The Cambridge Companion to Modern Japanese Culture Edited by Yoshio Sugimoto Index More Information

Home , Bon Festival, Kagoshima dialect, Okinawan Japanese, Tsugaru dialect

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88047-3 — The Cambridge Companion to Modern Japanese Culture Edited by Yoshio Sugimoto Index More Information

Index

1955 system 116, 168 anti-Americanism 347 anti-authoritarianism 167 Abe, Kazushige 204–6 anti-globalisation protests 342–3 Abe, Shinzo¯ 59, 167, 172, 176, 347 anti-Japanese sentiment abortion 79–80, 87 in China 346–7 ‘Act for the Promotion of Ainu Culture & in South Korea 345, 347 Dissemination of Knowledge Regarding Aoyama, Nanae 203 Ainu Traditions’ 72 art-tested civility 170 aged care 77, 79, 89, 136–7, 228–9 Asada, Zennosuke 186 ageing population 123, 140 Asian identity 175–6, 214 participation in sporting activities 227–8 asobi (play) 218 aidagara (betweeness) 49 Astro Boy (Tetsuwan Atomu) 243 Ainu language 71–2 audio-visual companies, export strategies Ainu people 362 banning of traditional practices 71 deﬁnition of 72 Balint, Michael 51 discrimination against 23 Benedict, Ruth 41 homeland 71 birthrate 81–5, 87, 140, 333–4 as hunters and meat eaters 304 Bon festival 221 overview 183 brain drain 144 Akitsuki, Risu 245 ‘bubble economy’ 118 All Romance Incident 189 Buddha (manga) 246 amae 41–2, 50–1 Buddhism 57, 59, 136 Amami dialects 63 background 149 Amami Islands 63 disassociation from Shinto under Meiji Amebic (novel) 209 152–6 The Anatomy of Dependence 40 effects of disassociation 153, 155–6 ancestor veneration 160–1 moral codes embodied in practice anime 15, 236 157 anime industry problems in the study of 151–2 criticisms of 237–8 as a rational philosophy 154 cultural erasure 364–5 relationship to the state 153–4 exporting success 361–2 role of wives of priests 154 globalisation of anime 254, 364–5 role of women 159 hybridity of products 364 see also Temple Buddhism major forms 236–7 buraku culture 187–9 size and signiﬁcance of 236–7, 360 at a crossroad 195–6 ‘soft power’ of 237 diversity in 190–2 transnationalism 364 transformations of 192–5

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402 Index

buraku identity collectivism 171 formation of 190, 191 archetypical analysis of 48–9 self-contradiction in 189 during Meiji period 172 Buraku Liberation League 111, 186 vs. individualism 169–71, 173 buraku liberation movements 101, 186, 189, vs. Western individualism 45–6, 48 191 comic culture 360 burakumin communitarians 16, 19 compared to other minority groups 184–5 commuting 220 discrimination against 6, 160, 182, 184–7 componential analysis 39 as a genealogical minority 182–3 computer games 15, 139 population 182–3 Confucianism 131, 132, 137 regional distribution of buraku background 149 communities 191 role of women 159 transformation in forms of discrimination consumerism 130 over time 187 consumption types of communities 193–5 depression of 115 burakumin category 182 growth in 117–19 shift from ascetic to materialist approach to capitalism and stock companies 342–3 118, 141 Chikamatsu, Monzaemon 170 ‘A Contextual Model of the Japanese’ 40, 43 childcare facilities 88–9 ‘convergence’ debate childcare policy 88 ‘cool Japan’ 216 children corporate culture of divorced parents 86 corporation as family 80–1 legal status of Koreans in Japan 30 three treasures of 2 status in ie 77 cosmopolitans 16–17 and stepfamilies 86 cultural agents China categories of 10 anti-Japanese demonstrations 347 and culture shaping forces 10–15 cultural nationalism 345–8 cultural analysis relationship with Japan 346 emic approach to 39 status of Japanese orphans and women left emic/etic distinction 38–9, 46–8, 52 during war 31–2 etic approach to 39 Chinese cultural inﬂuences 26 and use of anecdotal evidence 42–4 Chinese people, status in Japan 29 and use of native terms 41–2 Christianity, background 149–50 cultural demography 5 The Chrysanthemum and the Sword 41 cultural diffusion Chuo¯ Kyoiku¯ Shingikai 162 via emigration 26–8 citizenship via exporting of cultural products 28 bi-national parentage 32–3 cultural exports dual 30–1 cultural products 13, 216–17 Koreans in Japan 29 culturally ‘odourless’ products 362 naturalisation/de-naturalisation 31 exporting strategies 362 repatriation of Japanese women and history of 352–3 orphans from China 31–2 increase in 14 civil society 11 international reception 15 and voluntarism 122–3 Japanese-style management 354–60 class popular culture 360 kakusa shakai 2 popularity throughout Asia 134 middle class mass phenomenon 169 reluctance to export distinctively Japanese and political ideology 168–9 products 366 transformation of public perceptions of 1–2 cultural images exported, changes in 14–15 ‘working poor’ 169 cultural inﬂuences Climate and Culture 40, 48 from China 26 ‘closed country’ policy 57 from the West 26, 44

Index 403

cultural materialism 39 economic development cultural nationalism 130 basis of rapid development 116 and administration of capitalism and stock benefits of rapid growth 117–19 companies 342–3 conditions for growth 114–15 and adoption of a constitutional debates about convergence 114–17 parliamentary monarchy 341–2 and evolution of work culture 113 in China 345–8 nature of 114 in East Asia 343–8 role of government policies in rapid and the introduction of British cotton growth 132–3 340–1 and social welfare 83, 120 in Japan 343–4 economic downturn 82 Japanese examples 340–3 economy and jimponshugi (humanity first-ism) ‘bubble economy’ 118 343 globalisation and restructuring 119–20 in Korea 344–5 indicators of change 356 relationship to globalisation 336–7, 339–40, the lost decade 119 349–50 nihonbyo¯ (the Japanese disease) 119–20 cultural orientations, forces that shape 12 in shadow of China 127–8 cultural policy, in early 1980s 49 education cultural relativism accommodation of diversity 106–7 dilemmas of 6–9 basic global features of school culture and the ‘name order’ debate 9 96 types of 7 ‘bottom-line schools’ (teihenko¯) 105 cultural values, and globalisation 348–9 changes in school culture over time 105–6 culture class size 97, 168 definition 10 collaborative learning process 97 differing conceptions of 48 competing narratives of Japanese school typology of 10–12 culture 94–6 cute character culture 134 concept of school culture 92–3, 95–6 cyber-culture 135, 139 culture of learning 97 culture of teaching 98 daily life, varied patterns of 26 dentok¯ o¯ vs. newer elite academic schools Dainippon SumoKy¯ okai¯ (Great Japan Sumo 104–5 Association) 319 differing orientations among postwar dankai 167 students 167–8 Dazai, Osamu 201 ‘educationally difficult schools’ (kyoiku¯ dekasegi 126 kon’nanko¯) 105 Democratic Party of Japan 172, 173 elite academic high schools 103–5 Democratic People’s Republic of Korea emphasis on effort over ability (ganbarism) (DPRK) 344 96 deregulation 120–1 evening high schools 103 discrimination features of Japanese school culture 93, 96 against foreigners 33 focus on groupwork (han) 100 against minority groups 6, 23, 184–7 high school types 102–3 against women 2 introduction of compulsory education 70 linguistic 23 Kizuna division of labour 80–1 see education, teacher-student divorce rate 81, 85–7 relationships Doi, Takeo 40–2, 50–1 ‘lifestyle guidance’ (sh¯ıdo) 97–8, 102 Dowa¯ Council Policy Report (1965) middle schools 102 189 minority activism 100, 107 ‘Dowa¯ education’ 111 neo-liberal reforms 100–1 DragonBall franchise 253 non-elite academic high schools 103, 105 dual citizenship 30–1 organisational and communal skills 97 Durkheim, Emile 45 ‘Osaka model’ 101

404 Index

education (cont.) ‘familism’ 48 and parental choice 101 family culture 76 primary schools 102 and aged care 77, 79, 89 reforms in recent times 108 balancing family and work 83, 88 regional variations in school culture 100–1 changes in eating arrangements 310 school rule violation 103 and childcare decisions 88–9 structure of current system 94 contemporary Japanese family 76 student behaviour 178–9 emergence of the ‘new family’ 81 teacher collaboration and professional regional variations 86–7 development 98–9 single-parent families 84 teacher-student relationships (kizuna) 99 structure of postwar family 80–1 teacher-teacher relationships 99–100 as a theme in literature 201–4 teachers’ unions 100, 101 variations by socioeconomic class 86–7 ‘Tokyo model’ 100–1 see also marriage urban-rural differences 100 family policy variations at age-graded levels 102 and fertility rates 88 variations at different types of schools and surrogate mothers 89 102–4 and work-life balance 88 variations within similarly labelled schools family system 76 104 developed by Meiji state 76–9 vocational high schools 103, 105 family values, and political culture 177–9 waning aspirational culture 107–8 food culture ‘whole person education’ 97–8 chabudai table 310–11 Ekuni, Kaoiri 209 changes in the dinner table 310 electronic gadgets 134–7 changes in ways meals are served 311 elite culture 10 composition and serving of conventional Emancipation Edict 185, 189 Japanese meal 300 emic concepts of Japan decline in meal preparation at home 314 critical appraisals of 40 ﬁsh consumption 302–4, 315 multiplicity of 47–8 food compatibility model 312–14 opposition to ‘Western theory’ 44–6 funa zushi 303 use of native terms 40–2 gyunabe 305 emic/etic distinction introduction of dining table 311 in cultural analysis 38–9, 46–8, 52 lifting of ban on meat consumption 304–5 in linguistics 38 mochi 301 relevance for Japanese studies 39–40 nigiri zushi 303 emigration 26–8 nikujaga 306 enterprise unions 354–5 nori maki 303 environmental damage 143 popularity of eating out 315–16 essentialism 25–7, 34 post-1960s 309–10 ethnic diversity 1–2, 24 rice as symbolic food 300–1 ethnic Koreans 29 sake 301 activism 100, 107, 111 sashimi 302 legal status of children 30 spread of Japanised Western-style dishes as a minority group 184 306–7 passing as Japanese 29–30 sukiyaki 305 preservation of traditions 6 sushi 302–3 population 184 transformation of 304–10 status of Japanese wives 30 urban middle class and chabudai culture writers (zainichi bungaku) 210 307–8 Eto,¯ Jun 201–2 wartime and postwar food shortage Eugenics Protection Law 79 308–9 Exotica japonica 24–5 whale and dolphin 303–4 exports yamatoni 306 of manufactured goods 28 yoshokuya 306–7 see also cultural exports zen table 310

Index 405

food industry 315 dialects 62 foreign workers 118 discrimination against Ainu 23 ‘freeters’ 82 holidays Freud, Sigmund 46 Bon festival 221 Fromm, Eric 51 Golden Week 221 Fudo¯ 48 New Year festival 221 Fujimori, Alberto 30 paid vacations 220 Fukuda, Yasuo 172–3 public holidays 221 Fukumi-warai (Pregnant Smile) 207 homogeneity 24, 40 furiitaa (freelance worker) 123–5 ‘Nihon seishin’ (‘The Japanese Spirit) 132 honorific individualism 170 gaichi 24 hot spring spas 228–9 see also naichi/gaichi hierarchy housing codes gairaigo 60 concept of 281 ganbarism (persistence) 96 Japanese 281–2 gender housing culture and division of labour 80–1 affordability of homes 288–9, 297–8 and language 61 architectural design of ‘proper’ houses in globalisation early Meiji era 283 challenge to nation-states 337 at time of Meiji Restoration 282–3 and changes to pattern of food production chair-sitting culture 293–4 and consumption 338 changes over time 291–6 and cultural adaptation 13 danger of fires 286–7 and cultural values 348–9 and emerging middle class 292–3 in East Asia 347–8 floor-sitting culture 284, 291–4 impacts in Japan 337–9 furniture 284 and labour shortages 337–8 and growth in non-standard households nature and operation of 336–7 296–7 relationship with cultural nationalism 336, home ownership 289, 291, 297–8 339–40, 349–50 international perspectives and problematic and restructuring 119–20 stereotypes 285–91 and social inequality 169 Japanese housing codes 281–2 Golden Week 221 major transitions in 285 golf 233 postwar transformation in housing and Goodenough, Ward 52 housing codes 294–6 Gorudo Rasshu (Gold Rush) 203 and privacy for family life 292 Great Hanshin Earthquake 286, 287 rental accommodation 289–91 Great Kanto Earthquake (1923) 286 ‘scrap and build’ construction practices 288 ‘gunboat diplomacy’ 24 and seismic challenges 286–8 Gurando Finale (The Grand Finale) 205 since 1970s 284–5 size and condition of dwellings 285–6 Hamaguchi, Esyun 40, 43, 45, 47, 49–50 variations and stratification 296 han 97 wooden dwellings 286, 288 ‘Happy Monday System’ 221 human rights activism 100 harizu 15 hybrid products 141–3, 364 health insurance system 123 hyojungo¯ 26–9 ‘Hello Kitty’ Robo 134, 136, 142 ‘high context’ culture 44 I-novels (shishosetsu¯ ) 170, 201 hikikomori (social withdrawal) 137–8 identity hiragana syllabary 66 see Japanese people Hitori Biyori (A Perfect Day for Being Alone) ie 48–9, 77–8, 125–6, 201 203–4 Ie (Domestic Life) 201 Hokkaido¯ Ikkyu,¯ Sojun 170 absence from mainstream cultural Imperial Shinto 155 imagination 23 individualism 82–3, 169–71, 173 colonisation by Japan 23, 62 industrial relations, core feature 354–6

406 Index

industrialisation, and convergence debate Japanese spirit 49, 132 inequality 2, 120, 169 see also wakon yosai¯ Inoue, Hisashi 69 Japanese studies inter-societal cultural relativity 7 and misconceptions of ‘the West’ 44–6 internet and relevance of emic/etic distinction see cyber-culture 39–40 intra-cultural relativism 7 universality vs. particularity 49–52 Japanese-style management Japan see management style cultural interpretation of physical entity 22 Japanisation 15 defining 21, 34 ‘japonisme’ 24, 28 essentialist definitions 34 jimponshugi (humanity first-ism) 343 physical extent 23 Journal of the Ministry of Education ramifications of conservative definitions (Monbusho¯ Zasshi) 70 34–5 jus sanguinis 31 ramifications of liberal-progressive jus solis 31 definitions 35 social and political stratification 22–4 Kagoshima dialect 62 Japan Communist Party 115 kakusa shakai 2 Japan Maritime Self-Defense Forces 174 kamigata rakugo 62 Japan Recreation Society (Nihon kamigata region dialects 62 Rekurieshon¯ Koykai)¯ 223 Kanehara, Hitomi 209 Japan Socialist Party 168 Kaneshiro, Kazuki 210 Japan Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology kango 60 89 kanji 59, 65, 66, 68 Japan Statistical Yearbook 223 kanjin (between people) 43, 47, 50 Japanese character karoshi¯ (death from overwork) 216 interpersonal quality of 45 katakana syllabary 65, 66 in literature 40 Katsushika, Hohusai 240 Japanese culture Kawakami, Hiromi 204, 208–9 conceptual and theoretical issues 5–6 kazoku (family) 78, 126, 201 de-territorialisation/re-territorialisation Kazoku Shinema (Family Cinema) 203 26–9 keigo 60 defining 21, 34 keitai shosetsu¯ (mobile phone novels) 133, 200 duality 8–9 Kicchin (Kitchen) 202 essentialist definitions 34 Kimba the White Lion (Janguru Taitei) 243, in global context 6–7 246 monocultural model 1, 24 Kimura, Bin 42 nature of 2 Kirino, Natsuo 209 paradigm conflict over 1–6 Kitayama, Junyu 219 public discourse on 3 kizuna 99 ramifications of conservative definitions Koe ni dashite yomitai Nihongo 58 34–5 Kojima, Nobuo 201 ramifications of liberal-progressive Koizumi, Junichiro¯ 169, 180, 347 definitions 35 Kokoro no Noto¯ (The Heart and Mind relationship to Japanese people 5 Notebook) 162 ‘Japanese exceptionalism’ 40 Kokugo Chosa¯ Iinkai (National Language Japanese people Investigation Committee) 70 Asian identity 175–6, 214 Kokugo gannen (National language – year criteria for defining 4, 21, 29, 33, 121 one) 69–70 essentialist definitions 34 Kokutai no Hongi (Fundamentals of Our and Japanese culture 4 National Policy 48 ramifications of conservative definitions Koreans 34–5 see ethnic Koreans ramifications of liberal-progressive koseki (family registries) system 78–9, 83, 85 definitions 35 kyots¯ ugo¯ 26–8, 62 Japanese Society 40, 43–4 Kyush¯ u¯ dialects 62

Index 407

labour force, transition from agricultural to leisure culture manufacturing workforce 114–15 academic study of 219 labour market deregulation 120–1 after industrialisation 231–2 labour movement, division of 116, 118 and concept of leisure (reja¯) 217–18 labour shortages 337–8 concept of play (asobi) 218 Labour Standards Law (Rod¯ o¯ kijun ho¯) in contemporary society 232 216 cross-cultural comparisons 232–3 labour unions 115, 118–19, 169, 356 debates and controversies 217–20 language golf 233 bi-cultural literacy 122 paid vacations 221–2 characteristics of Japanese language 57–8 in period prior to Pacific War 218 Chinese influence on 57, 59 in pre-modern period 231 classical Japanese 67 proclaimed lack of need for play or leisure dialects 61–3 219–20 English as a second language 122 public holidays 221 English language training and proficiency ‘revolution of consciousness’ in postwar 72–3, 122, 178–9, 358 years 218–19 English loanwords 59–60, 122 revolutionary change 216–17 European influences 57 time for leisure 220–2 foreign influences on 56–7 ‘typically’ Japanese leisure behaviour and gender 61 233 historical overview 56–7 Leisure Development Center (Yoka Kaihatsu honorific (keigo) 60–1 Senta¯) 223 introduction of modern Japanese 67 Levellers’ Association Movement 189 Japanese peoples’ relationship to 58 Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) 83, 168, 172, modernisation 57 173 origins of Japanese language 58 1955 system 116, 168 regional differences 26–7 support for management 116 sentence structure 66–7 life expectancy 123, 314, 338 and social change 56 lifetime employment 354 spelling system 67 lifology 8 ‘standard’ Japanese 23, 69–71 literature strength of connection to people 44 by writers of non-Japanese origin and translation difficulties 42 210–11 use of native terms 40–2 challenges to modernist assumptions 210 use of native words in cultural analysis distinction between pure and popular 40–2, 50 199–200 use of native words for technical purposes in early modern period 201 42 historical perspective 211–12 vocabulary 57–60 I-novels 170, 201 see also writing system impact of globalisation and development of language policy 67–9 IT 213–14 foreign loanwords committee 41 ‘in-between’ literature 200 learn-from-Japan campaign 353–4 invasion of the virtual 204–8 Lee, O-Young 50 in post-1945 period 201–2 leisure activities relationship between Japanese literature and age of participants 227–8 and other Asian cultures 214 data on 222–3 relationship to society/culture 199 economic importance of 223 role of media in popularisation of 200 high cost of 234 theme of crossing boundaries 208 participation rates in activities by gender theme of the family 201–4 224–7 theme of individual rebelling against travel and sightseeing 228 personal or social environment 204–8 types of activities and times when enjoyed theme of Japanese modernity and Japanese 223–4 identity 211 urban-rural differences 231 women writers 202–3, 208–9 variations by gender, class and age 229–31 zainichi bungaku 210

408 Index

Machida, Ko¯ 207 the market, from industrial to cultural Madame Butterfly 24 capitalism 14–15 management style marriage debate over exportability 356–60 among peasants and poorer townsfolk 77 export of 354–60 difficulty finding partners 85 and human resource management practices and discrimination against burakumin 186 356 in ie 77 and industrial relations 354–6 in ‘new family’ 81 willingness of leaders to export 358 and remarriage 86 Manazuru (novel) 204, 208 rising age at first marriage 81–5 manga 15 in salaryman family 81 academic analysis and debates 255–6 to non-Japanese 121 in Australia 360 under postwar Civil Code 79 broadened content in 1960s 243–4 mass culture 10 contribution to popular culture 236 Matsuura, Reiko 209 contribution to visual art culture 236 Mead, George Herbert 46 criticisms of 256 Measures for Dowa¯ Projects 189 defined 236 Meiji Civil Code 78 demographic trends and developments Meiji period 26 238–40 Meiji state during early postwar period 241 banning of Ainu language and traditional during prewar period 241 practices 71 effect on Japanese society 256 and disassociation of Shinto and Buddhism expansion of global market 252–3 152–6 export of 361–2 English language training 72 fan-generated content and intellectual family system based on household (ie) property rights management 257–9 model 76–9 gekiga style 242, 246 policy toward women 78 history of 240–1 shrine merger policy 155 impact of dojinshi¯ (fan or amatuer manga) standardisation of Japanese language 69–70 community 254–5 men kodomomuke manga 246 difficulty finding marriage partners 85 kyoy¯ o¯ manga (academic or educational life expectancy 123 manga) 252 role in ie 77 move into online environments 253 stress generated gender role 85 new approach to shojo¯ manga in 1970s middle class mass phenomenon 169 244 Ministry of Education 48, 70 scanlations 361 Ministry of Education, Sports, Science and shojo¯ style 246–8 Technology 162 shonen¯ style 246–8 Ministry of Labour, Maitsuki kinrot¯ okei¯ significance to visual art culture 237 Chosa¯ (Monthly Investigation of Work spin-offs in other media 243 Statistics) 220 story form 246 Ministry of Public Management, Home success of children’s titles 243 Affairs, Posts and Telecommunciations, tankobon¯ (paperback) format 248–9 Investigation on the Work Force typology 240 (Rod¯ oryoku¯ Chosa¯ ) 220 yokabon (small books) 242 minority groups yonkoma convention 246 construction of culture 6 manga industry 253–5 discrimination against 6, 184–5 training for artists 363 social movements 1–2 manufactured goods Misaki, Aki 206–7 pride in 134 Miyazawa Kiichi 216 success of 130–1 Mizuki, Shigeru 243 see also exports mobile phone manga 253 manzai 62 mobile phone novels 133, 200

Index 409

mobile phones 134–5 National Sports Competition, entry of modernity, tension with tradition 130 non-Japanese 121 Morishima, Michio 132 nationalism 48–9 monoculturalists 16, 18–19 Natsume, Soseki¯ 169, 201 multiculturalisation 121–2 Net-batsu/new zaibatsu (financial multiculturalists 16–18 conglomerate) 139–40 Murakami, Haruki 15, 170–1, 207–8 New Year festival 221 Murakami, Ryu¯ 203 ‘Nihon seishin’ (‘The Japanese Spirit’) 132 music culture Nihonjinron 3–4, 25–7 absorption of orchestral music 276, 278–9 ‘Nihonrashisa’ no Saihakken (Rediscovering art music 261–3 ‘Japaneseness’) 43 at school 263–5, 275, 277 niito (not in employment, education or at sports carnivals 269 training) 123 collections of music published for hobby Nijuyonen¯ (Year Twenty-Four Group) 244 purposes 265 1955 system 116, 168 and computer games 270 Ningen Shikkaku (No Longer Human) 201 and corporeality 269–70 Nipponia Nippon (novel) 204–6 dancing songs at festivals 269–70 NPOs (non-profit organisations) 122–3 diversity and types 263–72 nuclear power 141 folk music 261–3 hogaku¯ (Japanese music) 261–3, 276–8 OEL (original English-language) manga importation and absorption of brass brand 253–4 music 276–8 Ogai:¯ Tatakau Kacho¯ (Ogai: The Combatant indoor dance venues 270 Head of the House) 201 international comparison 275–7 Ogawa, Yoko¯ 209 J-pop 266 Okinawa karaoke 271 distinctive identity of Okinawans 65 kayokyoku¯ (popular songs) 265–6 suppression of local dialects 64 the music industry 276–7 Uchinaa Yamatuguchi (Okinawan musical activities as hobbies or interests Japanese) 65 265–7 Okinawa dialects 63 musical genre and social strata 272–5 Okinawan nagashi (itinerant musicians) 271 see Ryukyuan performance opportunities 267–9 Okinawan people perspectives regarding Japanese music discrimination against 23 261–3 as a minority group 183–4 playing of instruments by girls 266 OL Shinkaron (Office Lady Theory of popular instruments 265 Evolution) 245–6 popular music 261–3 omiai 85 reappraisal of traditional music 264–5 omoiyari 178 transformation in consumption 276, 278–9 Omotoky¯ o¯ 160 utagoe undo¯ (singing-voice movement) On’in Chosa¯ Hokokusho¯ (Report of the 271 Phonological Survey) 70 venues incorporating consumption of food Order of Cultural Merit 49 and drink 270–2 oreore sagi 167 yogaku¯ (Western music) 261–3, 275, 277 Orientalism 238 MutoSanji¯ 219 otaku 123 otherness 24–5 naichi 24 Ozawa, Ichiro¯ 172 naichi/gaichi hierarchy 29 Nakane, Chie 40, 43–4, 47, 49 pacificism 167 ‘name order’ debate 9 parasaito shinguru (parasite singles) 123 Naruto 252 peasant rebellions 115 National Institute for Japanese Language pension system 123 (Kokuritsu Kokugo Kenkyujo¯ ) 59 personal computers 139

410 Index

Pokemon 253 of Japan 148–50 political culture new religions in postwar years 156–8 1955 system 116, 168 post-1970s ‘new new religions’ 158 absence of absolutist culture 172–3 spread of 28 anti-authoritarianism 167 see also specific religions Asian identity 175–6 religious culture class and political ideology 168–9 ancestor veneration 160–1 collectivism vs individualism 169–71, 173 changes over time 152–8 confidence in state and its institutions creation of 151–2 176–7 debate and controversy in study of 150–2 cultural change since the Meiji era 169–74 definition 151 defined 166 diversity and variation 158–63 during Tokugawa period 171–3 and morals education 162 family values 177–9 new spirituality movements 160 following Meiji Restoration 171–2 pessimistic outlook of new new religions generational variations 167–8 158 Heisei period 172, 173 and primacy of action 157–8 international comparisons 174–9 relationship of new religions and national identity 174–6 modernity 156 pacifism 167 and religious sentiment 162 personalisation of politics 169 and self-cultivation 157 satisfaction with the state 177 study of 148 Showa regime 172, 173 and vitalistic thought 156–8 transition from materialism to religious practice postmaterialism 168 commercialisation of 162–3 and variations among classes 168–9 gender-based role distinctions 159–60 variations and diversity of 167–9 in post-1970s ‘new new religions’ 158 political ideology, and class 168–9 and primacy of action 157–8 political parties and self-cultivation 157 see specific party names syncretic nature of 147–8 popular culture religious traditions, invention of 150 growth in 118 RengoS¯ oken¯ 220 international interest in 28 Republic of Korea (ROK) 345 see also anime; manga retirement age 80 popular music 261–3 ‘reverse convergence’ 352 population, ageing 123 Ri, Kaisei 210 populist culture 11 RisshoK¯ oseikai¯ 155 postmaterialism 168 robotics 136–7 pottery 28 rodoku¯ 58 Power Rangers 253 Ryukyu Kingdom 304 property Ryukyuan 58, 62–5 inheritance in ie 78 under postwar Civil Code 79 Saigo no Kazoku (The Last Family) 203 Prost, Antoine 46 sake 301 public behaviour, comparison with salaryman family 80–1 Americans 43 salaryman lifestyle 80 public holidays 221 samurai class 77 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 41 reformist organisations 8 Sayama campaign 189 regional cultural variations 26 school culture Reiyukai¯ 155–6, 159, 161 see education reja¯ (leisure) 217–18 seasonality 22–3 religion, definition of 150–1 Second World War, US/Western perceptions religions of Japan 25 development of Buddhist lay movements Seijuku to Soshitsu:¯ Haha no Hokai¯ (Maturity and new religions 155–6 and Loss: The Collapse of the Mother 201

Index 411

seikatsu current sports practice 321–5 concept of 8 and declining birthrate 333–4 culture 11 and development of spectator culture definition of 7–8 329 seikatsu-gaku 8 disputes over significance of sport 327–9 seikatsu kyod¯ o¯ kumiai 8 entry of non-Japanese into National Sports seikatsusha 7–8 Competition 121 seiki shain (credentialled company employee) exercises/sports practice by sex and school 125 stage 323 Sekai Kyusei¯ Kyo¯ 28 foundation of national sports organisations seniority wages 355–6 327 Sensei no Kaban (My Teacher’s Briefcase) 204 general participation in sports 227–8 shido¯ (‘lifestyle guidance’) 97–8, 102 historical changes and disputes 325–30 Shiga, Naoya 201 impact of globalisation 334 Shimazaki, Toson¯ 201 increase in participation by women 333 Shinto introduction of gymnastics in schools 326 background 148 Japan’s unique sports 318–21 creation of State Shinto 154 and the mass media 330–1 disassociation from Buddhism under Meiji moral and spiritual aspects 331–2 152–6 number of registered players of most effects of disassociation 154 popular sports 323–5 problems in the study of 152 participation by sex 322–3 role of women 159 participation for enjoyment 332–3 shrine merger policy 155 participation in non-competitive activities Shintoism 132, 136 325 Shirato, Sanpei 242, 243, 246 restrictions on foreign sports in 1930sand shishosetsu¯ (I-novels) 170, 201 war years 329–30 Shotaro, Yasuoka 201 sport as culture 330–3 Shrine Shinto 155 standardisation of rules and skills in jujutsu¯ shushoku¯ 125 326 Snakes and Earrings (novel) 209 sports social capital, regional variations in ekiden kyos¯ o¯ 321 167 golf 233 social movements high school baseball 319 and minority groups 1–2 radio taiso¯ 320 reformist organisations 8 soft tennis 320–1 social welfare sumo 318–19 and economic development 120 the state and economic growth 83 and determining how Japanese culture is society defined 13 monocultural model 3 fostering of Japan’s national culture 12–13 multicultural model 3–4 and presentation of Japanese culture multi-ethnic composition 1–2 abroad 13 regional differences in kinship and village transition from imposing uniformity to structures 47 accommodating diversity 12–13 Soka Gakkai International 28 stepfamilies 86–7 soto (outside) 49 structural-functionalist theory 21 Soviet Union, perception of Japan 25 Sukyo Mahikari 28 Spencer, Herbert 45 Sullivan, Henry Stack 45 sport culture surrogate mothers 89 bukatsu 318, 331–2 Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities change in walking style and attire 326 (2001) 228–9 changes in sports practice by age 322 Suzuki, Takao 68 as a complex amalgam 317 construction of sports stadiums and Taisho period 72, 115 facilities 329 Taiwan, Japanophile groups 15

412 Index

Takashi, Saito¯ 58 value orientations Takeuchi, Naoko 244 competing cultural orientations to the state Tamotsu, Aoki 237 and the market 17 Taro, Aso 237 macro-demography of 16–19 Tate Shakai no Ningen Kankei (Human video games 139, 143 Relationships in a Vertical Society) 43–4 visual art culture Tawada, Yoko 209 academic analysis and debate 255–6 technological culture distinctiveness of 236 changes over time 132–7 significance of anime industry 236–7, 254 ‘culturally odourless’ products 142 significance of manga 236, 254 dealing with diversity and variation 137–41 ‘soft power’ of 237 driving forces behind innovation 133–4 see also anime; manga and ‘economic miracle’ 133 voluntarism 11, 122–3 and environmental damage 143 and gender stereotypes 138–9 wago 60 influence of US 141 wakon kansai (Japanese spirit, Chinese skills) innovation 103 131 and Japanese creativity 133 wakon yosai¯ (Japanese spirit, Western and national pride 134 technology) nature of 130–1 debate and controversy 131–2 and new ideas about time 134 overview 130–1 relationship between Western technology success of 132–7 and Japanese cultural traditions 130 WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) 135 relationship to broader culture 131 ‘War on Terror’, support for 346–7 rise of hybrid products 141–3 Watsuji, Tetsuro¯ 40, 48–9, 132 and socio-economic inequality 138–9 ‘the West’, misconceptions about 44–6 and technology transfer 140 White Paper on the National Lifestyle (2007) see also manufactured goods; wakon yosai¯ 89 (Japanese spirit, Western technology) Whitebook on Leisure 223 technology, transnational nature of 141–2 Why Has Japan Succeeded: Western Temple Buddhism 153–4, 160–1 Technology and the Japanese Ethos 132 Test of English as a Foreign Language women (TOEFL) examinations 73 citizenship status when married to ethnic Tezuka, Osamu 242–3, 246, 367 Koreans 30 Thaksin, Shinawatra 169 contemporary pattern of employment 83 The Special Measures for Regional and custody of children 86–7 Improvement Law (1969–97) 111 discrimination against 2 Tohoku¯ dialects 62 economic opportunities 79, 81 Tokugawa period 67, 115, 133, 170–1, 182 and gendered division of labour 80–1 Tonarimachi Senso (War with the Town Next importance of managerial skills 78, 115 Door) 206 internet use 135 tourism (outbound) 118, 228–9 life expectancy 123 Toyonod¯ otoku,¯ sieyo¯ no geijutsu, (Eastern managerial responsibilities in ie 77 morality, Western Techniques) 131 manga artists 244 tradition, tension with modernity 130 Meiji policy toward 78 traditional performing arts 62 participation in technological culture 138–9 Tsugaru dialect 60, 61 political equality and universal suffrage 79 repatriation from China 31–2 uchi 49 rising education and delayed marriage 84 Uchinaa Yamatuguchi (Okinawan Japanese) role of the ‘good wife’ 83 65 roles as mothers and educators of next Ueda, Kazutoshi 70–1 generation 78 ukiyoe 28 roles in various religions 159–60 UN Declaration on Women 81 status in ie 77 United States, changing perceptions of Japan traditional low status 76 24–5 use of language 61

Index 413

work culture working hours and ageing population 123 changes over time 220–1 and consumption 117–19 introduction of 40-hour week 216, 221 dependence on foreign workers 118 karoshi¯ (death from overwork) 216 deregulation of labour market 120–1 writing system and economic development 113 Chinese characters (kanji) 59, 65, 66, 68 enterprise unions 354–5 complexity of 65–7 evolution of 113–14 hiragana syllabary 65, 66 furiitaa (freelance worker) 123–5 katakana syllabary 65, 66 globalisation and restructuring 119–20 sentence structure 66–7 ideological tension in postwar years simpliﬁcation of script 67–9 116–17 spelling system 67, 68 lifetime employment 354 mobilisation of Japanese to generate xenophobia 33 surplus 114 multiculturalisation 121–2 Yaeyama dialects 63 and new ideas about time 134 Yamazaki, Masakazu 201 niito (not in employment, education or Yanagita, Kunio 49 training) 123 Yang Yi 211 parasaito shinguru (parasite singles) 123 Yonagui dialect 63 seiki shain (credentialled company Yonaguni 63 employee) 125 Yoneyama, Toshinao 47 seniority wages 355–6 Yoshimoto, Banana 202–3 shushoku¯ 125 youth culture 216–17 towards a national work culture and Yu,¯ Miri 203, 210 consumption 117–19 transition from rural to urban labour force zaibatsu ﬁrms 115 114–15 zainichi bungaku 210 and work ethic 134 Zainichi Koreans work values and the Japanese household see ethnic Koreans 125–6 Zen 28