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INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ILL-FATED’ SONS OF THE ‘NATION’: OTTOMAN PRISONERS OF WAR IN RUSSIA AND EGYPT, 1914-1922 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University By Yucel Yarukdag. B.A., M.A. The Ohio State University 2002 Dissertation Committee: Professor Carter V. Findley, Adviser ADDroved bv Associate Professor Jane Hathaway Adviser Professor Stephen F. Dale Department o f History Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3039543 Copyright 2002 by Yanikdag, Yucel All rights reserved. ___ ® UMI UMI Microform 3039543 Copyright 2002 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor. Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Copyright by Yucel Yamkdag 2002 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT This dissertation investigates the everyday lives of the Ottoman prisoners of war in World War I and the impact of captivity on them in a comparative perspective. Captivity narratives and previously untapped prison camp newspapers produced by the prisoners in various camps form an important part of the sources for this dissertation. Particular attention is paid to how the prisoners behaved in captivity, expressed their identities, and how they understood and what they proposed for the ills of their nation. Because of the attitudes of their captors and the naturally unfavorable conditions in the different places of captivity, the Ottoman prisoners in Russia were worse off than their comrades held by the British in Egypt. Differences in the conditions faced are reflected in the reactions of the prisoners to their surroundings. In order to give their lives some semblance of normality, the prisoners—above all the junior officers—attempted to create conditions that were familiar from their homeland. They also became involved in debates that revolved around the issue of how to save their nation. Yet, the idea of nation was a problematic concept for the citizens of a multi-national empire. The evidence shows that multiple layers of identity coexisted, even among the educated junior officers, well into the early 1920s. Despite their attempts to normalize their lives and occupy their minds, the monotonous and dangerous environment of captivity soon started to take its toll on the mental condition of the prisoners. While many succumbed to various mental ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and nutrition-related diseases while in captivity, the prisoners and their combatant comrades were not taken seriously by the Ottoman physicians, whose diagnostic approaches to war neurotics were shaped by the current practice of their field as it was molded in Europe, especially in Germany. Just as the sufferings of numerous prisoners continued even after repatriation, their sacrifice and captivity experience did not become a part of the memory of war in post-war Turkey. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to acknowledge the support Professors Carter V. Findley and Jane Hathaway provided to me during course of writing this dissertation. Their guidance and advice proved invaluable. In Turkey various archives and libraries opened their doors to me, some more widely than others, I would like to extend my thanks to: Ba§bakanlik Osmanli Ar§ivi, Ba$bakanhk Cumhuriyet Ar§ivi, Turk Inkilap Tarihi Ar§ivi, IRCICA Library, ISAM Library, Atatiirk Kitaphgi, and finally the Staff of the ATASE Archives. Some individuals went beyond their duty to help me locate and examine rather rare and fragile documents. In particular Muhammed H. Gen?, Mehmet K. Kiri§?ioglu, Birol Ulker, and my brothers Fatih, Yavuz, and Seiim Yamkdag went out of their way on various occasions to help me find research material. In the United States, I would like to thank The Ohio State University Middle East librarians Dr. Dona Straley and Patrick Weisel, who answered my numerous questions and requests. James Gartner helped me obtain a rare and nearly lost document on Pellegra among Ottoman prisoners in Egypt. John M. Gartner provided much-appreciated editorial comments. I would also like to express my deep appreciation to David G. Gartner, without whose financial and emotional support I would not have been able to continue my studies. I am also indebted to my aunt, Emine Yamkdag; despite her secret desire for me iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. to pursue a Computer Science degree, she has been very supportive both financially and emotionally. The financial support o f several institutions was indispensable. A dissertation research abroad fellowship from Fulbright-Hays, along with grants from the Institute of Turkish Studies; The Skillher Centre, Newnham College at Cambridge University; American Research Institute in Turkey; and Ruth Higgins Research Fellowship from the Department of History at The Ohio State University enabled me to carry out the research and writing of this dissertation. Finally, 1 would like to thank my wife, Sheryl M. Yamkdag, who not only read various versions o f each chapter, but also tolerated my occasional not-always-so-pleasant moods that unfortunately accompanied the writing of the dissertation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. VITA December 09,1965 Bom-Istanbul, Turkey 1991 B .A. History, Old Dominion University 1991 -1993 Graduate Teaching and Research Assistant Old Dominion University 1994 M.A. History, Old Dominion University 1995-1997 Advisor, University College, The Ohio State University 1997-1998 Foreign Language and Area Studies Fellow 1999-2000 1998-1999 Fulbright-Hays Dissertation Research Fellow PUBLICATIONS S.v. “World War I: Ottoman Empire,” “Ottoman Empire,” and “Karbala,” in Prisoners of War and Internment: A Dictionary, ed., Jonathan F. Vance, ABC-CLIO Publications, 2001. “Ottoman Prisoners of War in Russia, 1914-1922,”Journal o f Contemporary History 34 (January 1999): 67-83 S.v. “Constantinople Agreements,” “Mustafa Kemai,” “Mehmed V,” “Mehmed VI,” and “Talat Pasha,” in European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia, Spencer C. Tucker, ed. (New York: Garland Publishing, 1996) FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Islamic History vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... iv Vita............................................................................................................................................. vi List of Figures...........................................................................................................................ix List of Tables .............................................................................................................................x Introduction................................................................................................................................. 1 Chapters 1. Captivity, Marginalization and Memory of War in Early Twentieth Century Turkey ................................................................................................................................20 2. Savior Sons of the Nation: Reflections of the Prisoners’ Minds................................... 61 3. Prisoner of War Life in Russia and Egypt: A Comparison..........................................110