Consequences of the Commercialization of Peanut in West Africa, 1830–1870,” Journal of African History 16, 1 (1975): 29–54. Brunschvig, H., “Abd,” The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. 1 (Leiden, Brill, 1960), 24–40. Campbell, Gwyn, “Introduction: Slavery and Other Forms of Unfree Labor in the Indian Ocean World,” Slavery and Abolition 24, 2 (2003): xxiii–xxiv. Chafe, Kabiru S., State and Economy in the Sokoto Caliphate (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1999). BIBLIOGRAPHY 181

Christelow, Allan, Thus Ruled Emir Abbas: Selected Cases from the Records of the Emir of Kano’s Judicial Council (East Lansing: Michigan, Michigan State University Press, 1993). Clapperton, H., Journal of a Second Expedition into the Interior of Africa from the Bight of Benin to Socaccatoo (London, Frank Cass, 1966). Cooper, F., Plantation Slavery on the East Coast of Africa (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1977). Courtenay, P. P., Plantation Agriculture (London, Bell and Heyman, 1980). Craton, Michael, Sinews of Empire: A Short History of British Slavery (London and New York, Anchor Books, 1974). ———, Testing the Chains: Resistance to Slavery in the British West Indies (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1982). Dokaji, Alhaji Abubakar, Kano ta Dabo Cigari, (Zaria, Gaskiya Corporation, 1958). Duffill, M. B., and P. E. Lovejoy, “Merchants, Porters, and Teamsters in the Nineteenth-Century Central Sudan,” in Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and P. E. Lovejoy, eds., The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, Sage, 1985), 137–68. Dunn, Richard S., Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713 (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1972). Elkins, Stanley M., Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life (Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1959). Fika, Adamu Mohammed, The Kano Civil War and British Overrule 1882–1940 (Ibadan, Oxford University Press, 1978). Fogel, Robert W., Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery (New York, W. W. Norton, 1989). Gavin, R. J., “The Impact of Colonial Rule on the Ilorin Economy 1897–1930,” Centrepoint 1, 1 (1977): 13–14. Genovese, Eugene D., From Rebellion to Revolution: Afro-American Slave Revolts in the Making of the Modern World (Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press, 1979). ———, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, Pantheon, 1974). Gidley, C. G. B., “Mantanfas-A Study in Oral Tradition,” in African Language Studies VI, (965): 32–51. Gordon, Murray, Slavery in the Arab World (New York, New Amsterdam Books, 1989). Greenberg, Joseph, The Influence of Islam on a Sudanese Religion (Seattle and London, University of Washington Press, 1946). Grove, A. T., Africa South of the Sahara (London, Oxford University Press, 1967). Hall, Douglas, “Absentee-Proprietorship in the British West Indies to about 1850,” in Lambros Comitas and David Lowenthal, eds., Slaves, Free Men, Citizens: West Indian Perspectives (New York, Anchor Books, 1973), 105–36. Hamza, Ibrahim, “Slavery and Plantation Society at Dorayi in Kano Emirate,” in P. E. Lovejoy, ed., Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton, NJ, Markus Wiener, 2004), 125–48. 182 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hill, Polly, “From Slavery to Freedom: The Case of Farm-Slavery in Nigerian Hausaland,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 18, 3 (1976): 395–426. ———, Population, Prosperity and Poverty: Rural Kano, 1900–1970 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1977). ———, Rural Hausa: A Village and a Setting (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1972). Hogendorn, Jan S., “The Economics of Slave Use on Two ‘Plantations’ in the Zaria Emirate of the Sokoto Caliphate,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 10 (1977): 369–83. ———, Nigerian Groundnut Exports: Origins and Early Development (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1978). ———, “The Origins of the Groundnut Trade in Northern Nigeria,” in Carl K. Either and Carl Liedholm, eds., Growth and Development of the Nigerian Economy (East Lansing, Michigan State University Press, 1970), 30–66. ———, “Slave Acquisition and Delivery in Precolonial Hausaland,” in R. Dumett and B. K. Schwartz, eds., West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspective (New York, Mouton Publishers, 1980), 477–93. Hogendorn, J. S., and P. E. Lovejoy, “The Reform of Slavery in Early Colonial Northern Nigeria,” in Suzanne Miers and Richard Roberts, The End of Slavery in Africa (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 391–414. ———, Slow Death for Slavery. The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993). Hopkins, A. G., An Economic History of West Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973). Hiskett, Mervyn, “The Image of Slaves in Hausa Literature,” in John Ralph Willis, ed., Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa, Volume 2, The Servile Estate (London, Frank Cass, 1985), 106–25. Hunwick, John O., “Notes on Slavery in the Songhay Empire,” in John Ralph Willis, Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa, Volume 2, The Servile Estate (London, Frank Cass, 1985), 16–32. James, C. L. R., The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Overture and the San Domingo Revolution (New York, Vintage, 1973). Johnston, H. R., The Fulani Empire of Sokoto (London, Oxford University Press, 1967). Klein, Martin, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998). ———, “Social and Economic Factors in the Muslim Revolution in Senegambia,” Journal of African History 13, 3 (1972): 424 and 428. ———, “Women and Slavery in the Western Sudan,” in eds. Claire C. Robertson and Martin A. Klein, Women and Slavery in Africa (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1997). Klein, Martin and P. E. Lovejoy, “Slavery in West Africa,” in H. A. Gemery and J. S. Hogendorn, eds., The Uncommon Market. Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade (New York, Academic Press, 1979). BIBLIOGRAPHY 183

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Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations.

Abbas (emir of Kano), 12, 122–24, 134 Baro-Kano railway, 10, 133 AbdulAzizi, Uthman, 17, 18, 41, barori, 30, 144n42 141n57 Barth, Heinrich, 14, 16, 35, 72, 135 Abdullah, Rabih b., 66 Basasa (Kano civil war), 16, 63, 81, Abdullahi, emir of Kano, 33, 53, 131, 118, 127, 135 172n79 , 39, 117 Achi, Bala, 6, 26 bawa/bayi. See slaves Ada, Madugu, 66, 72 Bayero, Abdullahi (emir of Kano), Adamawa, 2, 35, 38, 55, 96 33 Adeleye, R. A., 18 Bello, Muhammad (emir of Kano), 15, Agalawa, 36–37, 63, 127, 146n72 31–33, 38, 46–47, 58–59 Ahmadu (emir of Damagaram), 52 and Dabo, 51, 62, 63, 131 Aliyu (emir of Kano), 33, 39, 52, 131, son of, 172n79 153n97 Berbers, 146n72 Al-Maghili, Abd al Karim, 15, 23, 31, Berkey, Jonathan P., 13 131 Birom, 96 Alwali (sarkin of Kano), 32, 46 blacksmiths, 93–94 Andah, Bassey W. E., 43 bori, 113–14 Angas, 96 Borno, 2, 25, 49, 55, 66, 67, 144n36, aristocracy, 22, 27, 129–30 150n45 and courtiers, 37 Brazilian plantations, 4, 92, 163n4 Fulani, 32 Burja, Abdullahi (sarkin of Kano), 23, taxation of, 86–87 26, 28, 129 Asante Empire, 66, 67, 163n2 Burumburum, 32 Austin, Gareth, 11 butchers, 74–75 babani. See eunuchs caffa, 87 Babura, 24, 130n30 Campbell, Gwyn, 53 bado. See gifts caravans, 66–71, 88 Bagarmi, 38, 55 Caribbean plantations, 4, 7–9, 12, 54, , 21–22 77, 85 Bagwanje, Alhaji Adamu, 147n75 absentee owners of, 66 Bakatsine, Malam, 31 slave rebellions at, 112 190 INDEX

Carrow, J. H., 126 dan Zabuwa, 31–32 “cash crop revolution,” 10–12, 121, 134 Daura, 46 Chafe, Kabiru S., 92 Dawakin Kudu, 33, 47 Christelow, Allen, 127 , 24 Christianity, 94 Dawaki ta Kudu, 34, 145n60 Chubok, 96 Dawuda, Galadima, 23, 27, 28, 40, civil war. See Basasa 129 Clapperton, Hugh, 14, 16, 33, 35, 135 debt bondage, 11, 30–31 on Fanisau, 41, 42, 47, 51–52, 59–60, dogarai, 57 73, 74 Dorayi, 7, 8, 34, 74, 115 clientage system, 10, 62, 172n80 droughts, 28–30, 34–35, 45, 130, concubines, 57–58, 87, 99–102, 151n49 154n106, 159n13 dukiya, 98 Cooper, Frederick, 12–13, 81, 99, 104 dumde, 4–5 corn, 45, 82, 85, 102 See also plantations corvée, 6, 82–83, 85 Dutse, 24 See also taxation cotton, 22, 33, 35–36, 100, 103 Economic History Project, 16 and groundnut production, 10 emancipation, 9, 95, 105–10, 118–19, See also textiles 133, 170n22 cucanawa, 94–95, 98–99 Endangered Archives Programme, 141n57 Dabo, Abdullahi (emir of Kano), 15, 63 eunuchs, 57, 159n13 Dabo, Ibrahim (emir of Kano), 16, 32, 40, 95, 135 facial marking, 67, 95, 165n24 children of, 34 fadawa, 37 and Fanisau, 46–49 Fanisau, 1, 8, 12–14, 41–65, 77–89, policies of, 38–39, 51, 62, 76, 131 131–35 and slavery, 50, 51 development of, 41–42, 45–49, Dalà, 56, 68 131 Damagaram, 49, 51–53, 73, 96, 107, after emancipation, 9, 95 131, 152n64 emir’s palace in, 73–74, 80 , 46 map of, 48 Dambazau, 47 royal estates of, 33, 50, 62, 64, 71–72, dan Daku, Iguda, 37 130 Dando, 39 scholarly neglect of, 42–43 dan Fodio, Usman, 31, 32, 46 settlement pattern of, 71–75 Dan Rimi, 54 slave resistance at, 112–19 dan Sudu, 66, 72 sociocultural life at, 72, 91–110 Dantata, Alhassan, 127, 134, 172n80 sources on, 14–19, 148n4 Dantiye, Nasiru Ibrahim, 8, 43 See also plantations Dan Tunku, 15, 46–47, 51, 52, 73, 107, fansar kai, 106–7, 110, 168n87 131 “feudal economy,” 6 Dan Yayya, 46 Fika, Adamu Mohammed, 18 INDEX 191 freeborn laborers, 6, 27, 30, 62–63, 82 for naming ceremonies, 79, 94–96, and ex-slaves, 11, 124, 133, 160n25 107–9 marriage with slave by, 99 of slaves, 54 as soldiers, 81 Gill, J. Withers, 123 taxation of, 61, 86–87 Gogel, 71, 74, 157n193, 160n31 Fulani, 31, 32, 38, 39, 46, 47 gold trade, 22 Gonja, 55, 69–70, 153n93 gaisuwa. See gifts grain production, 6, 28, 82, 87–88, galadima, 23, 27–28, 64, 87 124 galadiman shamaki, 63–64, 78–81, 84, groundnut production, 10–12, 82, 109 133–35 food distribution by, 88 merchants’ role in, 125–27 and slave marriages, 97 promotion of, 111–12, 123–25, 127 during wars, 80–81, 102–3 in Senegal, 119–20 Gamar Kwari, 43 slave labor for, 120–24, 128, 133–34 Gambarjado, 41, 131, 149n6 Guinea, 120 Gambia, 120, 121 guinea corn, 45, 82, 85, 102 gandu, 4–6, 27, 33 Gumel, 49 definitions of, 4 Gwarzo, 24, 139n30 overseer of, 78–79, 109, 113 Pierce on, 138n11 Hadith, 5, 13, 51 slave plots on, 63–64, 72, 76, 82, See also Islam 92–93, 97, 98, 102 hakimi (district head), 54, 102 See also plantations Hamshaki, Alhaji Miko, 17, 66, 69–70, Gandun Albasa, 40 125–27, 134 Gandun Nassarawa, 71, 158n194 Hamza, Ibrahim, 7, 8, 34, 96 gandun sarki, 41, 61, 71–72 Hamza, Malam, 117–18 management of, 78–85 Hill, Polly, 4, 9 and slaves’ food, 93 Hiskett, Mervyn, 26 Garba, Alhaji, 164n12 Hogendorn, Jan, 7–12, 123–25, 133 Garki, 24 and Lovejoy, 16, 133–34 Gasgainu plantation, 34 on Zaria Emirate, 54 gayauna, 63–64, 72, 76, 82, 92–93, 97, horses, 22 98, 102 as gifts, 103, 167n68 gayya, 30, 123–25, 172n61 humusi, 54, 153n84 Genovese, Eugene, 112 Hunwick, John, 7 Gidan Ma’ajin Watari, 83–84 hurumi, 86–87 Gidan Rumfa, 49, 56, 57, 73–74 as administrative center, 60, 87 ibdabu, 26–27, 144n24 supplies for, 87–88 Ibrahim, Alhaji, 67 gifts, 33, 60, 103, 154n122 Ibrahim, Malam, 146n72 of horses, 103, 167n68 Idrisu, Mallam, 164n22 of land, 33, 63–64 Iliyasu, Malam, 146n72 for marriages, 108–9 Ilorin, 2, 7 192 INDEX immigrants, 21–22, 36–39, 66, 120 founding of, 41 butcher, 74–75 history of, 22 concubines of, 100 maps of, 2, 24, 48, 56 from drought, 29 mid-nineteenth-century view of, 68 freeborn laborers as, 62–63 wall of, 56, 72–73 taxation of, 62 Kano Emirate, 4, 42–46, 129–35 Tuareg, 130 civil war of, 16, 63, 81, 118, 127, Imoru, Imam, 104, 108 135 indentured servants. See debt bondage history of, 21–40 indigo, 22, 33 Islamization of, 22–26, 32 inheritance customs, 54, 65, 98 maps of, 2, 24, 48 Inikori, Joseph, 7, 9 ribats of, 8, 8 Islam, 22–26, 32, 51 kanwa, 97, 99 inheritance customs of, 64–65 Kanyan Amana, 70, 71, 72, 75, 141n57, and slavery, 5, 9, 13, 54, 92, 94–95, 158n215 107–10, 117–18 Kanyan Amana, Sani, 17–18, 66, and zakka, 29, 86, 87 158n197 See also Shari’a Karaye, 24, 35–36, 126, 139n30 Isawa movement, 118 Kasar Kano, 4, 21–40, 42–46, 129–31 See also Kano Emirate Jagaba, 69, 157n179 Kasuwar Kurmi, 70, 114–15 jakadu, 61 Katsina, 7, 25, 28, 46, 148n96, 150n32 Jamaica, 7–9 Kazaure, 47, 59, 150n33 See also Caribbean plantations kharaj, 86 Jeng, Alieu, 121 Kiru, 24, 31 Jigirya, 40 Klein, Martin, 91, 104, 105, 162n68, jihad (1804–1808), 15, 18, 25, 26, 46 163n2 plantations after, 31–40, 130 on slavery, 120, 126 sarauta system after, 22 Koki, Mahmudu, 14, 57–58 and slavery, 38, 50–51 kolanuts, 16, 22 jingina, 65 trade in, 36–37, 63, 66, 69–71, jizya, 117 147n75 Jumare, Ibrahim, 7, 141n56 Kosai, Madugu, 17, 63, 66–72, 75, 125 children of, 71 kaffara, 108 on slave marriages, 96–97 Kaje, 96 women of, 102 Kambarin Beriberi, 36–37 Kriger, Collin, 103 Kanawa, 37, 39 Kumbotso, 34 kane, 97, 99 Kundila, 34, 37 Kano Chronicle, 26, 41 kurdin kasa, 86 Kano City, 131 Kutumbi (sarkin of Kano), 28, 144n24 demographics of, 35, 45 Kwararafa, 28 emir’s palace in, 49, 56, 57, 73–74, Kwarkwarori. See concubines 87 Kwaru, Ibrahim Aliyu, 162n58 INDEX 193

Kwazzazabon Yan Kwando, 32 Nasarari, Lawan, 37 kyauta. See gifts Nassarawa, 2, 40, 74 navetanes, 120 Lagos, 2, 67 Ningi, 2, 53, 96, 117, 131, 152n74 land policies, 11, 33, 65 Nupe, 2 Lander, Richard, 60 Last, Murray, 18 Lennihan, Louise, 11 O’Hear, Ann, 7 Lovejoy, Paul E., 7, 9, 11 Oman, 5 interviews by, 12, 15–17 Ottoman Empire, 5, 163n2 on plantation system, 3, 4, 13, 133–34 on slave flight, 118 Panisau. See Fanisau Lugard, F. L., 73 peasants, 3, 11, 27, 30 slaves versus, 6–8, 163n2 Mahadi, Abdullahi, 26, 33, 71–72 Philips, John Edward, 8, 62 maigida, 64 Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell, 9, 133, Maitabarya, 66 139n32 maiwa. See millet Pierce, Steven, 11, 138n11 malams, 52, 117 plantations, 129–31 Maliki law, 98–100 definitions of, 3–7, 137n8 mamluks, 62 development of, 25–31 manumission. See emancipation after jihad, 31–40, 130 Maradi, 2, 49, 53 management of, 77–89 Mariri, 48 private, 33–34, 37, 62–72, 75, 84–85, marriage customs, 55, 79, 96–99, 108–9 94–97, 102, 116 and concubinage, 99–101 sociocultural life on, 72, 91–110 Marwa, 96 types of, 33–34 Mason, Michael, 18 See also Fanisau; gandu masu sarauta. See aristocracy polygamy, 98 masu ungwani, 22 porters, 69, 88, 105 Meillasoux, Claude, 91–92, 163n3 Prietze, Rudolf, 58 mike kafa, 114–15 prisons, 83–84, 124–25 millet, 45, 85 prostitution, 105 See also grain production See also concubines Minjibir, 43 purdah, 100–101 Moitt, Bernard, 119–20 monetary values, 36, 70, 167n84 Quran, 5, 13, 51 Monteil, P. L., 14 See also Islam Moody, H. L. B., 73 mudabbar, 108 murgu, 104–6, 109, 110, 115 Rabi’u, Muhammadu, 17, 64 on freeborn laborers, 82 Nagudu, Alhaji Abdullahi, 147n75 on galadiman shamaki, 79–80 naming ceremonies, 79, 94–96, 107–9, on murgu arrangements, 104 170n22 on slaves’ food, 93 194 INDEX

Rano, 24, 139n30 Shamaki, Hamidu Galadiman, 17 ribats, 8, 18, 63, 130–31 shari’a, 5, 32, 129 definition of, 45–46 and butchers, 75 development of, 38–39, 135 and concubines, 99–101 map of, 48 enforcement of, 39 sansani versus, 41, 147n86 See also Islam rice cultivation, 6, 146n64 Sharubutu, 37 See also grain production Shaw, Thurstan, 43 Rimin Azbinawa, 67, 157n170 Shenton, Robert, 11 Ringim, 24 slavery, 3–5, 132–33 Roberts, Richard, 7 in Americas, 4, 9, 12–14, 50, 54, Robinson, C. H., 14, 35 77, 85, 92, 94, 104, 112, 113, Rufa’i, Ruqayyatu Ahmed, 42, 74 133 Rumfa, Muhammad (sarkin of Kano), British trade ban on, 50, 125–26, 23, 25, 28 151n50 and corvée, 6, 82–83, 85 Sa’ad, Abubakar, 18 debt bondage versus, 11, 30–31 Salah, Hat, 73 development of, 5–8, 26–30, 130 Salama, 17, 54 documentation of, 12–19 Salaman Kano, 17 Islamic view of, 5, 9, 13, 54, 92, Salih, Muhammad b., 15 94–95, 107–10, 117–18 salt trade, 22, 29 and jihad, 38, 50–51 sansani, 41, 42, 147n86 in Ottoman Empire, 5, 163n2 sarakunan, 6, 22, 27–28 stigma of, 109 Sararin Garke, 87 slaves, 52–53 sarauta system, 22, 25, 27, 33, acquisition of, 28, 55, 66, 81, 103, 164n21 125–26, 129, 134 Sarkin Dawaki, 58, 59 in army, 8, 62, 80–81, 102–3, 107 sarkin gandu (overseer), 84 burial of, 94 sarkin hatsi (granary official), 87 on caravans, 69, 88 sarkin Makera (chief of blacksmiths), child, 30, 55, 66, 94, 97, 98, 101, 126, 93–94 158n197 Sawaina, 34 elderly, 108 Searing, James F., 120–21 emancipation of, 9, 95, 105–10, sedentarisation policy, 38, 39, 62, 118–19, 133, 170n22 130–31 entrepreneurial work of, 103–4 Senegal, 119–20 facial marks of, 95, 165n24 serfs. See peasants food of, 82, 83, 88, 92, 102, 113, 122, Shaho, Madugu, 126 132 shamaki, 14, 34, 60–61, 71, 103, gifts of, 54 145n60 land plots of, 63–64, 72, 76, 82, food distribution by, 87 92–93, 97, 98, 102 overseer of, 77–78, 84 management of, 14, 17, 62, 77–89, during war, 54 91, 119–22, 145n60, 169n2 INDEX 195

marriages of, 55, 79, 96–99, textiles, 35–36, 70, 103 108–9 See also cotton “masterless,” 104 Tijaniyya brotherhood, 127, 172n78 naming ceremonies of, 79, 94–96, tithes, 29, 86, 87 107–9, 170n22 tobacco, 33 new masters for, 114–15 Tokarawa, 28, 36–37, 63, 66, 146n72 and prison laborers, 124–25 facial marks of, 67 punishment of, 83–85, 91, 113, 116, Toledano, Ehud R., 5 121, 131 tribute, 26, 84, 87 resistance by, 112–19, 128, 132 Tsamia (sarkin of Kano), 26 runaway, 116–19, 121–22 Tuareg, 29, 39, 144n36 serfs versus, 6–8, 11 and Agalawa merchants, 146n72 sociocultural life of, 72, 91–110 migration of, 130 as tribute, 26, 84 Tubman Institute at York University, Smith, M. G., 7–9, 26, 28, 47, 133 15, 16 Sokoto Caliphate, 1–7, 31, 45–46, 130, Tudun Maliki, 34 133 Tudun Wada, 24, 151n60 army of, 8 Tukur, Galadima, 6, 58 map of, 2 Tukur, Mahmud Modibbo, 6 sources on, 14–19 Tukur, Muhammad (emir of Kano), Songhay empire, 5–7, 25 15, 33 Soninke-Marabout wars, 120, 121 tungazi, 4–5 Stampp, Kenneth, 3–4 See also plantations Stilwell, Sean Arnold, 78 Sudan, 35, 104, 126 Ubah, C. N., 126 Suleiman (emir of Kano), 31, 32, 42, Uban Dawaki, 69 46, 50–51, 129 Ungogo, 11, 43, 47, 48, 72 Suleimanu, of Modibawa clan, 31 United Kingdom, slave trade ban by, Sule, , 37 50, 125–26, 151n50 , 24, 37 United States, slavery in, 4, 9, 12–14, Sunna, 5, 13 50, 54, 77, 85, 92, 94, 104, 112, Swindell, Kenneth, 121 113, 133 Usman, Yusuf Bala, 6–7 , 74 Usman I (emir of Kano), 33, 131 Tanagar, 48 Usman II (emir of Kano), 33 taxation, 8, 61, 62 Utai, Abdullahi, 37 and caravans, 69 and corvée, 6, 82–83, 85 Waceni, 71–73, 76, 79 exemptions from, 33, 86–87 Wada, Alhaji, 164n22 of groundnuts, 123 wakili, 109 and jakadu, 33, 61 wambey, 60 of murgu arrangements, 104–5 Wangarawa, 22 and tithes, 29, 86, 87 waqf, 86–87 types of, 86 Warji, 53, 96 196 INDEX wars, 8, 131 Yaji (sarkin of Kano), 23 Basasa, 16, 63, 81, 118, 127, 135 (sarkin of Kano), 28 booty from, 54, 153n84 yan bayi, 114–15 slaves used during, 8, 62, 80–81, yan uku uku. See facial marking 102–3, 107 Yokanna, 34 Soninke-Marabout, 120, 121 Yunusa, Yusuf, 16, 17, 41, 141n57 Watts, Michael, 9, 11 women Zabainawa, 72 and division of labor, 82 zakka, 29, 86, 87 and groundnut production, 10 Zamfara, 2 and inheritance customs, 65 Zangeia, 32–33 seclusion of, 100–101 Zango, 156n168 slave, 82, 87, 98 Zango Uku, 17, 158n215 during wars, 103 Zanzibar, 5 , 74 Zaria, 2, 7–9, 16, 51, 54 Zinder, 58, 59 Yada Kunya, 43 Yahya, Alhaji Inuwa, 146n75