Section Summary 12 the COLD WAR BEGINS SECTION 1

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CHAPTER Section Summary 12 THE COLD WAR BEGINS SECTION 1

When Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill met at Yalta in February 1945, READING CHECK it was clear that the Allies would defeat Germany. The United States and Great Britain wanted a united Germany and independent nations President Truman asked in Eastern Europe after the war. Soviet dictator Stalin wanted a Congress for aid for which two countries? weak, divided Germany and an Eastern Europe under communist control. Despite Stalin’s promises, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria became satellite states of the Soviet Union, along with the eastern part of Germany. After another meeting that summer at Potsdam, Harry S. Truman, who was now President, became convinced that the Soviet Union had aspirations toward world domination. Thus began the 46-year-long Cold War. Churchill agreed with President Truman and said an iron curtain had descended upon Europe. East of the curtain, Stalin was tightening his grip and trying to spread communism to other countries. Truman asked Congress for money to help Turkey and Greece VOCABULARY STRATEGY fight communism. His promise of aid became known as the Truman What does the word aspirations Doctrine. It set a new course for American foreign policy. mean in the underlined sen- The goal of another American policy, called containment, was to tence? Circle the words in the use American power to help nations resist communism. Contain- underlined sentence that could ment’s first success was based on Secretary of State George C. help you learn what aspirations Marshall’s economic recovery plan for Europe. Under the Marshall means. Plan, the United States gave about $13 billion in grants and loans to Western European nations, starting in 1948. In June 1948, Stalin decided to block all shipping from western Germany into West Berlin—deep inside communist East Germany— hoping that would make the city fall to the communists. The United States and Britain stopped his plan by airlifting supplies, including food, fuel, and clothing, into West Berlin. The Berlin airlift showed that communism could be contained. To continue to block Soviet expansion, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO, formed in 1949. Twelve Western European READING SKILL and North American nations agreed to act together to defend Contrast After World War II, Western Europe. In 1955, West Germany joined NATO. In response, what were the differences in the Soviet Union and its satellite states formed the Warsaw Pact. All goals between Stalin and the communist states of Eastern Europe except Yugoslavia promised to Soviets and Truman and the defend one another if attacked. United States? Review Questions 1. What was Truman’s promise of aid to countries fighting communism called?

2. Which event proved that the policy of containment worked?

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THE COLD WAR Primary Source

President Truman spelled out his thoughts on opposing communist expansion in a speech to a joint session of Congress. These ideas became known as the “Truman Doctrine.” The President asked Congress to help Greece, a country that was struggling against communist rebels. Truman warned that failure to help Greece would have serious consequences. ◆ Answer the questions on a separate sheet of paper.

The Truman Doctrine It is necessary only to [look] at a Questions to Think About

map to realize that the survival and [completeness] of the Greek nation are 1. What does Truman say that you can of [great] importance in a much wider tell from looking at a map? situation. If Greece should fall under the control of an armed minority [of communist rebels], the effect upon its neighbor, Turkey, would be imme- diate and serious. Confusion and disorder might well spread through- 2. What is Truman talking about when out the entire Middle East. he speaks of “the disappearance of Greece as an independent state”? Moreover, the disappearance of Greece as an independent state would have a [strong] effect upon those countries in Europe whose peoples are struggling against great difﬁculties to maintain their freedoms and their 3. To what “victory” is Truman referring? independence while they repair the damages of war.

It would be [a] . . . tragedy if these countries [in Europe], which have struggled so long against over- 4. Draw Conclusions Truman says that it whelming odds, should lose that would be a great tragedy if Greece and victory for which they sacriﬁced so other countries were to lose their much. Collapse of free institutions independence. What conclusions can and loss of independence would be you draw about Truman’s opinion of disastrous not only for them but for the difference between life in a Soviet the world. satellite state and life in a country —President Truman, 1947 outside the Iron Curtain?

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THE COLD WAR Reading a Chart

This chart shows some of the major causes and effects of the Cold War. ◆ Study the chart, and answer the questions on a separate sheet of paper. Causes and Effects of the Cold War

Questions to Think About

1. Why did President Truman believe the 3. Analyze Cause and Effect What were Soviet Union wanted world conquest? some of the effects of the Western powers’ fear of communist expansion? 2. How did Western allies combat Soviet aggression in Berlin?

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THE COLD WAR Reading Strategy

Contrast To contrast means to show the differences between things. Sometimes people, places, ideas, objects, or events can seem similar at ﬁrst, but when you look more closely, you notice that they are actually quite different. Noting the differences between things as you read can help you understand the material more readily.

Read the example below and note the differences between the presidents. Both Truman and Eisenhower were in the army before becoming President. Truman, who never went to college, served in France in World War I as a captain. Although he remained in the army reserves, Truman did not see active duty in World War II. Eisenhower, who graduated from West Point Military Academy, rose to become Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces during World War II. In contrasting Truman and Eisenhower, note that Truman fought in World War I and that Eisenhower served in World War II. Also, note that Truman never went to college, but that Eisenhower was a graduate of West Point. Directions: Read the following paragraph. Then answer the questions below. Joseph Stalin and Nikita Khrushchev were communist leaders of the Soviet Union, Stalin from 1929 to 1953 and Khrushchev from 1953 to 1964. Although both men were strong opponents of the United States, Khrushchev eventually embraced the idea of peaceful co-existence. Khrushchev may have used some of Stalin’s methods to isolate and overcome his political rivals, but he did so without as much bloodshed. Khrushchev was not as cruel as Stalin, and he tolerated more dissent.

Hint: Look for details given about only one of the people or things under discus- sion. This will tell you how the contrasting items are different.

1. Was Stalin or Khrushchev less tolerant of political dissent?

2. Who adopted the idea of peaceful co-existence with the West?

3. Which man was more ruthless and cruel in his political methods?

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WORLD WAR II Biography

As their strategy of island hopping brought Allied troops closer to the Japanese mainland, the small island of Iwo Jima was to become a valuable stronghold from which aircraft could take off and make emergency landings. Winning the island was a bitter struggle. ◆ As you read, think about the sacrifices made by the marines who fought at Iwo Jima. Then, on a separate sheet of paper, answer the questions that follow. The Marines at Iwo Jima As approximately 70,000 United States The victory came at a significant cost. troops prepared for an invasion of the Approximately 6,000 were killed in the Japanese-controlled island of Iwo Jima, a battle, while more than 20,000 were force of more than 20,000 Japanese soldiers injured. The battle for Iwo Jima became had entrenched themselves in the island’s one of the most costly battles of the war for mountains and built tunnels the United States. About one- throughout the island. As a third of all marines that lost result, when the first U.S. their lives during World War II troops began to land on Iwo did so at Iwo Jima. Such signif- Jima on February 19, 1945, they icant loss of American lives at encountered strong resistance Iwo Jima and in other similar from the Japanese. Defending battles in the Pacific contrib- themselves against enemy fire uted to the later decision to proved difficult as they stormed use the atomic bomb rather the island from the sea. than launch an invasion of

However, in the coming Iwo Jima flag raising, © CORBIS mainland Japan. days marines began to make Despite the costliness of progress in their efforts to win the island. the fighting at Iwo Jima, the victory did By February 23, they had captured Mount prove to be a significant one for American Suribachi, a tall volcanic mountain that forces. The subsequent use of the island provided a strategic defensive location for carrying out air attacks against Japan, for Japanese troops. Photographer Joseph as well as for landing damaged planes Rosenthal took the famous picture of six returning from such attacks, proved espe- American soldiers raising the United cially valuable. The victory also provided States flag at the top of Mount Suribachi. a rallying point for the American public. This photograph has come to represent Chester Nimitz, commander of the the heroism of the soldiers who fought United States Navy in the Pacific said of at Iwo Jima. After more than a month of the soldiers, “Among the men who fought fighting, the United States won the battle on Iwo Jima, uncommon valor was a for the island. common virtue.”

Questions to Think About

1. Why was it difficult for American forces to 3. Summarize Why was Iwo Jima an defend themselves against Japanese fire? important strategic location for the United States campaign in the Pacific? 2. What event did Joseph Rosenthal capture in his famous photograph?

CHAPTER Section Summary 11 THE HOLOCAUST SECTION 4

READING CHECK In 1945, there was no word for the Holocaust, the most horrific event of World War II. It was the Nazi attempt to kill all Jews, as well as What was Kristallnacht? other “undesirables,” under their control. This was part of a racist Nazi ideology that considered Aryans—white Northern European gentiles—superior to other people. Hitler began to persecute the Jews as soon as he came to power. In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws denied citizenship to Jews and segre- gated them at every level of society. Acts of violence against Jews were common. The most serious occurred on November 9, 1938, and is called Kristallnacht, the “Night of Broken Glass.” Secret police and military units destroyed more than 200 synagogues and 7,500 Jewish businesses, killed more than 200 Jews, and injured more than VOCABULARY STRATEGY 600 others. Hitler’s “Final Solution to the Jewish question” was genocide, What does the word restraints the willful annihilation of all Jews living in regions under his control. mean in the underlined sen- Jews and other “undesirables” were confined in concentration tence? Note that the word is a camps. In theory, the camps were designed to turn prisoners into noun, and that it contains the verb restrain, which means “useful members” of the Third Reich. There were, however, no “hold back.” Use this informa- restraints on guards, who tortured and killed prisoners without fear tion to help you figure out what of reprisals. Doctors conducted bogus experiments that killed pris- restraints means. oners or left them deformed. Many concentration camps were death camps, where prisoners were systematically exterminated. The largest death camp was Auschwitz in southern Poland. Before the war, the United States and other countries could have done more if they had relaxed immigration policies and accepted more Jewish refugees. Once the war started, news of the mass killings began to filter to the West. In early 1944, FDR began to respond and established the War Refugee Board, which worked with the Red Cross to save thousands of Eastern European Jews. The enormity of the Nazi crime became real for most Americans only when Allied soldiers began to liberate the concentration camps. The READING SKILL revelation of the Holocaust increased American support for a Jewish Recognize Sequence What hap- homeland. Therefore, when Jewish settlers in Palestine proclaimed pened to Jews in Germany after the state of Israel, President Truman immediately recognized the Hitler came to power? new nation. Review Questions 1. What was the purpose of Hitler’s concentration camps?

2. How did the United States respond to the Holocaust?

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WORLD WAR II Link to Literature

Sergeant James Ray Clark served in World War II as part of Company B, 317th Infantry, 80th Division. In April 1945, he was among the American soldiers who liberated the Buchenwald concentration camp. He recalls that among those he helped liberate was a teenager named Elie Wiesel. Mr. Wiesel has since written extensively about the horrors of the Holocaust. In 1983, Wiesel honored Clark for his part in the U.S. Army’s liberation of the many near-death prisoners held at Buchenwald. In the excerpt below, Mr. Clark describes what the American soldiers found when they entered Buchenwald. ◆ As you read, think about how conditions in the camp would affect the prisoners over a long period of time. Then, on a separate piece of paper, answer the questions that follow. Liberation So we got there and went into the camp Anyway, there was a 14-year-old boy and found out it was not a slave labor when we went in there. In 1983 he signed camp, it was a[n] extermination camp . . . me a scroll that I was one of the liberators. You don’t stop when you go into some- And a very nice person. That’s one of my thing. You go up—you got to protect prized possessions is my sheepskin scroll yourself so we went all the way through that the Jews gave me with (indiscernible) the camp. Went on the other side, set up signing it. But the ﬁrst thing we saw was machine gun . . . and riﬂe pits. And came the walking dead. People just walking back into the camp to see what we could around that were—it looked like an explo- do to help these people. sion or an earthquake in a cemetery. . . . And there was 8,000 dead and 20,000 As we progressed into the camp, we dying when we got there. The bodies—the tried to feed the people and they couldn’t arms were no bigger round than an inch, even eat cheese and crackers. They—it’s inch and a half, you could see every too strong for them. So we got orders not bone in their body and most of them had to feed them. We’d give them blankets and been stripped to get ready to put in the things like that. But we—we were there ovens. They wanted to kill as many as with them. And then the next thing we possible—burn as many as possible before saw were the pits. They had a pit as wide we got there and a lot of them were just as this room and about, oh, three times as totally nude, walking around. And you’d long that had bodies just stacked— walk—the ones that we walked past stacked—a layer of bodies, a layer of lime; going in, when you come back, if there a layer of bodies, a layer of lime. was seven standing there, there’d only

be ﬁve or three. They just died that Source: Interview with James R. Clark, Veteran’s History quick. Project, Library of Congress

Questions to Think About

1. Why did the American soldiers set up a 3. Draw Conclusions Why do you think the machine gun on the other side of the sheepskin scroll James Clark received in camp? 1983 is one of his “prize possessions”? 2. Identify three facts used to describe the horrors found at Buchenwald.

CHAPTER Section Summary 11 EFFECTS OF THE WAR SECTION 5

READING CHECK As World War II drew to an end, Japan and Germany kept fighting long after their defeat was certain. The protracted fighting gave the What is the Universal Allies time to make plans for a postwar world. In February 1945, Declaration of Human Rights? Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met at Yalta on the Black Sea. At the Yalta Conference, they discussed final strategy and crucial questions concerning postwar Germany, Eastern Europe, and Asia. A few months later, the Big Three, now composed of Stalin, Truman, and Atlee, met at Potsdam to formalize the decision to divide Germany into four zones of occupation. The war ended Western European domination of the world. Two superpowers—the United States and the Soviet Union—became the predominant nations of the postwar world. Not all the changes that took place after the war ended were VOCABULARY STRATEGY what the Allies had envisioned at Yalta and Potsdam. Communist What does the word and noncommunist interests clashed in Eastern Europe. Civil war predominant mean in the under- resumed in China. Under American military occupation, Japan lined sentence? The prefix pre- gained a new constitution that abolished the armed forces and means “before in rank” or enacted democratic reforms. “superior to.” The root dominant The United States, where industry had boomed during the war, refers to something that domi- helped to shape the postwar world economy. The United States also nates, controls, or has the led the charge to establish the United Nations (UN). While it was greatest effect. Use these clues organized on the basis of the Great Powers, all member nations sat to help you figure out what on the General Assembly. In 1948, the UN issued the Universal predominant means. Declaration of Human Rights, which condemns slavery and torture, upholds freedom of speech and religion, and affirms the right to an adequate standard of living. During the war, the Axis Powers had repeatedly violated the Geneva Convention, which governs the humane treatment of wounded soldiers and prisoners of war. More than a thousand Japanese were tried for war crimes, and at the Nuremberg Trials key leaders of Nazi Germany were brought to justice for their crimes against humanity. Americans had closely followed the war and learned to think READING SKILL in global terms. They defined themselves as democratic, tolerant, Understand Effects Which and peaceful. The war gave renewed vigor to the fight for civil effect of World War II would rights at home. It also ushered in a period of economic growth help to prevent future wars? and prosperity. Review Questions 1. What happened at the Yalta Conference?

2. What long-term changes were brought about by World War II?

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WORLD WAR II History Comics

As ﬁghting wound down, the leaders of Russia, the United States, and Great Britain came together to discuss strategy for the end of the war and begin planning for life in the postwar era in Germany and Eastern Europe. ◆ Use the information in the paragraph and your knowledge of history to write captions for each comic panel about the meetings at Yalta and Potsdam.

Postwar Goals Chris Vallo Chris Postwar Goals, Postwar

Critical Thinking In the space below, explain how people in Poland and Germany might have felt about the decisions made at the conferences.