Notes Introduction 1. For definitions of plantations, see P. P. Courtenay, Plantation Agriculture (London, Bell and Hyman, 1980), 7–19; Paul E. Lovejoy, “Plantations in the Economy of the Sokoto Caliphate,” Journal of African History 19, 3 (1978): 341–68; Frederick Cooper, Plantation Slavery on the East Coast of Africa (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1977), 2–20; Jay R. Mandle, “The Plantation Economy: An Essay in Definition,” in Eugene D. Genovese, ed., The Slave Economies: Volume 1 Historical and Theoretical Perspectives (New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1973), 223–24. 2. Paul E. Lovejoy, “The Characteristics of Plantations in the Nineteenth-Century Sokoto Caliphate (Islamic West Africa),” American Historical Review 84 (1979): 1271. 3. Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956), 31. 4. Ibid., 36. 5. Such as Jay Mandle, The Root of Black Poverty: The Southern Economy After the Civil War (Durham, NC, Duke University Press, 1978), 3–15; M. G. Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation in Two Societies,” Social and Economic Studies 3, 3–4 (1954): 239–90; and M. G. Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation in Two Societies,” M. G. Smith, ed., The Plural Society in the British West Indies (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1965), 116–61. 6. See the works of Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery. A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000); and “Characteristics of Plantations,” 1270–85 for more on this viewpoint. 7. Lovejoy, “Characteristics of Plantations,” 1270–85. 8. Ibid., 1267–92. However scholars may differ in their definition of “plantation,” most would agree that the features highlighted in this last definition are among essential characteristics. 9. Some of the important works on plantations in the American and Caribbean societies include, Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713 (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1972); Richard Sheridan, Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623–1775 (Aylesbury, Ginn, 1974); Vera Rubin, ed., Plantation Systems of the New World (Washington, Pan American Union, 1959); and Vera 138 NOTES Rubin and Arthur Tuden, eds., Comparative Perspectives on Slavery in New World Plantation Societies (New York, New York Academy of Sciences, 1977). 10. Neil Skinner, “The Origin of the Name Hausa,” Africa 38 (1968): 253–57; and Lovejoy, “Characteristics of Plantations,” 1279. 11. Polly Hill, Rural Hausa: A Village and a Setting (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1972), 38–56; and her Population, Prosperity and Poverty: Rural Kano, 1900–1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 205–7. It should be noted here that in Farmers and the State in Colonial Kano: Land Tenure and the Legal Imagination (Bloomington, IN, Indiana University Press, 2005), Steven Pierce suggests that the term gandu does not refer to a “thing” (namely plantations or households) as most other writers have argued. Rather it refers (right from the start) to a set of interacting obligations, which both constituted the basic relations between commoners and the government and provided families with access to land. In my opinion, however, his failure to reinterpret references to the term in question in, among other historical materials, the Kano Chronicles undermines his conclusion that gandu refers to a set of interacting obligations right from the start. 12. Lovejoy, “Plantations in the Economy,” 344. 13. The ambiguity of the concept rinji is also discussed in ibid., 343–44, and in his “Characteristics of Plantations,” 1279–80. 14. H. Brunschvig, “Abd,” The Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 1 (Leiden, Brill, 1960), 24–40. 15. Nehemia Levtzion, “The Western Maghrib and Sudan,” in the Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 3, ed. Roland Oliver (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1977), 447. 16. E. R. Toledano, Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle East (Washington, University of Washington Press, 1998), 81. 17. Cooper, East Coast of Africa. 18. For further details on the agricultural economy of Songhay, see, for instance, Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 33; and John O. Hunwick, “Notes on Slavery in the Songhay Empire,” in John Ralph Willis, Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa, Volume 2, The servile estate (London, Frank Cass, 1985), 25. 19. Allan G. B. Fisher and Humphrey J. Fisher, Slavery and Muslim Society in Africa: The Institution in Saharan and Sudanic Africa and the Trans-Saharan Trade (London, C. Hurst, 1970), 111. 20. Lovejoy, “Characteristics of Plantations,” 1278–79. 21. Good example of studies rooted in this perspective include Bala Achi, “The Gandu System in the Economy of Hausaland,” in Nigeria Magazine 57, 3–4 (1989): 49–59, which obviously focuses on Hausaland, while Adamu Mohammed Fika, The Kano Civil War and British Overrule 1882–1940 (Ibadan, Oxford University Press, 1978) focuses on Kano in particular. 22. Mahmud Modibbo Tukur, “The Imposition of British Colonial Domination on the Sokoto Caliphate, Borno and Neighbouring States, 1897–1914,” (Ph.D. dissertation, Ahmadu Bello University, 1979), 821–34. NOTES 139 23. See Yusufu Bala Usman, The Transformation of Katsina 1400–1883 (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1981); and Ibrahim Jumare, “Land Tenure in the Sokoto Sultanate of Nigeria,” (Ph.D. dissertation, York University, 1995). 24. Joseph E. Inikori, “Slavery in Africa and the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” in Alusine Jalloh and Stephen E. Maizlish, eds., The African Diaspora (Arlington, University of Texas at Arlington, 1996), 39–72. 25. See Richard L. Roberts, Warriors, Merchants and Slaves: The State and the Economy in the Middle Niger Valley, 1700–1914 (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1987); and John O. Hunwick, “Notes on Slavery in the Songhay Empire,” in Willis, Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa, 16–32. 26. See, for example, Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation”; Jan S. Hogendorn, “The Economics of Slave Use on Two ‘Plantations’ in the Zaria Emirate of the Sokoto Caliphate,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 10 (1977): 369–83; Ibrahim Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society at Dorayi in Kano Emirate,” in P. E. Lovejoy P. E., Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton, NJ, Markus Wiener, 2004), 125–48; Ann O’Hear, Power Relations in Nigeria: Ilorin Slaves and Their Successors (Rochester, University of Rochester Press, 1997); Sean Arnold Stilwell, Paradoxes of Power: The Kano “Mamluks” and Male Royal Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate, 1804–1903 (Portsmouth, Heinemann, 2004) and Lovejoy, “Characteristics of Plantations.” 27. See, for instance, Hogendorn, “Economics of Slave Use”; and Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery. 28. Hamza, “Slavery and Plantation Society at Dorayi.” 29. Hogendorn, “Economics of Slave Use”; and Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation.” 30. See, for instance, John Edward Philips, “Slavery on Two Ribat in Kano and Sokoto,” in Paul E. Lovejoy ed., Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton, Markus Weiner, 2004), 111–24; and Nasiru Ibrahim Dantiye, “Taxation and Hakimai’s Envoys: The Status of the Ribats of Rano, Karaye, Babura, Gwarzo and their Resident Rulers within the Administrative System of Kano Emirate,” in B. M. Barkindo, ed., Kano and Some of her Neighbours (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, 1985). 31. Smith, “Slavery and Emancipation.” 32. For the views of Phillips and his supporters, see, for instance, Ulrich Bonnell Phillips, American Negro Slavery (New York, D. Appleton, 1918); Ralph Betts Flanders, Plantation Slavery in Georgia (Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 1933); Rosser Howard Taylor, Slaveholding in North Carolina, an Economic View (Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 1926); Charles Sackett Sydnor, Slavery in Mississippi (New York, Peter Smith Publishing, 1933); and Charles S. Davies, The Cotton Kingdom in Alabama (Montgomery, Alabama State Department of Archives and History, 1939). For critics of Phillips’ interpretation, see, for instance, Kenneth M. Stammp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1956). 33. See, for instance, Michael Watts, Silent Violence: Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1983), 77–78; 140 NOTES Polly Hill, “From Slavery to Freedom: The Case of Farm-Slavery in Nigerian Hausaland,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 18, 3 (1976): 397; and Inikori, “Slavery in Africa.” 34. See, for instance, Hogendorn, “Economics of Slave Use”; and Lovejoy, “Characteristics of Plantations” and “Plantations in the Economy.” 35. Inikori, “Slavery in Africa”; and Igor Kopytoff and Suzzane Miers, “Introduction: African ‘Slavery’ as an Institution of Marginality,” in Igor Kopytoff and Suzzane Miers, eds., Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1977) are good examples of works that argue that slave manumission/intergenerational slave mobility was continuous in Africa. 36. Jan S. Hogendorn, “The Origins of the Groundnut Trade in Northern Nigeria,” in Carl K. Either and Carl Liedholm, eds., Growth and Development of the Nigerian Economy (East Lansing, Michigan State University Press, 1970), 30–66. Also see his Nigerian Groundnut Exports: Origins and Early Development (Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University Press, Michigan State University Press, 1978). 37. Hogendorn, Nigerian Groundnut Exports, 104. 38. For further discussion