Junior Secondary School Studentsâ•Ž Recognition of Kagisano/Social

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2005 Junior Secondary School Students' Recognition of Kagisano/Social Harmony, the National Philosophy of Botswana Koketso Jeremiah

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ RECOGNITION OF

KAGISANO/SOCIAL HARMONY, THE NATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF BOTSWANA

KOKETSO JEREMIAH

A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Middle and Secondary Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2005

The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Koketso Jeremiah defended on July 27, 2005.

______John P. Lunstrum Professor Directing Dissertation

______John H. Hansen Outside Committee Member

______Robert Gutierrez Committee Member

______Laurie E. S. Molina Committee Member

Approved:

______Pamela S. Carroll, Interim Chairperson Department of Middle and Secondary Education

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

This dissertation is dedicated to all members of my family for their support during the good and difficult times. To them, I say thank you all, now, tomorrow and in the future.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to Professor J.P. Lunstrum, my major professor, who assisted me throughout my doctoral studies at Florida State University. I thank him for his encouragement and contribution to my academic and professional growth in the field of Social Science Education. To him my gratitude is endless.

I would like to thank Professor J. Hansen, my Outside Committee Member, and Committee Members Professor R. Gutierrez and Dr. Laurie E.S. Molina for their guidance and tireless efforts in training me to be a scholar in the field of Social Science Education.

I would like to thank the Statistical Consulting Center of the Department of Statistics at Florida State University for their assistance in interpreting and presenting the data.

I would like to thank Basenyang Mothibedi and Doctor Otukile for their assistance in grading the scripts and tabulating the data.

I would like to thank all teachers who assisted me in collecting data and grading the scripts and all students who participated in the study. I would also like to thank the administrative staff of schools which participated in the study for granting me permission to collect data.

Lastly, I thank all students from Botswana and my friends at Florida State University and from the Tallahassee community for their support and encouragement throughout my

iv years of graduate studies at Florida State University. To all, I say “Pula!” (Let there be rain!). “NE MANGWANA!” (“LE KA MOSO!”)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ...... viii List of Figures...... x Abstract ...... xi

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Botswana: Background Information ...... 3 Pluralism in Developing Countries (Third World) ...... 4 The Government of Botswana ...... 6 The Economy of Botswana ...... 8 The Philosophy of Kagisano ...... 10 Analysis of Documents relevant to Kagisano ...... 12 Statement of the Problem and the Research Question ...... 13 Learning of Abstract Concepts ...... 15 Definition of Terms ...... 17 Purpose of the Study ...... 19 Significance of the Study ...... 20 National Examinations ...... 21

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 23

Relationship between reviewed literature and the research problem ...... 32

3. METHODOLOGY ...... 35

The Sample ...... 35 Dependent variable ...... 37 Independent variable ...... 37 Moderating or Intervening variables ...... 37 Procedures and Measures ...... 37

4. DATA ANALYSIS...... 41

Summary of the Findings ...... 42

vi 5. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ...... 64

Interpretation of Results ...... 64 Limitations of the Study...... 66 Suggestions/Implications for further research ...... 67

CONCLUSION ...... 67

RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 69

APPENDICES Appendix A: Questionnaire ...... 71 Appendix B: Matrix ...... 74 Appendix C: Frequency distribution of scores for schools A, B, C, and D...... 76 Appendix D: Approval for Use of Human Subjects ...... 77 Appendix E: Informed Consent Form...... 78 Appendix F: Parents Consent Form...... 79 Appendix G: Youth Assent Form ...... 81 Appendix H: Kopo ya go Tlhotlhomisa Kitso (Informed Consent Form)...... 82 Appendix I: Kopo ya go Tlhotlhomisa Kitso go Batsading ba Bana (Parents Consent Form) ...... 83 Appendix J: Tumalano le Ngwana (Youth Assent Form) ...... 85

REFERENCES ...... 86

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 89

vii

LIST OF TABLES

1. Junior secondary school social studies curriculum modules ...... 14

2. Progression Rates, junior to secondary schools, Botswana, 2001 - 2004...... 19

3. Distribution of research group students by ethnicity ...... 36

4. Gender of research group students...... 37

5. Analysis by School...... 43

6. Analysis by Ethnic Background/Group ...... 45

7. Analysis by Age Group...... 45

8. Analysis by Gender...... 46

9. Summary of ANOVA results for Form 1, Form 2, and Form 3 students ...... 46

10. Post Hoc Tests...... 47

11. Descriptives of mean scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to ethnic group...... 49

12. Minimum and maximum scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to ethnic group...... 50

13. ANOVA of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to ethnic group...... 50

14. Post Hoc Tests (ANOVA) of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to ethnic group...... 51

15. Analysis by Age Group...... 53

16. Descriptives of mean scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to age group...... 56

viii 17. Minimum and maximum scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to age group...... 56

18. ANOVA of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to age group...... 57

19. Post Hoc Tests (ANOVA) of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to age group...... 58

20. Analysis by Gender...... 59

21. Descriptives of mean scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to gender...... 61

22. Minimum and maximum scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to gender...... 61

23. ANOVA of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to gender...... 61

24. Descriptives of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D in Form 1, Form 2, and Form 3 ...... 62

25. ANOVA of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D in Form 1, Form 2, and Form 3 ...... 62

26. Post Hoc Tests (ANOVA) of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D in Form 1, Form 2, and Form 3...... 63

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Research Problem-Literature Review Flow Chart...... 34

2. School, percentages...... 43

3. School, median scores...... 44

4. Ethnic Background/Group, percentages ...... 48

5. Ethnic Background/Group, median scores ...... 48

6. Age Group, percentages...... 54

7. Age Group, median scores...... 55

8. Gender, percentages...... 59

9. Gender, median scores...... 60

ABSTRACT

Kagisano or Social Harmony is a very important national philosophy for Botswana, mainly because the society of Botswana is characterized by ethnic diversity. Kagisano is viewed as essential for maintaining stability in such an ethnically diverse society. The junior secondary school social studies curriculum marginally covers this philosophy. The purpose of this study was to investigate junior secondary school students’ abilities to recognize Kagisano or Social Harmony.

A total of 893 students from four government junior secondary schools in Gaborone, the capital city of Botswana, were sampled for the study. The break down of the sample was: 291 Form 1(Year 1) students, 289 Form 2 (Year 1) students, and 313 Form 3 (Year 3) students.

A questionnaire (the same) was administered to all students in the sample. The research design was therefore, a survey. Responses of students to the questionnaire items were converted into scores.

The study found that 84% of Form 3 students (research group) were successful in recognizing Kagisano or Social Harmony. All moderating (intervening) variables (school, ethnic background, age and gender) produced both consistent and inconsistent results. However, consistent results were outweighed by inconsistent results. The variable school produced the most consistent results whereas age group produced the most inconsistent results. Still on age group, age groups 17 and 18 consistently ranked lowest in the age group variable category. Thus, there was a general decline in recognition of Kagisano with increasing age. The variable gender produced results that alternated in

xi patterns (or trends) when frequencies and/or percentages were used alternatively with the use of median scores.

ANOVA showed that the moderating (intervening) variable school was statistically significant (F [3, 304] = 10.381, p = .000, p < .05). A Post Hoc Test (or post analysis) showed that the combinations of schools 1 and 4, 2 and 4, and 3 and 4 were statistically significant (p =.010, p = .000, p = .019). The rest of the combinations of schools were not statistically significant. Therefore, the moderating (intervening) variable school makes a difference in the interpretation of the results of this study. (In other words, there is a relationship between the variable school and the results of this study).

ANOVA showed that the moderating (intervening) variable age group (or age) was statistically significant (F [4, 291] = 4.156, p = .003, p < .05). A Post Hoc Test showed that the combination of age groups 2 and 4, and 3 and 4 were statistically significant (p = .003, p = .008). The rest of the combinations of age groups were not statistically significant. Therefore, the moderating (intervening) variable age group (or age) makes a difference in the interpretation of the results of this study. (In other words, there is a relationship between the variable age group and the results of this study).

Bakalaka, a minority ethnic group, performed as well as, and even better than, some majority ethnic groups. This indicates that ethnicity does not make a difference in recognition of Kagisano.

ANOVA results for the ethnic background/group variable were not statistically significant (F [2, 242] = .571, p = .779, p > .05), including the results of a Post Hoc Test.

Numerically (i.e. by frequency or percentage), the males performed better than the females (89% versus 87.5%) but the females performed better than the males in quality terms as indicated by the median scores 57.5 and 52.5, respectively.

xii ANOVA results showed that the mean scores of the males and females were not statistically significant (F [2, 310] = 2.609, p = .075, p > .05). A Post Hoc Test showed the same results, i.e. no statistical significance for the mean scores of males and females.

ANOVA also showed that the mean scores of Form/Year 1, Form/Year 2, and Form/Year 3 students in the sample were statistically significant (F [2, 890)] = 27.612, p = .000, p < .05). Post Hoc Tests showed that groups 1 and 3, and groups 2 and 3 were more statistically significant (p = .000, p <.05) than groups 1 and 2 (p = .017, p < .05). This shows that the level of instruction had more impact between groups 1 and 3, and 2 and 3 than between groups 1 and 2. Groups 1, 2 and 3 refer to those students in years 1, 2 and 3 of junior secondary education in Botswana.

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study is to investigate junior secondary school students’ recognition of the five national principles that constitute Kagisano/Social Harmony, the national philosophy of Botswana. This study is necessary because it deals with a philosophy that is intended to contribute to maintaining stability and progress in a nation with an ethnically diverse population. The government of Botswana views Kagisano as a philosophy that is worth maintaining to the highest degree possible. As a result, the government requires the curriculum to transmit Kagisano to the new generations. This study is designed to reveal the status of students’ recognition of Kagisano and recommend some measures that can be taken to improve or maintain the situation.

There are several documentary sources that underscore the importance of Kagisano and therefore, offer support for this study to be conducted. For example, there is the Three- Year Junior Secondary Syllabus Social Studies (Republic of Botswana, 1996), the Social Studies Form 1 (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993) textbook for students, the National Development Plan 9 (2003/04-2008/9) (Republic of Botswana, 2003), and the Education for Kagisano:Report of the National Commission on Education (National Commission on Education, 1977).

The Three-Year Junior Secondary Syllabus Social Studies consists of ten modules: Module 1: Our Country’s Environment, Module 2: Kagisano in Botswana, Module 3: Pre-History and Early Civilizations, Module 4: Origins of the Nation, Module 5: Socialization; Local and International, Module 6: Social Order, Module7: International Relationships, Module 8: Botswana in Africa, Module 9: Botswana in the World, Module

1 10: Education, Employment and Population. Each of these modules consists of units and there are altogether twenty-two units in the entire syllabus. Module 2 is the only one in the syllabus that deals with the philosophy of Kagisano. This module has three units meaning that the coverage of Kagisano in the entire syllabus is 13.6%. This is a very small coverage for such an important philosophy.

The book Education for Kagisano: Report of the National Commission on Education explains the relationship between the curricular used in the schools and the values of the society of Botswana that are found in the philosophy of Kagisano. These values are found in each of the five national principles that constitute the philosophy of Kagisano. The report further states that the realization of Kagisano through the curriculum is very important for the nation of Botswana.

The Social Studies Form 1 book has only two pages coverage of the philosophy of Kagisano, which is only 1.3% of the entire book. This is a very limited coverage of the philosophy of Kagisano.

Therefore, there is a discrepancy between the theoretical or philosophical aspect of the philosophy of Kagisano and the classroom practice. The students learn very little of this philosophy yet it is so important.

The National Development Plan 9 (2003/04-2008/09) confirms the addition of Botho to the existing national principles: “In this Plan, in pursuant of Vision 2016, the concept of Botho, which is engrained in the Botswana culture, was adopted as an additional principle. This principle refers to a state of being human, courteous and highly disciplined” (pxxvii).

The philosophy of Kagisano is taught throughout the three years of the junior secondary education program. At the end of this program (that is, Form Three), students sit for a final exam. This exam determines progression of students from junior secondary schools to senior schools. The coverage of the exam on the philosophy of Kagisano is very

2 limited. As a result, it is very difficult to determine with certainty if students who complete the three years of junior secondary education can recognize the philosophy of Kagisano. The purpose of this study is to investigate the abilities of the Form Three students to recognize the philosophy of Kagisano.

The study will be accomplished by using a questionnaire to collect data that will be analyzed by statistical methods to be discussed later in the methodology section.

To fully understand the role of Kagisano in education, some background information is essential. The information that follows is a description of the background of Botswana, including the historical, economic, social, population, and political aspects.

Botswana: Background Information Botswana is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. It is surrounded by Namibia to the west, Zambia to the north, Zimbabwe to the northeast, and South Africa to the south and southeast. Botswana covers an area of 582, 000 square kilometers. It is approximately the same size as France and Kenya (Republic of Botswana, 2003; Silitshena and McLeod, 1998).

Botswana has a population of 1, 680,863. Gaborone and Francistown are the only cities in Botswana (Republic of Botswana, 2003). Gaborone has a population of 133, 500 and Francistown has a population of 65, 200 (May, 1998; Tlou and Campbell, 1997). Gaborone is the capital of Botswana (Silitshena and McLeod, 1998).

From a cultural and tourist point of view, the diversity of Botswana’s population is quite impressive, but from the point of view of governance, it is an immense challenge.

The population of Botswana consists of various ethnic groups. These groups belong to two categories: Batswana and non-Batswana. Batswana groups include: Bakgatla, Batlokwa, Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Bangwato, Batawana (Tlou and Campbell, 1997), Balete and Barolong (The Botswana Society, 1994). Non-Batswana groups include:

3 Babirwa, Batswapong, Bakalanga, Ovambanderu, Amandebele, and Balozi (Tlou and Campbell, 1997), Bangologa, Baherero, Bakgalagadi, Basarwa, Bahurutshe, Bambukushu, Basubiya, and Bayeyi (The Botswana Society, 1994).

In view of the challenge to governance cited in the preceding paragraph, it is understandable why leaders in the government of Botswana view Kagisano as a national philosophy of education promoting unity. This is why the philosophy of Kagisano (National Commission on Education, 1977; Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation, 1988) is worth sustaining. Without Kagisano, incidents like ethnic cleansing (genocide) that occurred in the small east central African country of Rwanda (West Africa, 2003) a few years ago might constitute a threat to the stability of Botswana. Ethnicity is associated with pluralism. The next section discusses the issue of pluralism in developing countries (Third World). The relevance of this section is that Botswana is a developing country and therefore shares some, if not all, of the characteristics of plural societies in the developing world.

Pluralism in Developing Countries (Third World) The term pluralism has different meanings. In political science, pluralism refers to the existence of pressure groups that dominate society together with political alliances, leading to dispersion of political power. This is because power is not concentrated in one dominant group or alliance. Power shifts between groups and political alliances. This definition or tradition is associated with developed countries (Clarke, Ley and Peach, 1984).

In developing countries, pluralism takes a different form. In these countries, pluralism is an inherited concept. It is usually associated with a situation in which a small alien minority group has all the power that it exercises on the majority of the groups. (A small alien minority group is a small elitist group that originated from an alien population). During the colonial period the majority were usually the indigenous people or colonized subjects. Such societies were characterized by a mixture of characteristics or factors such as culture, race, authority and class. These issues caused instability in plural societies of

4 the colonial societies. In developing countries, power is concentrated in the hands of the elites. The basis of this concentration of power could be culture, class, authority, and race (Clarke, Ley and Peach, 1984).

Pluralism can also be a diluted type where groups of people could be integrated into the mainstream society ideologically, socially, economically and politically while these groups still remain detached or unassimilated through essential life facets like language, diet, religion and social networks. In societies that are characterized by this type of pluralism, ethnicity (and to a certain extent, lifestyles) could remain an essential distinguishing factor for some groups of people since these are assumed largely at will (or voluntarily) and not through coercion (or force) of some groups by others (Clarke, Ley and Peach, 1984).

Types of cultural differentiation. The major categories of cultural differentiation are (Young, 1976): 1. Ethnicity. Attributes that define ethnicity include: territory, language, political unit, and common cultural symbols or values. 2. Race. Race as a cultural differentiator is based mainly on distinct physical differentiation, mainly facial characteristics and skin pigmentation. The race factor results in stereotyping of people of other races. It also perpetuates prejudice against other racial groups. 3. Religion. Ceremonial and ritual practices, if highly developed, are strong factors in maintaining the identities of various religious groups or communities. The Hindus and the Muslims are good examples of religious groups that are identified by highly developed ritual and ceremonial practices. 4. Caste. This cultural differentiator is mainly practiced in South Asia, but it also exists in some societies of West Africa, especially in the region that stretches from Nigeria to Senegal. The caste system is a form of social stratification or ranking. A good example of a caste system is found among the Wolof people in

5 Senegal. In this society, people are stratified into royal and higher castes, artisanal castes, praise singer (griot) caste, and the lowest slave caste. 5. Region (Regionalism). People of certain sub national loyalties tend to be attached to certain localities of a country due to special history, favorable ecological configuration or a greatly established entity with administrative functions.

Theories of Cultural Pluralism. There are many theories of cultural pluralism. Only two of these theories are discussed here.

Furnivall’s theory. J.S. Furnivall developed his theory of a plural society from the relations between different ethnic groups that he experienced in Southeast Asia during the colonial period. During that time, immigrant Asians, indigenous Asians and Europeans lived together under one government or administrative authority. Though culturally different, these three groups were united mainly by commerce, economic interests or business (Horowitz, 1985).

Smith’s theory. This theory is a modification of Furnivall’s theory. The emphasis is not on economic interests but on cultural differences. The groups that coexist live together as one society but they possess institutional systems that are not mutually compatible. Institutional systems include value patterns, belief patterns, systems of action and social structures. In short, there is great diversity between the groups that coexist in terms of these factors. The diversity is also greatly pronounced and formal in nature (Horowitz, 1985).

The Government of Botswana Botswana is a multi-party democracy, or multi-party state and elections are held every five years. Under the constitution of Botswana, citizens have certain rights that they are entitled to enjoy and they have the right to take the government to court if the

6 government has violated their rights (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993; Tlou and Campbell, 1997).

In accordance with the constitution, the central government consists of three branches, the Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary. The constitution has more power than all the branches of the central government (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993; Tlou and Campbell, 1997)

The Legislature makes laws or Acts. It is made up of the President and the National Assembly. The President and the National Assembly make up the Parliament of Botswana. The Legislature also approves the budget (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993; Tlou and Campbell, 1997).

There is also the House of Chiefs, which is a branch of Parliament. It does not make laws. Its function is to advice the government on matters that relate to customs and ethnic groups (merafe), that is, traditionally or culturally related issues (Ministry of Education, 1993; Tlou and Campbell, 1997).

The Executive puts the law into practice. The public service falls under the Executive and carries out government work under the direction of ministers and supervision by permanent secretaries. The permanent secretaries are the administrative heads of government ministries (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993; Tlou and Campbell, 1997).

The Judiciary upholds the law. It ensures that law-breakers are tried, punished, or freed. It also interprets and explains the law. The Judiciary carries out its functions independent of the Legislature and the Executive, that is, without influence from these two branches of the central government (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993; Tlou and Campbell, 1997).

7 There are two levels of government in Botswana, the central government and the local government. The local government level allows decisions to be made quickly and with the participation of the local people (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993; Tlou and Campbell, 1997).

The local government operates at the level of districts and under the supervision of the central government. It provides services and infrastructure such as primary education, water supply, maintenance of roads in the districts, and provides public health (for example, clinics). Matters that are beyond the capacity of the local government to deal with are referred to the central government for action (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993; Tlou and Campbell, 1997).

Democracy is not a new phenomenon in Botswana. Long ago before independence, the chiefs (or dikgosi) used to practice democracy in their village communities. Although the chiefs assumed power and authority (their positions) through hereditary means, they made laws for their people (or merafe) through consultation with them. In making laws, the chief would initially consult his advisors at special meetings to discuss the issues at hand. After that the issues were discussed at the kgotla (traditional court or meeting place) with all men in attendance. At these meetings, everybody was free to express his own opinion (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993). The Setswana saying that expresses freedom of expression goes this way: “Mmualebe o bua la gagwe” which literally translates to: “Everyone is free to express his/her views.” Decisions at kgotla meetings were, therefore, a consensus after all the opinions had been considered (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993).

The Economy of Botswana The main sources of revenue to Botswana are: mining, agriculture, tourism, and manufacturing. Their contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is as follows: mining 37%, agriculture 3%, tourism 15%, and manufacturing, less than 10%. The remaining contribution is from “Other.”

8 The main minerals in Botswana are: coal, diamonds, and copper-nickel. Diamonds far exceed all other minerals by export value. So, diamonds are the backbone of Botswana’s economy. In terms of production, Botswana is the second largest diamond producer in the world after Australia. The other main producers, in declining sequence, are: Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Russia, and South Africa (Silitshena and McLeod, 1998; May 1998).

Botswana diamonds are in two categories, gemstones (for jewelry) and industrial diamonds (Silitshena and McLeod, 1998; May 1998). Copper and nickel contribute almost nothing to the GDP because of low prices in the world market. The only advantage for their exploitation is that the activity employs a reasonable number of Batswana. For example, in 1995 copper-nickel mining employed a total of 4, 873 Batswana (Silitshena and McLeod, 1998; May 1998). Copper-nickel mining continues to operate because it is greatly subsidized by the Botswana government. The activity virtually makes no profit.

Botswana has large coal reserves. At present only a small amount of coal is mined and all of it is used within the country. The reason for low production is that coal prices are low in the world market. However, there are plans to export coal in the future (Silitshena and McLeod, 1998; May 1998).

Botswana has about 2 million cattle. As a result, the main product from agriculture is beef. The beef is exported mainly to the UK and then distributed to the EU member countries (Silitshena and McLeod, 1998; May 1998). Cattle numbers often fluctuate because of sporadic droughts. Crop farming is not well developed and therefore presently not much export-oriented.

Tourism is potentially a big industry in Botswana. To fully develop this industry would require the Botswana government to invest large sums of money in providing transport and communications (Silitshena and McLeod, 1998; May 1998).

9 The major tourist attractions in Botswana are wild animals and birds, and fishing. These attractions are located in the Moremi Game Reserve and the Chobe National Park. The two are the most popular tourist areas in Botswana. Other attractions include large pans that attract huge numbers of birds (for example, flamingos) during the rainy season, the Basarwa (Bushmen) rock paintings in the Tsodilo Hills, and the Gcwihaba Caves (Silitshena and McLeod, 1998; May 1998).

The manufacturing industry in Botswana is still in the stage of infancy. As a result, most of the manufactured goods are imported from South Africa (Silitshena and McLeod, 1998; May 1998).

The Philosophy of Kagisano When Botswana became independent on 30 September 1966, the new nation adopted Kagisano, which basically means social harmony as its philosophy for survival. Kagisano is a Setswana word that originates from the word Kagiso, which means peace. Batswana have always been peace-loving people long before Botswana became independent. This is evident from a common saying in Setswana: “Ntwa kgolo ke ya molomo” which means “The greatest fight is diplomatic or through negotiation.” The other evidence is that of the three Batswana chiefs who went to England in 1895 to protest against the intention of the British government to transfer their territories to the control of a company that was known as the British South Africa Company (BSACo) (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993; Tlou and Campbell, 1997).

The BSACo was formed by Cecil Rhodes, a promoter of British imperialism in the Southern African region during the period of British imperialism. The three Batswana chiefs were Khama of Bangwato, Bathoen of Bangwaketse and Sebele of Bakwena. The chiefs won their protest because of the support that they sought from the British public. The support pressurized the British government to stop the intended transfer of Batswana territories to control or governance by the BSACo (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993; Tlou and Campbell, 1997). The fact that Batswana chiefs sought a diplomatic solution to the problem they were faced with is an indication that they were peace-loving

10 people and they are still peace loving. At independence time Kagisano meant a combination of four national principles: democracy, unity, development, and self- reliance. Today Kagisano means five national principles, the original four and a new one called Botho.

The philosophy of Kagisano was introduced into the education system of Botswana (the curricular) as a recommendation(s) of the National Commission on Education (NCE) of 1977 in a report entitled Education for Kagisano: The Report of the National Commission on Education. This was a re-enforcement to the spirit of nationalism that prevailed soon at independence with the view that in order for the new nation to achieve international fame and recognition, it must adopt a philosophy that would achieve and maintain stability among its diverse linguistic, multiethnic or multicultural groups. Since then the philosophy of Kagisano has continued to be a key facet of the education system and will remain so in the future. The philosophy of Kagisano is reflected in many spheres of life in Botswana, including the National Anthem. For example, in the last verse of this song we find the words: “Ina lentle la tumo, La tshaba ya Botswana, Ka kutlwano le kagisano E bopagantswe mmogo” (Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation, 1994, p34). The English version of this verse runs: “Word of beauty and of fame, The name Botswana to us came, Through our unity and harmony, We’ll remain at peace as one” (Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation, 1988, p34).

Kagisano is the lifeblood of the nation of Botswana. One of the biggest projects that demonstrate the importance of Kagisano to Botswana is the University of Botswana. Some of the buildings at this university were built as a result of voluntary contributions of Batswana in response to a campaign by Sir Seretse Khama, the first president of Botswana in the 1970s. The campaign was a call to the nation to fulfill its commitment to the principle of self-reliance. About P1million* (about US $170, 000) was raised for the project. (*See Definition of Terms). The campaign was called the Botswana University Campus Appeal (BUCA). A similar campaign is going on today called the University of Botswana Foundation or UB Foundation, but unlike the short-term BUCA, the UB

11 Foundation is a long-term association that is functionally and structurally part of the University of Botswana (UB).

Analysis of Documents relevant to Kagisano The Junior Secondary School Social Studies Curriculum (or Syllabus) These curriculum consists of ten modules that are subdivided into units: Module 1: Our Country’s Environment, Unit 1.1 (Maps and the Environment), Unit 1.2 (The Environment and Humanity); Module 2: Kagisano in Botswana, Unit 2.1 (Social Groupings), Unit 2.2 (Project One: A Public Issue), Unit 2.3 (Wider Communities); Module 3: Pre-History and Early Civilizations, Unit 3.1 (Project Two: Oral Traditions), Unit 3.2 (Evolution), Unit 3.3 (Early Civilizations); Module 4: Origins of the Nation, Unit 4.1 (Settlement in Southern Africa Around the 1800s); Unit 4.2 (Project Three: Who am I?), Unit 4.3 (Batswana on the Verge of Colonization); Module 5: Socialization, Local and International, Unit 5.1 ( Citizenship), Unit 5.2 (Project Four: Map Work); Module 6: Social Order, Unit 6.1 (Governance); Module 7: International Relationships, Unit 7.1 (Project Five: Transportation), Unit 7.2 (Botswana Foreign Relations); Module 8: Botswana in Africa, Unit 8.1 (Environment and Development); Module 9: Botswana in the world, Unit 9.1 (The Environment and Development), Unit 9.2 (Project Six: Using and Collecting Data), Unit 9.3 (Major Foreign Exchange Earners); Module 10: Education, Employment and Population, Unit 10.1 (Human Resources), Unit 10.1 (Population Dynamics) (Republic of Botswana, 1996).

These modules are taught throughout the three years of Junior Certificate (JC). At the end of the third year of the JC program, students sit for a final exam. This exam is general, which means that it does not focus only on Kagisano. The purpose of this exam is to determine progression of students from junior secondary schools to senior secondary schools.

Students’ Textbooks Students use textbooks to learn Social Studies in Botswana junior secondary schools. There are different series of textbooks. The Ministry of Education usually prescribes

12 textbooks to schools. As a result the prescribed textbooks may vary from one period to the next.

An analysis of these textbooks shows that the coverage of the philosophy of Kagisano is very limited. For example, in the textbook Social Studies Form 1 (1993), the philosophy of Kagisano is covered on two pages only (pages 140 to 141).

The coverage of the Philosophy of Kagisano in other Government Texts The philosophy of Kagisano is also covered in other important government texts, for example, National Development Plan 9 (2003/04-2008) (Republic of Botswana, 2003). In this book, the focus is on the national principle Botho, a guiding idea to the planning of development in Botswana. This shows that Botho is a very important national principle in Botswana.

The philosophy of Kagisano is also found in the government text, Education for Kagisano: Report of the National Commission on Education (Government Printer, 1977). This book is a report that was written by a commission appointed by the Botswana Government in 1977 to prepare a report on the status of education in Botswana and how it can be improved. Some of the recommendations of the commission were accepted by government to be implemented. This report suggested to government on how the philosophy of Kagisano can be incorporated into the education system of Botswana.

Statement of the Problem and the Research Question The Social Studies curriculum is assessed at the end of Form Three by a general exam, which means that it does not focus only on Kagisano. This exam serves a different purpose from that of the study. The purpose of this examination is to determine progression of students from junior secondary schools to senior secondary schools.

Since the national exam focuses mainly on determining progression of students from junior secondary schools to senior secondary schools, it is not known if students who

13 complete junior secondary schools can recognize the philosophy of Kagisano. As a result, this research was conducted to find out if these students can recognize Kagisano.

Because the national curriculum does include the five national principles associated with Kagisano but does not focus on students’ understanding of Kagisano, this research seeks to investigate the abilities of students to recognize the philosophy of Kagisano.

The junior secondary school social studies curriculum covers ten modules, of which only a very small portion is devoted to instruction on Kagisano as shown on Table 1.

Table 1: Junior secondary school social studies curriculum modules

Year/Level Module Form/Year 1 1. Our Country’s Environment 2. Kagisano in Botswana 3. Pre-History and Early Civilizations 4. Origins of the Nation Form/Year 2 4. Origins of the Nation (continued) 5. Socialization; Local and International 6. Social Order 7. International Relationships 8. Botswana in Africa Form/Year 3 9. Botswana in the World 10. Education, Employment and Population Source: Republic of Botswana. (1996). Three-Year Junior Secondary Syllabus Social Studies. Gaborone: Ministry of Education.

This study seeks to investigate students’ abilities to recognize the basic elements of the philosophy of Kagisano in the society of Botswana. Students are provided with statements based upon the elements in which they are asked to demonstrate recognition of each of the five national principles that make up Kagisano. The research question is:

14 Given these statements, can the students in the sample recognize the five national principles that constitute Kagisano?

The statements that students are asked to identify to show (or demonstrate) that they can recognize Kagisano deal with both concrete and abstract concepts. Learning concepts can present some challenges to students, especially if they are young and the concepts are mainly abstract. The section that follows provides information that shows that the students on which the study is based are capable of learning abstract concepts. The students who constitute a sample of this study are all above 13 years of age. In fact, their ages range from 14 to 16.

Learning of Abstract Concepts Research has shown that humans learn abstract concepts in accordance with their level of cognitive development. While the level of cognitive development may differ from one individual to another, some psychologists have developed general theories that help explain the general stages that individuals (and especially children) go through vis-à-vis the learning of concepts. One of the leading psychologists in this area of psychology is Jean Piaget (1896-1980) (Crain, 1985).

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development consists of four general stages (Crain, 1985, p90): Period I: Sensori-Motor Intelligence (birth to two years). Babies organize their physical action schemes, such as sucking, grasping, and hitting, for dealing with the immediate world. Period II: Preoperational Thought (two to seven years). Children learn to think-to use symbols and internal images-but their thinking is unsystematic and illogical. It is very different from that of adults. Period III: Concrete Operations (seven to11years). Children develop the capacity to think systematically, but only when they can refer to concrete objects and activities. Period IV: Formal Operations (11 to adulthood). Young people develop the capacity to think systematically on a purely abstract and hypothetical plane.

15 Piaget’s stage sequence theory has been replicated by some psychologists (for example, Corman and Escalona, 1969; and Neimark, 1975) (Crain, 1985). The findings from many of these studies have generally confirmed Piaget’s stage sequence theory (Crain, 1985). However, some researchers have criticized Piaget’s theory basing on their own findings. These include: Flavell (1977), Sigel (1968), and Gelman and Baillargeon (1983) (Crain, 1985).

Despite these and other criticisms, Piaget’s theory remains formidable: “And whatever modifications we might suggest, it is a good guess that his basic framework will stand. For…Piaget…built a stage theory which captures the fundamental shifts in cognitive development ”(Crain, 1985, p117).

Piaget’s theory is compatible with some models of teaching concepts that are used in today’s classrooms. One of these models is the Concept Attainment Model (Eggen and Kauchak, 1988). This model is suitable for use in teaching concepts to students of different ages. In addition to helping students learn concepts, the Concept Attainment Model also promotes students’ analytical thinking skills (Eggen and Kauchak, 1988). This model is suitable for teaching all concepts, both simple (for example, dog and square) and sophisticated concepts (for example, oxymoron and socialism) (Eggen and Kauchak, 1988). So, it is also suitable for concepts like democracy, unity, development, self-reliance, Botho, and Kagisano/Social Harmony. The Concept Attainment Model makes use of positive and negative examples to illustrate the concepts being taught or learnt. Students are encouraged to build concepts on the basis of the examples being offered. The statements of guess that students give as possibilities of the concepts being developed are called hypotheses. These hypotheses are continually eliminated until the correct one remains. The elimination process relies on the examples being added or “data supplied.”

The main phases of the Concept Attainment Model can be summarized as follows (Eggen and Kauchack, 1988): Phase 1: Presentation of Examples. The teacher displays examples and non-examples.

16 Phase 2: Analysis of Hypotheses. Students hypothesize the name for the concept, and then eliminate rejected hypotheses. Phase 3: Closure. The students define the accepted hypothesis. Phase 4: Application. Students apply the concept by either classifying examples from the teacher or giving their own.

Definition of Terms The following terms are defined according to how they are used in this study: Kagisano: It means social harmony, which is achieved by a combination of the five national principles, that is, democracy, unity, development, self-reliance, and Botho. In essence, Kagisano implies cooperation, tranquility, consensus and understanding between the various ethnic groups that constitute the nation of Botswana, and between people who hold different views. Furthermore, it implies holding and practicing all other values that help consolidate this harmony, for example, social justice, spirit of community and mutual responsibility, and regard for fairness and equity (Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation, 1988). Democracy: It is a system whereby citizens of a country choose their government through fair and free elections (Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993). Unity: It is when people of different cultures or ethnicity, or people who hold different views, live together as one nation (Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation, 1988; Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993). Development: It is a process through which a country improves the standard of living of its people. Building schools, clinics, and factories are some of the facilities or infrastructure that improve the living standard of people (Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation, 1988; Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993). Self-reliance: It is a situation in which a person takes initiatives to provide the goods and services that he/she needs. A self-reliant person does not depend on other people or government to meet his/her needs, but depends on his/her own effort to provide those needs (Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation, 1988; Ministry of Education, Botswana, 1993).

17 Botho: It means respect for each other, especially the children and the youth respecting the adults (The Presidential Task Force Group, 1997). (*There is at present no official English equivalent term for Botho but it may be interpreted to mean respect, especially the children and the youth respecting the adults). Ethnic group: This is a group of people who strongly believe that they are different from other groups in a nation with regard to culture and/or ethics (Oucho, 2002). Pula (P): The Botswana currency. Six Pula is equivalent to US$1.00. The units of the Pula that are smaller than P1.00 are called Thebe (t). One Pula and Fifty Thebe is written as P1.50, Two Pula and Seventy-Five Thebe as P2.75, etc. “Pula!” is also a national slogan for Botswana. “Pula” is a Setswana word for “Rain.” Junior secondary school: Equivalent to middle school (USA); a school offering three years of education after primary/elementary education. Graduates obtain a Junior Certificate or JC (Diploma in the USA). Community Junior Secondary Schools (CJSSs): These are junior secondary schools owned and run jointly by the Botswana Government and the communities in which they are located. Form Three students: These are students who are completing the third and final year of the three-year Junior Certificate (JC) program at junior secondary schools. Board of Governors (BOGs): This is a committee or council formed by a community to jointly run a community junior secondary school with the government. BOGs help raise funds to provide other facilities that the schools require, for example, additional staff houses. Students pay development fees to meet some of these needs, facilities or physical infrastructure. (Although senior secondary schools do not have BOGs, students in those schools also pay development fees). Traditional Leaders: These are people of authority (and to some extent power) in the communities. Culturally, they acquire their positions by inheritance but some of them now get those positions because of their influence and experience in the village/community matters. The term traditional leaders may be used interchangeably with tribal authority, headman , chief or paramount chief. Kgotla: A traditional court or meeting place in a Setswana village. (Setswana is the main language spoken in Botswana and it has various dialects).

18 Kgosi (Plural: Dikgosi): A village chief; a paramount chief if he rules over a larger area. Kgosana: A ward leader, a junior to chief or paramount chief. Merafe (Singular: Morafe): Ethnic groups. It may be used interchangeably with tribes and other closely related terms.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate students’ recognition of Kagisano in the ongoing society of Botswana. This will be determined by students’ responses to questionnaire items that assess how Kagisano is being applied in the nation of Botswana.

The study is focused on Form Three students because even if the progression rate to senior schools has most probably increased in recent years (According to the Report of the National Commission on Education, Republic of Botswana, 1993, the rate was 27% in 1993), the majority of students at senior secondary school level will not enroll in a Social Studies course but it will be offered as an optional subject. The current progression (or promotion) rate is approximately 53.06% (Ministry of Education Staff, Botswana, 2004). The progression (or promotion) rates from year 2001 to year 2004 were as shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Progression Rates, junior to senior secondary schools, Botswana, 2001 - 2004 Year Progression Rate (%) 2001 49.1 2002 50.8 2003 51.16 2004 53.06 Source: Ministry of Education Staff, Botswana, 2004

The trend is that the progression rates have been increasing steadily over the years since year 2001. The importance of these progression rates is that they determine whether or not the results of this study will be socially and politically acceptable.

Significance of the Study The Junior Secondary School Social Studies curriculum in Botswana has been designed with transmission of the philosophy of Kagisano as one of its main purposes. It is therefore, very important for the nation of Botswana and interested researchers to know the extent to which this curriculum transmits the philosophy of Kagisano so that, if necessary, some modifications can be made early enough to ensure that this goal is achieved. The majority of students will enroll in Social Studies courses at junior secondary school level only. If they do not satisfactorily recognize the application of Kagisano at this level, then the stability of the future society of Botswana may be adversely affected.

A brief outline of Botswana’s education system and structure indicates that there are (excluding pre-school education) 7 years of primary education (equivalent to elementary school), 3 years of junior secondary education (equivalent to middle school), and 2 years of senior secondary education (equivalent to high school). Social Studies is offered at primary and junior secondary school levels as a core (compulsory) subject. Currently, Social Studies is being pilot tested in senior secondary schools. It will eventually be introduced in senior secondary schools as an optional subject. Most secondary school students take Social Studies at the junior secondary level

This trend is likely to continue in the future unless there is a change in the status of Social Studies at senior secondary level from being an optional subject to a core subject. The findings of this study may influence a change in the status of Social Studies at senior secondary school level. If the findings indicate a lack of recognition of Kagisano on the part of junior secondary school students, then it might be recommended that Social Studies be accorded the status of core in the senior secondary education curriculum. This is potentially a very important issue because if the majority of students, or a reasonable number, lack the abilities to recognize the philosophy of Kagisano, then this will be a signal that the future society of Botswana is more likely to be unstable. Other subjects that have a core status like Social Studies at the junior secondary education level are:

20 English, Mathematics/Math, Design and Technology, Integrated Science, and Setswana (Republic of Botswana, 1993). The section that follows describes the nature of the junior secondary school Social Studies curriculum in Botswana.

The Social Studies curriculum for junior secondary education is an integration of concepts from the social sciences and the humanities, for example, political science, sociology, economics, anthropology, history, geography, literature, art, and music (Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation, 1990). The curriculum consists of ten modules that have to be completed in three years. These modules are: 1) Our Country’s Environment, 2) Kagisano in Botswana, 3) Pre-History and Early Civilizations, 4) Origins of the Nation, 5) Socialization; Local and International, 6) Social Order, 7) International Relationships, 8) Botswana in Africa, 9) Botswana in the World, 10) Education, Employment and Population (Republic of Botswana, 1996; Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation, 1988). This study is an initial approach or effort to investigate a very complex issue and of paramount importance to the stability of Botswana society. Smith’s theory of cultural pluralism (Horowitz, 1985) is of relevance to the study of the recognition of the philosophy of Kagisano by junior secondary school students in Botswana. This is because this theory emphasizes the coexistence of groups of people as one society in spite of their cultural differences. The role of Kagisano in Botswana is to promote stability in Botswana’s culturally diverse society.

At the end of junior secondary education, students sit for final examinations after which those who pass proceed to senior secondary schools. The section that follows provides a description of the place of national examinations in the Botswana education system.

National Examinations National examinations are held for students completing the final years of junior and senior secondary education. The Examinations, Research and Testing Division prepares and coordinates the exams for these levels of education. The division administers all assessment procedures for the Junior Certificate (JC), but cooperates with the University

21 of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES) in the production and administration of the newly introduced senior secondary certificate program called the Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education (BGCSE). BGCSE replaced the Cambridge Overseas School Certificate (COSC), which was viewed as too academic because it catered mainly for the elite category of students and disregarded the needs of the rest of the students (Republic of Botswana, 1993; Republic of Botswana, 2003).

In Botswana, exams at primary and secondary levels of education are centralized, hence they are referred to as national exams. The curriculum is also centralized. Private schools also offer this centralized curriculum and their students take the centralized exams. However, these schools are free to modify this pattern: “The curriculum followed by English Medium Schools is basically that of the Ministry of Education” (Republic of Botswana, 1993, Paragraph 4.9.9, p130). The report further states that in a study conducted for that Commission (Republic of Botswana, 1993), it was found that all the schools surveyed had modified their curriculum by introducing additional subjects and extra-curricular activities in order to promote the development of the child both intellectually and socially. The new subjects included Music, French, Physical Education, Computing and Library Use. These schools also had remedial teaching programs for slow learners (Republic of Botswana, 1993).

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A careful review of literature reveals only a limited number of studies bearing directly on Kagisano. In as much as Kagisano is viewed as a form of civic education, it appears appropriate to examine some studies dealing with civic education in the USA and other countries.

Dynnesson (1992) surveyed a sample of high school senior students to identify those instructional activities that students favored and concluded that there was a need to establish programs that encourage students to participate in community projects. These projects should be those that aim to improve the lives of community members.

Engle (1960; 2003) has emphasized that decision making is the heart of social studies instruction, and that for students to master the decision making process (or skills), teachers should engage them in activities that promote sound, grounded or seasoned decision making. These activities should range from simple questions based on interpretation of simple descriptive data to complex problems that confront society whose solutions require asking questions that are directed to public policy or behavior of individuals. The complexity of these problems lies in that their solutions require not only facts, but also the consideration of values held by individuals. This brings in the concept of values education, reflected upon by Chance (1993). In a related note, Allen (2000) emphasized the importance of talk or dialogue in the group decision-making process.

Morse (1993) stated that students could learn a lot of civic skills if they participated in community activities through apprentice, service or internship instead of learning theory

23 only (for example, reading books), which “…may do no more than inform, inflame, or indulge” (p166). Morse emphasized the practical importance of serving the community: “Direct experience is a great teacher. Learning citizenship, like anything else, needs some hands on work. It is not a spectator sport “(p167).

Mabe (1993) encouraged schools to provide students with opportunities to practice moral and civic education. Mabe referred to the skills that students are expected to learn in moral and civic education as “civic virtues.”

Engelhardt and Steinbrink (2001) gave two categories of civic obligations. The first category consists of those obligations for which participation is mandatory for citizens. These include: reporting for jury duty, buying car insurance, registering a car, paying taxes and registering for the selective service. The second category consists of those civic obligations for which participation by citizens is voluntary. These include: driving courteously, attending public meetings, helping and contributing to charities, and voting.

In 1999 an international study called the Civic Education Survey (CivEd) was conducted to measure students’ knowledge and understanding of the principles considered very important across the world’s democratic governments. It was a survey of 14-year old school children (ninth-graders in the USA) in 28 countries: Australia, Belgium (French), Bulgaria, Chile, Colombia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, England, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong (SAR), Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, and United States. The data collection instrument was a questionnaire that had two sections: assessment and survey. The assessment section had two categories of items, referred to as Type 1 and Type 2. Type 1 had civic content items that assessed students’ knowledge of key principles in civics and pivotal ideas (for example, essential characteristics of democratic governments). Type 2 had civic skills items; these assessed students’ skills in using knowledge related to civics (for example, understanding a political cartoon or a brief political article). The survey section had three categories of items, referred to as Type 3 (assessed students’ understanding of concepts

24 democracy, citizenship, and government, Type 4 (assessed students’ attitudes toward civic issues), and Type 5 (assessed students’ expected political participation). There were also some additional survey questions that measured other variables, for example, assessment of students’ perceptions of the classroom climate (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2001; Center for Civic Education, 1995; Center for Civic Education; 1998).

On the Type 3 category, which assessed students on concepts citizenship, democracy and government, which are of relevance to this study, US ninth-graders scored high in the opinion scale about democracy, voting and showing respect for government leaders. Approximately 90 percent of the students reported that the right to express one’s opinion freely was a good element of democracy; about 80 percent reported that the two most important elements of being good citizens were voting in every election and showing respect for government leaders (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2001; Center for Civic Education, 1995; Center for Civic Education, 1998). This suggested that US citizens were more likely to continue with the democratic form of government for a long period of time in the future because of the advantages that it offered to them. In this study, the focus was on the investigation of students’ recognition of Kagisano, Botswana’s national philosophy, for which democracy is only a part, and the likelihood of the continuity of this philosophy by future generations.

Rossi (2003) has proposed a model lesson plan that high school teachers can adopt when teaching about conflict and peacemaking at the international level. The lesson consists of six parts: “…an essential question, a motivator, background knowledge on a case study of an international conflict, preparation for a role play of an encounter session in a local community, the encounter session, and a debriefing of what was learned”(p152). A good case study should be an international conflict that originated from problems or issues related to concepts such as culture, ethnicity, identity, religion, and nationalism (Rossi, 2003).

25 An essential question is one that cuts across national boundaries and of long time occurrence, for example, the problem(s) that led to genocide in Rwanda and the continuing Israel-Palestinian dispute. A motivator is a question that arouses students’ interest and also connects the case study with their previous knowledge and experiences. The latter (previous knowledge and experiences) would normally be incidents like students intervening in fights between their friends. Debriefing involves two basic components: the affective component and the cognitive component. The affective component deals with students expressing how they felt during the role-play. It enables students to describe how they empathized during the enactment. The cognitive component deals with the content that students learned from the topic (Rossi, 2003). However, the essential point is that models of conflict resolution such as the one described here give students the opportunity to practice on situations that are similar to those that exist in real life. The role-play, in particular, is vital to the realization of that goal: “It enables students spontaneously to explore the interactions of people in situations that approximate reality” (Rossi, 2003, p153). As a result of this practice, students get prepared to participate fully in community and national affairs in future when they are adults (Rossi, 2003).

Shiman and Fernekes (1999) indicated that genocide, the Holocaust and human rights were inseparable phenomena. They suggested that any classroom instruction that taught these issues should treat human rights as the center of the dialogue or discussion. The authors stated that the rights of the minorities and individuals could only be protected by democratic systems of government. They further stated that if young people were to respect human rights, they needed to be empowered through instruction in the classroom. The authors further pointed out that whenever human rights education programs were designed, caring and responsibility should be made core themes in those programs.

Hares (1985) conducted a study on the role of social studies as a tool for promoting nationalism or integration in Lebanon. The study found that the social studies curriculum ignored most of the issues that were necessary for development of nationalism in Lebanon. The example that was given was that the social studies curriculum consisted of

26 little or no content on citizenship education. Furthermore, controversy was excluded in the social studies classroom. The author stated that issues that students should be encouraged to learn under the guidance of their teachers in the social studies classroom were viewed as inappropriate for that situation. In addition, the author stated that the expunge of issue-centered discourse in the social studies classroom was an adverse attitude because it encouraged schools to promote bad values like prejudice and hatred as opposed to good values like cooperation and mutual respect. In conclusion, the author stated that there was still hope for Lebanon to survive as a nation even though the country had been subjected to upheavals in the recent past, and that if the social studies curriculum could be revised to include some aspects (content or courses) of citizenship education, then the students who would graduate from the schools offering such programs would become responsible citizens.

The study used survey and content (or document) analysis methods of research. Content analysis was used to analyze historical documents while survey was used to collect data for other areas (or sections) of the study (Hares, 1985).

Dean (2000) carried out a study to investigate the possibilities for using social studies to prepare students for citizenship in a democracy in Pakistan. The study revealed that Pakistan had had a long history of an interchange between elitist democracy and dictatorship and that social studies has been used to maintain the status quo and to serve the interests of the ruling elites. The study presented an argument that the citizenship education that was currently being transmitted by both religious and secular schools in Pakistan followed a model that served elitist democracy and dictatorship. The study revealed that education officials were aware of the importance of education in preparing citizens for democracy in Pakistan. The education officials expressed support to the need to restructure the education system of Pakistan and re-orient social studies to prepare students to function well in a democratic Pakistan. The study revealed teaching strategies that promoted democratic citizenship. The study revealed the possibilities for professional development and restructuring of schools that could emanate from collaboration among teachers and with universities in Pakistan. The study concluded by

27 making suggestions on possibilities relating to issues such as education policy, curriculum development, school change and teacher education that could influence students to begin working towards creating a democratic society in Pakistan. The conclusion further suggested that students should meanwhile be provided with an environment within which they could act as if they were already living in a democratic society in Pakistan.

The study used interviews and action research methodologies. Interviews were used through conversations with education officials while action research was used to collect data from three teachers. The action research enabled the researcher to conduct a critical inquiry on the three teachers who were the subjects of the action research (Dean, 2000).

Mo (2000) conducted a study on the influence of citizenship education on Korean- American high school students. The study compared the characteristics of democratic citizenship of Korean-American students with those of other racial and ethnic groups, especially the whites as they are the dominant group in the United States. The findings indicated that Korean-American students were not well prepared on two aspects of citizenship: political engagement and democratic enlightenment. The citizenship of Korean-Americans was found to be characterized by: lower level of political awareness, less exposure to politics in the home, fewer political interests, less participation in politics and less likelihood that they would participate much in politics in the future. In addition, Korean-American students were found to hold an ideology that was more conservative than that for white students. Korean-American students were found to view good citizenship as referring to passivity and acceptance of anything that the political system offered. On the contrary, white students viewed good citizenship to mean having participatory orientation toward the political system. Korean-American students exhibited a democratic attitude (or civic tolerance) that was less well defined, a sense of political powerlessness, and alienation from key political activities. On the contrary, white students exhibited a higher level of confidence in political activities. Korean-American students had a high degree of trust in the government and its structures. Social studies education was found to be less effective in promoting participatory orientations in the

28 Korean-American students but more effective in promoting trust, passivity and acquiescence in those students. It was found that the subject matter (or content) was taught as facts that students had to memorize and regurgitate (rote learning) in time of feedback to the teachers. As a result, learning was a process that promoted passivity and encouraged students to support the status quo. The overall result was identified to be that Korean-American students who were in those social studies programs would become citizen spectators instead of active participants during their period of adulthood. The major factors that determined civic learning were identified to be race and ethnicity. The study challenged the education system as it marginalized the minority groups instead of integrating them into the mainstream society of the United States. The author concluded by stating that the school still had a very important role to play in ensuring that the Korean-American youth and adolescents from other minority groups were prepared for integration into the political system of the United States instead of being marginalized as did the then US current citizenship education.

The study used both quantitative (survey) and qualitative (ethnography) research methods. The subjects (or sample of the study) were high school Korean-American students in the San Francisco Bay Area (Mo, 2000).

Obenchain (1997) conducted a study to investigate whether or not there were specific qualities and characteristics in two selected upper elementary and democratic classrooms that would motivate their students to become more participatory citizens of their nation. These two classrooms were ethnically and geographically diverse and it had been determined that they contained elements of democracy. One classroom was in Southern California and the other was in the Midwest. The study used the theoretical frameworks of constructivism and interpretivism for guidance. Ethnography was used to collect data on the classroom environment. Data was analyzed using within-case and cross-case approaches. Two major assertions were generated from the study. First, in classrooms where democratic elements existed, students were beginning to accept and act responsibly in matters that affected the community immediately around them. Democratic elements in those classrooms included: shared responsibility, providing

29 student choice, shared decision making, and providing opportunities for students to participate in civic activities. Second, in schools where the principals gave participation in civic activities high priorities, classrooms that strove to promote democratic elements and encouraged civic participation succeeded in their efforts, that is, they achieved their goals. The study had several implications: first, teachers who wished to promote democratic citizenship were urged to give their students opportunities to participate in real life situations within the classrooms. Those teachers were also urged to be aware that the success of their efforts to nurture democratic citizenship in their classrooms depended on the priority that the principals of their schools accorded to that type of civic education. Second, social studies teacher educators were encouraged to examine their methods of presenting social studies to their students so that if they wished to expose their pre- service teachers to democratic citizenship, then they could assist them in locating the available literature on democratic citizenship. The educators were urged to model democratic classrooms when they presented lessons to pre-service teachers.

Needham (1983) conducted a study to investigate the consensus and differences that could be identified in the minimum citizenship competencies that local school districts in Virginia required high school graduates to attain beginning in 1981. The study also investigated how those competencies related to three social studies traditions: citizenship transmission, social sciences and reflective inquiry.

In that study, Needham studied 73 out of a total of 140 local school divisions, or 52% of all local school divisions in the state of Virginia. Content analysis procedures were used to analyze the data. The content was arranged into categories and frequencies were used to determine incidences within each category. The results were reported by using frequencies and percentages. The following conclusions were drawn: (1) Competencies reflected consistency with the citizenship transmission tradition. (2) Citizenship competence was viewed from a relatively narrow perspective; it mainly included issues like: student mastery of content and skills through studying concepts like national heritage, the structure of the federal government, the national political system and the US economic system. Those issues were viewed as central to development of responsible

30 citizens. Issues such as local, state, and world community, both in content and skills associated with them, were viewed as occupying a secondary position in terms of their contribution to responsible citizenship. (3) The competencies adopted by local school districts were mainly close in nature to the samples distributed by the Virginia Department of Education despite the fact that the school districts had been advised to go beyond the limits of the samples in developing their own school competencies. (4) Finally, the limited scope of the sample competencies developed by the Virginia Department of Education and those developed and adopted by local school districts was probably due to political considerations and pressures.

Harwood (1991) conducted a study on the influence of classroom climate on political attitudes of high school students and their views and perceptions of politics. Hypotheses tested included: (1) students in more open classes were likely to develop more positive political attitudes to politics as well as participatory behaviors than those in closed classrooms; and (2) that there was a relationship between classroom climate and political attitudes. The findings indicated that open classes were those characterized by activities such as more discussions and interaction between students. In addition, the findings identified features that characterized closed classes as those that included individualized seatwork and daily worksheets. Furthermore, the findings suggested that although there was a relationship between classroom climate and students political attitudes, classroom climate was probably not the strongest factor that influenced political interests and involvement of students in politics. Interviews with students suggested that the media, students’ parents, and the political experiences of students themselves had stronger influences on students’ political attitudes. Lastly, the results indicated that the teaching styles of teachers were greatly influenced by their training and their philosophies toward teaching.

The study used both quantitative (survey) and qualitative (interviews and observations) methods of research (Harwood, 1991).

31 Relationship between reviewed literature and the research problem The relationship between these two entities is conceptual, that is, through concepts. Certain concepts in the literature review fall under any of the four national principles that constitute the philosophy of Kagisano. The following is a distribution of selected key concepts from the reviewed literature that illustrate the relationship that exists between the reviewed literature and the philosophy of Kagisano, culminating with the research problem which is: to investigate students’ abilities to recognize the basic elements of the philosophy of Kagisano in the society of Botswana. When this research problem is stated in a question form it reads: given the statements based upon the basic elements of the philosophy of Kagisano, can the students in the sample recognize the five national principles that constitute Kagisano?

Democracy Engle (1960): decision-making process/skills, public policy or behavior of individual persons, values held by individuals. Chance (1993): values education. Allen (2000): talk or dialogue, decision making process. Morse (1993): civic skills/citizenship. Mabe (1993): moral and civic education, “civic”. Engelhart and Steinbrink (2001): civic obligations. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2001): world’s democratic governments, essential characteristics of democratic governments, civic skills/citizenship, political participation. Rossi (2003): conflict, peace making, nationalism. Shiman and Fernekes (1999): human rights, rights of minorities and individuals, democratic systems of government, human rights education programs. Hares (1985): nationalism or integration in Lebanon, citizenship education, issue-centered discourse in the social studies classroom, values of cooperation and mutual respect. Dean (2000): citizenship in a democracy (democratic citizenship) in Pakistan, elitist democracy and dictatorship. Mo (2000): citizenship education of Korean-American high school students, political engagement and democratic enlightenment as aspects of citizenship, conservative ideology, democratic attitude or civic tolerance, minority groups, integration into the mainstream society. Obenchani (1997): democratic classrooms. Needham (1983): citizenship competencies. Harwood (1991): influence of classroom climate on political attitudes of high school students.

Unity Rossi (2003): conflict, peace keeping, culture, ethnicity, identity, religion. Hares (1885): nationalism or integration in Lebanon. Mao (2000): race, ethnicity.

Development Dynneson (1992): community projects. Morse (1993): community activities. Rossi (2003): participation in community and national affairs. Obenchani (1997): participatory citizens of a nation.

Self-reliance Dynneson (1992): community projects. Morse (1993): community activities. Rossi (2003): participation in community and national affairs. Obenchani (1997): participatory citizens of a nation.

Botho (It means respect for adults by children and the youth). Mabe (1993): moral and civic education, “civic virtues”. Engle (1960; 2003): values held by individuals. Chance (1993): values education. (See Figure 1 for illustration of the literature review-research problem relationship).

1 2 5 8 9

1. Literature Review 2. Concepts 3. Democracy 4. Unity 5. Development 6. Self Reliance 7. Botho 8. Social harmony/Kagisano 9. Research Problem

Figure 1: Research Problem-Literature Review Flow Chart

Most of the studies in the literature review section used the survey research methodology, which is the method used in the research on recognition of Kagisano.

Summary of research: Although the research cited previously does not bear directly on the philosophy of Kagisano, it does demonstrate that there is growing concern both in the USA and developing countries that civic education, whatever form it takes, is viewed as essential to promoting democracy and stability.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This study sought to investigate junior secondary school students’ abilities to recognize the basic elements of the philosophy of Kagisano in the society of Botswana. Students were provided with statements based upon the elements in which they were asked to demonstrate recognition of each of the five national principles that make up Kagisano. The research question is: Given these statements, can the students in the sample recognize the five national principles that constitute Kagisano?

The Sample A sample of 893 (N = 893) students from four (4) government junior secondary schools was used in this study. The schools are all located in Gaborone, the capital city of Botswana. The students belonged to three levels of junior secondary education: Form 1, Form 2 and Form 3. (These levels of secondary education are equivalent to the middle school system in the USA).

There were 291 Form 1 students, 289 Form 2 students and 313 Form 3 students in the sample. The four schools were randomly selected. Students were also randomly selected using cluster sampling. Each group of students (or class) was selected randomly, and as a cluster on its own.

The Form 3 group was the research group while the other two groups (that is, Form 1 and Form 2) acted as “control” groups. The survey was conducted on all the three groups of students.

35 Table 3 shows how the students in the research group of the sample (Form/Year 3) were distributed according to ethnicity.

Table 3: Distribution of research group students by ethnicity Ethnic Group Subtotal Bangwato 74 Bakgatla 49 Bakwena 29 Barolong 19 Bangwaketse 18 Batlokwa 11 Balete 20 Bakalaka 32 Other 71 Grand total 313

Socio-economics of the schools used for the study The four schools that were used in this study had similar characteristics. These included: the same (or equivalent) facilities, they received funding from the same source (i.e. Botswana government), teachers in those schools had equivalent/comparable training and experience, all students in those schools wear school uniform when they are in school, and most teachers in those schools reside in the staff houses located in the premises of the schools.

Gender of research group of students The gender of students in the research group is shown on Table 4.

36 Table 4: Gender of research group students

Gender Subtotal Male 146 Female 160 Other (Did not identify) 7 Grand total 313

Dependent variable The dependent variable was students’ abilities to recognize the philosophy of Kagisano. This variable was made operational by changing responses of students to the questionnaire items, questions, or statements, into scores.

Independent variable The independent variable was level of instruction.

Moderating or Intervening variables The moderating or intervening variables were: school, ethnic background, age, and gender (male or female).

Procedures and Measures The data was collected using a questionnaire (See Appendix A). Students were asked to complete the questionnaire by filling in the blank spaces on each statement with the letter(s) they thought represented each of the five national principles of Botswana that make up the philosophy of Kagisano. There were forty (40) statements (or questions) on the questionnaire.

Design of the data collection instrument (questionnaire) The questionnaire was constructed on the basis of the objectives of the Social Studies curriculum used in junior secondary schools in Botswana. The matrix (See Appendix B) shows the objectives from which the questionnaire items were developed.

Only the objectives that guided or related to the teaching of the philosophy of Kagisano were used to develop the questionnaire items. The numbers adjacent to each objective, for example, 2.2.2.6, 2.3.1.1, 2.1.2.5, 6.1.1.6, etc are numbers of the objectives from which the questionnaire items were developed.

In the matrix there are key words (or concepts) in each objective or closely related to each objective, called factors. The matrix also shows the national principles to which each set of objectives, questionnaire items, and key ideas or factors belong.

Pilot testing the data collection instrument (questionnaire) In order to find out if the questionnaire measured what it was designed to measure (validity) and if it consistently measured what it was designed to measure (reliability), the questionnaire was pilot tested. Pilot testing of the questionnaire was done to prepare the instrument for use in the main study. Questionnaire items that were found to be invalid and unreliable were corrected of those deficiencies, i.e. they were modified.

The questionnaire was pilot tested at a randomly selected government junior secondary school in Gaborone, Botswana, in June and July, 2004. A class (or group) of 36 Form 3 students (18 boys and 18 girls) were used in the pilot test.

The pilot test comprised three stages. In the first stage, 3 students were surveyed orally. The respondents recommended revision to question/statement number 33 on the questionnaire. They complained that they were not familiar with the word exemplary. As a result, the question structure was changed so the word exemplary was replaced by the word example. In the second stage, the questionnaire was administered to the whole class (36 students). The respondents completed the questionnaire by filling in their answers (responses) in the blank spaces provided. No problems were identified in the use of the survey instrument (questionnaire). In stage three, the questionnaire items were discussed with 10 students out of all 36 students who participated in the pilot testing of the survey instrument (questionnaire). Each questionnaire item was discussed at a time. No

38 problems were identified on the use of the survey instrument (questionnaire). Pilot testing addressed the issues of validity and reliability.

Reliability of the data collection instrument (questionnaire) The split-half method (Wiersma, 2000; McMillan, 2004) was used to estimate the reliability of the survey instrument (questionnaire) and the Pearson correlation was calculated to be r = .956 (SPSS output) which is quite high. The scores for the pilot study group of students were used to estimate this reliability coefficient.

Administration of the questionnaire (main study) The questionnaires were administered by teachers (non-social studies teachers) to the students. Before the questionnaires were administered, the researcher briefed the teachers on how they (teachers) were expected to administer the questionnaires.

The researcher instructed teachers to randomly pick any two Form/Year 1 classes, any two Form/Year 2 classes, and any two Form/Year 3 classes in their school and administer the questionnaires. The teachers raised one concern which the researcher responded to: they asked if they were to administer the questionnaires only to their best classes. The answer was No. The researcher instructed the teachers to administer the questionnaires to any randomly chosen/selected classes irrespective of academic ability. The instructions and related discussions with teachers were given (or held) to avoid any response effects that were likely to occur.

The Null Hypothesis and Type I Error In order to avoid Type I Error (rejecting the Ho when it is true), alpha was set at .05. This assured the researcher of a 95% confidence interval.

The null hypothesis (Ho) that was to be tested was: Form/Year 3 mean score = Form/Year 2 mean score = Form/Year 3 mean score. This was the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The purpose of computing ANOVA was to determine if the mean scores of the three groups of students (Form/Year 1, Form/Year 2, and Form/Year 3) were

39 statistically significant. The result would indicate if the level of instruction (independent variable) had an effect on students’ recognition of Kagisano.

CHAPTER 4

DATA ANALYSIS

This chapter presents the results of this study. The study examines the research statement: to investigate students’ abilities to recognize the basic elements of the philosophy of Kagisano in the society of Botswana, or the research question: given some statements, based upon the elements of the five national principles that constitute the philosophy of Kagisano, can the students in the sample recognize the five national principles that constitute Kagisano?

The completed questionnaires were scored and the scores or percentage marks (the conversion formula used was: Let x be the total score of a student out of 40 multiplied by 100, or x/40 x 100) placed adjacent to the Botswana junior certificate grading system to determine whether or not the participants successfully recognized the philosophy of Kagisano. This grading system is as follows: A = 80+, B = 70 – 79, C = 60 – 69, D = 40 – 59, E = 39 and below. The cut-off point is 40, which means that a student who obtains less than 40% is unsuccessful in that subject. This grading system is used to assess the performance of students in all subjects at the junior secondary school level of education in Botswana. The return rate of the survey was 100%.

Where moderating or intervening variables (for example, school, age, ethnic background, and gender) were used, the frequency of scores or percentages and the median marks were used to compare the performance of the groups of students involved in the study. The first criterion, frequency of scores, determined the number (or proportion) of students who successfully recognized the philosophy of Kagisano and the number (or proportion) of those students who were unsuccessful in recognizing the philosophy of Kagisano. The

41 second criterion, the median marks were used to compare the quality of the scores of students.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the null hypothesis (Ho): Form 1/Year 1 mean score = Form 2/Year 2 mean score = Form 3/Year 3 mean score, or whether or not there was a difference in recognition of Kagisano between the three groups of students in the sample. ANOVA was also used to test the statistical significance of the moderating (or intervening) variables school, ethnic background, age, and gender in the study.

Summary of the findings Eighty-four percent (84.3%) or 264 Form 3 students successfully recognized Kagisano. Therefore, only fifteen percent (15.7%) or 49 Form 3 students did not successfully recognize Kagisano. Form 3 students had a median score of 52.5%.

Tables 5 to 8 summarize the results of the study with reference to the relationship of the results with moderating or intervening variables. (Frequencies are in brackets and percentages outside the brackets). (R1 and R2 are ranks. The letters md represent Median score).

There were two levels of comparison of the results. Level 1 (Rank1) related to comparison of the students responses with reference to success or lack of it with regard to recognition of the philosophy of Kagisano. The criterion used for this comparison was the frequency of scores, and/or percentage scores. The ranking was based on the number of students who had scored at or above the cut-off point, which was 40%.

Level 2 (R2) related to comparison of the quality of students responses according to the median scores within the categories of specific moderating (intervening) variables.

In order to provide an in-depth understanding of the relationship between moderating (or intervening) variables and junior secondary school students’ abilities to recognize the philosophy of Kagisano, analyses of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine if there

42 was a relationship between intervening variables and the students’ recognition of Kagisano.

Table 5: Analysis by School School Unsuccessfully Successfully R1 md R2 recognized recognized Kagisano Kagisano A 9.7 (6) 90.3 (56) 2 52.5 2 B 8.75 (7) 91.25 (73) 1 57.5 1 C 16.22 (12) 83.78 (62) 3 57.5 1 D 22 (21) 78 (76) 4 47.5 3

Successfully recognized Kagisano

85 Successfully recognized Kagisano 80

70 ABCD

Figure 2: School, percentages

C omparing median scores

40 C omparing median scores 30

0 ABCD

Figure 3: School, median scores

Schools were ranked according to the frequency (or percentage) of students who successfully recognized the philosophy of Kagisano. School B obtained position 1 whereas school D obtained position 4 (R1). Schools were ranked according to the median scores of students’ responses. Both school B and school C obtained position 1 (a tie) whereas school D obtained position 3 (R2).

Summary of ANOVA results for schools A, B, C, and D.

Table 6: Descriptives of mean scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Std. Lower Upper N Mean Std. Error Deviation Bound Bound 1.00 62 53.3971 12.77241 1.62210 50.1435 56.6307 2.00 80 57.4063 13.16547 1.47194 54.4764 60.3361 3.00 74 52.6361 12.55053 1.45897 49.7274 55.5429 4.00 97 46.9072 12.21963 1.24072 44.4444 49.3700 Total 313 52.2284 13.21232 .74680 50.7590 53.6978

Table 7: Minimum and maximum scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D Minimum Maximum 1.00 10.00 82.50 2.00 17.50 80.00 3.00 12.50 75.00 4.00 7.50 70.00 Total 7.50 82.50

45 Table 8: ANOVA of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D Sum of Df Mean F Sig. Squares Square Between 4986.847 3 1662.282 10.381 .000 Groups Within 49477.570 309 160.122 Groups Total 54464.417 312

Table 9: Post Hoc Tests (ANOVA) of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D Multiple Comparisons Dependent Variable: Scores Tukey HSD 95% Confidence Interval (I) Group (J) Group Mean Std. Error Sig. Lower Upper Difference Bound Bound (I-J) 1.00 2.00 -4.01915 2.14106 .240 -9.5496 1.5113 3.00 .75196 2.17863 .986 -4.8756 6.3795 4.00 6.47988* 2.05751 .010 1.1652 11.7946 2.00 1.00 4.01915 2.14106 .240 -1.5113 9.5496 3.00 4.77111 2.04091 .092 -.5007 10.0429 4.00 10.49903* 1.91109 .000 5.5626 15.4355 3.00 1.00 -.75196 2.17863 .986 -6.3795 4.8756 2.00 -4.77111 2.04091 .092 -10.0429 .5007 4.00 5.72792* 1.95309 .019 .6830 10.7729 4.00 1.00 -6.47988* 2.05751 .010 -11.7946 -1.1652 2.00 -10.49903 * 1.91109 .000 -15.4355 -5.5626 3.00 -5.72792* 1.95309 .019 -10.7729 -.6830 *The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

46 Table 10: Analysis by Ethnic Background/Group Ethnic Unsuccessfully Successfully R1 md R2 Group recognized recognized Kagisano Kagisano Bangwato 10.8 (8) 89.2 (66) 5 53.75 5 Bakgatla 10.6 (5) 89.4 (42) 4 55 4 Bakwena 6.9 (2) 93.1 (27) 1 52.5 6 Barolong 21.1 (4) 78.9 (15) 7 50 7 Bangwaketse 22.2 (4) 77.8 (14) 8 53.75 5 Batlokwa 9.1 (1) 90.9 (10) 2 62.5 1 Balete 15 (3) 85 (17) 6 57.5 2 Bakalaka 9.4 (3) 90.6 (29) 3 56.25 3 Other 31.7 (20) 68.3 (43) N/A* 48.75 N/A*

*NB: Category “Other” has been excluded in some part of data analysis to achieve objectivity and to stick to the specific definitions of the variables used in this study e.g. ethnic background, age (or age group, e.g. 14 years, 15 years, 16 years, etc), and gender (male or female). Including “Other” would bring in the element of subjectivity.

47 Successfully recognized Kagisano

100 90 80 70 60 Successfully 50 recognized 40 Kagisano 30 20 10 0

a r tla n wa e a k laka th gwato kg lo a O n kwe t Balete Ba Ba Ba Barolong Ba Bak Bangwaketse

Figure 4: Ethnic Background/Group, percentages

Comparing median s c ores

70 60 50 40 Comparing median 30 scores 20 10 0 o g e n e o kwa aka alet B Other akgatla arol wakets akal BangwatB BakwenaB g Batlo B Ban

Figure 5: Ethnic Background/Group, median scores

48 Students were ranked according to the frequency (or percentage) of those students who successfully recognized Kagisano on the basis of their ethnic background. Bakwena students obtained position 1 whereas Bangwaketse students obtained position 8. Students who successfully recognized Kagisano were ranked according to the median scores in their ethnic categories. Batlokwa ethnic group obtained position 1 whereas the Barorlong ethnic group obtained position 7.

Summary ANOVA results for variable ethnic background/group

Table 11: Descriptives of mean scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to ethnic group

Scores N Mean Std. Std. Error Lower Upper Deviation Bound Bound 1.00 74 53.0743 12.51401 1.45472 50.1751 55.9736 2.00 47 52.5532 11.80099 1.72135 49.0883 56.0181 3.00 29 53.4483 10.94658 2.03273 49.2844 57.6121 4.00 19 50.2632 15.52093 3.56074 42.7823 57.7440 5.00 18 50.4167 11.73388 2.76570 44.5815 56.2518 6.00 11 57.5000 10.89725 3.28564 50.1791 64.8209 7.00 20 54.1250 15.30985 3.42339 46.9598 61.2902 8.00 32 54.6094 10.20178 1.80344 50.9312 58.2875 Total 250 53.0900 12.24650 .77454 51.5645 54.6155

49 Table 12: Minimum and maximum scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to ethnic group

Scores Minimum Maximum 1.00 10.00 80.00 2.00 22.50 75.00 3.00 35.00 80.00 4.00 17.50 77.50 5.00 30.00 67.50 6.00 37.50 70.00 7.00 17.50 75.00 8.00 25.00 72.50 Total 10.00 80.00

Table 13: ANOVA of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to ethnic group

Scores Sum of df Mean F Sig. Squares Square Between 606.980 7 86.711 .571 .779 Groups Within 36737.245 242 151.807 Groups Total 37344.225 249

50 Table 14: Post Hoc Tests (ANOVA) of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to ethnic group

Multiple Comparisons Dependent Variable: Scores Tukey HSD 95% Confidence Interval (I) Group (J) Group Mean Std. Error Sig. Lower Upper Difference Bound Bound (I-J) 1.00 2.00 .52.113 2.29812 1.000 -6.5057 7.5480 3.00 -.37395 2.69929 1.000 -8.6274 7.8795 4.00 2.81117 3.16880 .987 -6.8779 12.5003 5.00 2.65766 3.23808 .992 -7.2433 12.5586 6.00 -4.42568 3.98146 .954 -16.5996 7.7483 7.00 -1.05068 3.10512 1.000 -10.5451 8.4437 8.00 -1.53505 2.60680 .999 -9.5057 6.4356 2.00 1.00 -.52113 2.29812 1.000 -7.5480 6.5057 3.00 -.89508 2.90941 1.000 -9.7910 8.0009 4.00 2.29003 3.34959 .997 -7.9519 12.5319 5.00 2.13652 3.41521 .999 -8.3060 13.4346 6.00 -4.94681 4.12681 .932 -17.5652 7.6715 7.00 -1.57181 3.28942 1.000 -11.6297 8.4861 8.00 -2.05618 2.82381 .996 -10.6904 6.5780 3.00 1.00 .37395 2.69929 1.000 -78795 8.6274 2.00 .89508 2.90941 1.000 -8.0009 9.7910 4.00 3.18512 3.63656 .988 -7.9342 14.3045 5.00 3.03161 3.69708 .992 -8.2728 14.3360 6.00 -4.05172 4.36295 .983 -17.3921 9.2887 7.00 -.67672 3.58121 1.000 -11.6269 10.2734

51 Table 14: continued 8.00 -1.16110 3.15890 1.000 -10.8199 8.4977 4.00 1.00 -2.81117 3.16880 .987 -12.5003 6.8779 2.00 -2.29003 3.34959 .997 -12.5319 7.9519 3.00 -3.18512 3.63656 .988 -14.3045 7.9342 5.00 -.15351 4.05260 1.000 -12.5449 12.2379 6.00 -7.23684 4.66802 .779 -21.5100 7.0364 7.00 -3.86184 3.94717 .977 -159309 8.4977 8.00 -4.34622 3.56844 .926 -15.2573 6.5649 5.00 1.00 -2.65766 3.23808 .992 -12.5586 7.2433 2.00 -2.13652 3.41521 .999 -12.5790 8.3060 3.00 -3.03161 3.69708 .992 -14.3360 8.2728 4.00 .15351 4.05260 1.000 -12.2379 12.5449 6.00 -7.08333 4.71533 .806 -21.5012 7.3345 7.00 -3.70833 4.00301 .983 -15.9481 8.5315 8.00 -4.19271 3.63011 .944 -15.2923 6.9069 6.00 1.00 4.42568 3.98146 .954 -7.7483 16.5996 2.00 4.94681 4.12681 .932 -7.6715 17.5652 3.00 4.05172 4.36295 .983 -9.2887 17.3921 4.00 7.23684 4.66802 .779 -7.0364 21.5100 5.00 7.08333 4.71533 .806 -7.3345 21.5012 7.00 3.37500 4.62504 .996 -10.7668 17.5168 8.00 2.89063 4.30634 .998 -10.2767 16.0579 7.00 1.00 1.05068 3.10512 1.000 -8.4437 10.5451 2.00 1.57181 3.28942 1.000 -8.4861 11.6297 3.00 .67672 3.58121 1.000 -10.2734 11.6268 4.00 3.86184 3.94717 .977 -8.2072 15.9309 5.00 3.70833 4.00301 .983 -8.5315 15.9481 6.00 -3.37500 4.62504 .996 -17.5168 10.7668

52 Table 14: continued 8.00 -.48438 3.51202 1.000 -11.2229 10.2542 8.00 1.00 1.53505 2.60680 .999 -6.4356 9.5057 2.00 2.05618 2.82381 .996 -6.5780 10.6904 3.00 1.16110 3.15890 1.000 -8.4977 10.8199 4.00 4.34622 3.56844 .926 -6.5649 15.2573 5.00 4.19271 3.63011 .944 -6.9069 15.2923 6.00 -2.89063 4.30634 .998 -16.0579 10.2767 7.00 .48438 3.51202 1.000 -10.2542 11.2229

Table 15: Analysis by Age Group Age Group Unsuccessfully Successfully R1 md R2 recognized recognized Kagisano Kagisano 14 years 13.5 (5) 86.5 (32) 3 55 2 15 years 11 (14) 89 (109) 1 55 2 16 years 12 (13) 88 (95) 2 56.25 1 17 years 29.2 (7) 70.8 (17) 4 45 3 18 years 50 (2) 50 (2) 5 43.75 4 Other 35.3 (6) 64.7 (11) N/A 47.5 N/A

53 Successfully recognized Kagisano

100 90 80 70 60 Successfully 50 recognized 40 Kagisano 30 20 10 0 r rs rs rs s e a a e e ear th y y y O 5 7 14 yea 1 16 years 1 18

Figure 6: Age Group, percentages

C omparing median scores

C omparing median 30 scores

0 14 15 16 17 18 Other

Figure 7: Age Group, median scores

Students were ranked according to the frequency (or percentage) of those who successfully recognized the philosophy of Kagisano with reference to age groups. Age group 15 obtained position 1 while the 18-year olds group obtained position 5. Students who successfully recognized the philosophy of Kagisano were ranked according to the median grades (or marks) within their age group categories. Sixteen-year olds (16) obtained position 1 whereas 18 year olds obtained position 4.

55 Summary ANOVA results for the variable age group

Table 16: Descriptives of mean scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to age group 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Scores N Mean Std. Std. Error Lower Upper Deviation Bound Bound 1.00 37 52.6351 13.04301 2.14426 48.2864 56.9839 2.00 123 54.1057 12.55778 1.13230 51.8642 56.3472 3.00 108 53.5185 12.39459 1.19267 51.1542 55.8828 4.00 24 43.4375 14.99660 3.06117 37.1050 49.7700 5.00 4 43.1250 18.18596 9.09298 14.1871 72.0629 Total 296 52.6943 13.11069 .76204 51.1945 54.1940

Table 17: Minimum and maximum scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to age group

Scores Minimum Maximum 1.00 15.00 75.00 2.00 17.50 80.00 3.00 10.00 82.50 4.00 12.50 67.50 5.00 25.00 60.00 Total 10.00 82.50

56 Table 18: ANOVA of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to age group

Scores Sum of df Mean F Sig. Squares Square Between 2741.323 4 685.331 4.158 .003 Groups Within 47966.257 291 164.832 Groups Total 50707.580 295

57 Table 19: Post Hoc Tests (ANOVA) of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to age group

Multiple Comparisons Dependent Variable: Scores Tukey HSD 95% Confidence Interval

(I) Group (J) Group Mean Std. Error Sig. Lower Upper Difference Bound Bound (I-J) 1.00 2.00 -1.47056 2.40729 .973 -8.0785 5.1373 3.00 -.88338 2.44564 .996 -7.5966 5.8298 4.00 9.19764 3.36496 .052 -.0390 18.4343 5.00 9.51014 6.75744 .623 -9.0388 28.0590 2.00 1.00 1.47056 2.40729 .973 -5.1373 8.0785 3.00 .58717 1.69302 .997 -4.0601 5.2345 4.00 10.66819* 2.86498 .005 2.8039 18.5324 5.00 10.98069 6.52290 .505 -6.9244 28.8858 3.00 1.00 .88338 2.44564 .996 -5.8298 7.5966 2.00 -.58717 1.69302 .997 -5.2345 4.0601 4.00 10.08102* 2.89728 .005 2.1281 18.0339 5.00 10.39352 6.53715 .505 -7.5507 28.3377 4.00 1.00 -9.19764 3.36496 .052 -18.4343 .0390 2.00 -10.66819* 2.86498 .002 -18.5324 -2.8039 3.00 -10.08102* 2.89728 .005 -18.0339 -2.1281 5.00 .31250 6.93370 1.000 -18.7202 19.3452 5.00 1.00 -9.51014 6.75744 .623 -28.0590 9.0388 2.00 -10.98069 6.52290 .446 -28.8858 6.9244 3.00 -10.39352 6.53715 .505 -28.3377 7.5507 4.00 -.31250 6.93370 1.000 -19.3452 18.7202 *The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

58 Table 20: Analysis by Gender Gender Unsuccessfully Successfully R1 md R2 Recognized recognized Kagisano Kagisano Male 11 (16) 89 (130) 1 52.5 2 Female 12.5 (20) 87.5 (140) 2 57.5 1 Other 28.6 (2) 71.4 (5) N/A 42.5 N/A

Successfully recognized Kagisano

100 90

80 70 60 Successfully 50 recognized Kagisano 40 30 20

10 0 Male F emale Other

Figure 8: Gender, percentages

59 Comparing median scores

40 Comparing median 30 scores

0 Male Female Other

Figure 9: Gender, median scores

Students who successfully recognized the philosophy of Kagisano were categorized according to gender (male or female) and ranked on the basis of frequency of scores and/or percentages. The males obtained position 1 whereas the females obtained position 2. Students who successfully recognized the philosophy of Kagisano were ranked according to the median scores within the category of the variable gender. The females obtained position 1 whereas the males obtained position 2.

Summary ANOVA results for the variable gender

60 Table 21: Descriptives of mean scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to gender 95% Confidence Interval for Mean

Scores N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Upper Bound Bound 1.00 146 51.1301 13.65234 1.12988 48.8970 53.3633 2.00 160 53.6563 12.79645 1.01165 51.6582 55.6543 Total 306 52.4510 13.25033 .75747 50.9604 53.9415

Table 22: Minimum and maximum scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to gender

Scores Minimum Maximum 1.00 7.50 75.00 2.00 10.00 82.50 Total 7.50 82.50

Table 23: ANOVA of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D according to gender

Scores Sum of df Mean F Sig. Squares Square Between 487.144 1 487.144 2.791 .096 Groups Within 53062.121 304 174.546 Groups Total 53549.265 305

61 ANOVA results for the three groups of students (Form/Year 1, Form/Year 2, and Form/Year 3) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was done to compare the mean scores for the three groups of students, Form/Year 1, Form/Form 2, and Form/Year 3. The null hypothesis (Ho): Form 1/Year 1mean score = Form 2/Year 2 mean score = Form 3/Year 3 mean score was tested. The purpose of testing this hypothesis was to find out whether or not the level of instruction had an effect on the responses of students. Table 9 is a summary of ANOVA results produced using the SPSS software.

Summary of ANOVA results for Form 1, Form 2, and Form 3 students

Table 24: Descriptives of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D in Form 1, Form 2, and Form 3

95% Confidence Interval scores for Mean

Std. Std. Lower Upper Minimu Maximu N Mean Deviation Error Bound Bound m m 1 291 44.3385 13.16721 .77188 42.8193 45.8577 7.50 72.50 2 289 47.3529 13.12335 .77196 45.8335 48.8723 12.50 75.00 3 313 52.2444 13.36339 .75534 50.7582 53.7306 7.50 82.50 Total 893 48.0851 13.61097 .45547 50.7582 53.7306 7.50 82.50

Table 25: ANOVA of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D in Form 1, Form 2, and Form 3

Sum of scores Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 9654.570 2 4827.285 27.612 .000 Within Groups 155595.96 890 174.827 2 Total 165250.53 892 2

62 Table 26: Post Hoc Tests (ANOVA) of scores for students of schools A, B, C, and D in Form 1, Form 2, and Form 3 Multiple Comparisons Dependent Variable: scores Tukey HSD 95% Confidence Interval

(I)Group (J)Group Mean Std. Error Sig. Lower Upper Difference Bound Bound (I-J) 1 2 -3.0145 1.09805 .017 - - (*) 5.5923 .4366 3 -7.9059 1.07672 .000 - - (*) 10.4337 5.3782 2 1 3.0145 1.09805 .017 (*) .4366 5.5923 3 -4.8915 1.07865 .000 - - (*) 7.4237 2.3592 3 1 7.9059 1.07672 .000 (*) 5.3782 10.4337 2 4.8915 1.07865 .000 (*) 2.3592 7.4237 Based on observed means. * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

The results of the Post Hoc Test (using Tukey’s HSD i.e. honestly significance difference) show that the mean scores of the three groups of students, that is, Form 1/Year 1, Form 2/Year 2, and Form 3/Year 3 are statistically significant at the 0.5 level (F [2, 890] = 27.612, p = .000, p = .017, p < .05). This is because the p-values are smaller than the pre-set alpha, p < .05. As a result, the null hypothesis is rejected, which means that the mean scores of the three groups (Form 1, Form 2, and Form 3) are different or not equal.

CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

Interpretation of Results The results of this study showed that the majority of Form 3 students (84%) in the sampled schools were able to recognize the philosophy of Kagisano. The results also showed that the ranking of responses in accordance with moderating (intervening) variables varied with regard to the criteria being used to compare the responses, that is, the use of frequencies of scores and/or percentages or median scores. The trends (or patterns) that the responses took when frequencies of scores and/or percentages were used reflected the quantity dimension whereas the trends (or patterns) that the responses took when the median scores were used reflected the quality dimension. In essence, the rank of responses changed according to which of these two criteria (frequencies/percentage scores or median marks) was being used at the moment.

There was consistency in ranking of school B (R1 and R2). School B obtained position 1 in both Rank1 and Rank 2. Other schools that ranked consistently were school A (R2, R2) and school D (R4, R3). There was consistency in ranking of Bakalaka ethnic minority group (R3, R3) and the Barolong (R7, R7), a majority group. The 18-year old age group was consistently ranked (R6, R5). With regard to the gender intervening variable, there was an alternating pattern: the males Ranked 1 when frequencies or percentages were used and the females Ranked 2, but when the median scores were used, the females Ranked 1 whereas the males Ranked 2.

ANOVA results showed that the mean scores of the four schools A, B, C, and D were statistically significant (different or not equal) at the .05 level (F[3, 309] = 10.381,

64 p = .000, p < .05). As a result, the Ho that the mean scores of the four schools were equal was rejected. The reason for rejecting the Ho was that the p-value was smaller than the pre-set alpha, p < .05.

A Post Hoc Test was conducted using Tukey’s HSD to determine the differences between the mean scores of the four schools A, B, C, and D. The results showed that the mean scores of the group combinations (schools) 1 and 4, 2 and 4, and 3 and 4 were statistically significant (p = .010, p = .000, and p = .019). The rest of the group combinations (schools) had p-values that exceeded the .05 level (e.g. 1 and 2, p = .240, 1 and 3, p =. 986). These group combinations were, therefore, not statistically significant.

ANOVA results showed that the mean scores of the eight ethnic groups in the study were not statistically significant at the .05 level (F [7, 242] = .571, p = .779, p > .05). A Post Hoc Test was conducted and it produced results that were not statistically significant (e.g. groups 1 and 4, p = .987, and groups 2 and 8, p = .996).

ANOVA results showed that the mean scores of the five age groups were statistically significant at the .05 level (F [4, 291] = 4.156, p = .003, p < .05). As a result, the Ho that the mean scores of the five age groups were equal was rejected. The reason for rejecting the Ho was that the p-value was smaller than the pre-set alpha, p < .05).

A Post Hoc Test was conducted using Tukey’s HSD to determine the differences between the mean scores of the five age groups. The results showed that the mean scores that were statistically significant were those of the group (age) combinations: 2 and 4, and 3 and 4 (p = .000, and p = .005, p < .05). The rest of the group combinations had p-values that exceeded .05 (e.g. 1 and 2, p = .973, and 1 and 3, p = .996). These age groups were therefore, not statistically significant.

ANOVA results showed that the mean scores of the males and females were not statistically significant at the .05 level (F [1, 304] = 2.791, p = .096, p > .05). As the groups were fewer than three, a post hoc test could not be performed using the SPSS

65 software. It is, however, sufficient to mention that the mean score for the females and the mean score for the males are not different.

The results of ANOVA showed that the mean scores of the three groups of students (Form/Year 1, Form/Year 2, and Form/Year 3) were statistically significant at the .05 level (F[2, 890] = 27.612, p =.000, p < .05). This further showed that the level of instruction had an effect on students learning of the philosophy of Kagisano. The results of the Post Hoc Test showed that the mean scores of the three groups of students (Form/Year 1, Form/Year 2, and Form/Year 3) were statistically significant (p =.017, p =.000, p = .017, p =.000, p =.000, and p =.000). These statistical significance values reflect the group combinations: 1 and 2 or vice versa, 1 and 3 or vice versa, and 2 and 3 or vice versa. (The p-value varies with sampling error).

These results indicate that the intervening variables school and age group have a relationship with junior secondary school students’ abilities to recognize Kagisano while the intervening variables ethnic group and gender do not a relationship with these students’ abilities to recognize Kagisano. These results also indicate that the level of instruction has an effect on students learning of the philosophy of Kagisano.

Limitations of the Study There are several limitations to this study: The results of this study can only be generalized to government junior secondary schools in Gaborone. In order to generalize the findings to other cities and towns, villages, districts, regions, or the entire nation of Botswana, larger samples would have to be used in the study.

Despite emphasis by the researcher that only non-social studies teachers should administer the questionnaire, some social studies teachers may have helped the students with answers to the questionnaire.

66 Lastly, despite emphasis by the researcher that the questionnaire be administered to any randomly selected classes (or groups of students) irrespective of academic ability some teachers may have disregarded this guideline or requirement and administered the questionnaire to their best classes.

Suggestions/Implications for further research Several dimensions of research on the philosophy of Kagisano can be explored by future researchers. These include: 1. Conducting research to find out how the two moderating (intervening) variables that have been found to be statistically significant in this study (i.e. school and age or age group) are related to the results of research on Kagisano. 2. Adding more variables to research on Kagisano, for example, the variable of school location, especially rural versus urban; conducting studies on recognition of Kagisano in private junior secondary schools; doing qualitative research on Kagisano, and conducting research to find out opinions (views) of junior secondary school students on the practice of Kagisano in Botswana. Furthermore, research on Kagisano can also be conducted in primary (elementary) schools and senior secondary schools, both government and private.

Conclusion The study was conducted to reveal the status of students’ recognition of the philosophy of Kagisano in government junior secondary schools and to recommend some steps or measures that the nation of Botswana can implement to improve or maintain the situation. This study found that the majority of students (84%) in the sampled schools in Botswana can recognize the philosophy of Kagisano. The study showed that the ranking of responses of students on the basis of two criteria, the frequency of scores or percentages and/or the use of median scores, changed as the two emphasized different dimensions. The first criterion (frequency of scores or percentages) addresses the quantity dimension while the second criterion (median mark) addresses the quality dimension. This ranking of scores is a result of moderating (intervening) variables, which are: school, age, gender (male or female), and ethnic background.

Moderating variables produced varying results. The variable school produced the most consistent results whereas age group produced the most inconsistent results. Still on age group, age groups 17 and 18 consistently ranked lowest in the age group variable category. Thus, there was a general decline in recognition of Kagisano with increasing age. The variable gender produced results that alternated in patterns or trends when frequencies and or/percentages were used alternatively with the use of median scores.

ANOVA showed that the moderating (intervening) variable school was statistically significant (F [3, 309] = 10.381, p = .000, p < .05). A Post Hoc Test showed that the combinations of schools 1 and 4, 2 and 4, and 3 and 4 were statistically significant (p = .010, p = .000, and p = .019). The rest of the combinations of schools were not statistically significant. Therefore, the moderating (intervening) variable school makes a difference in the interpretation of the results of this study. (In other words, there is a relationship between the variable school and the results of this study).

ANOVA showed that the moderating variable age group (or age) was statistically significant (F [4, 291] = 4.156, p = .003, p < .05). A Post Hoc Test (post analysis) showed that the combination of age groups 2 and 4, and 3 and 4 were statistically significant (p = .003, p = .008). The rest of the combinations of age groups were not statistically significant. Therefore, the moderating (intervening) variable age group makes a difference in the interpretation of the results of this study. (In other words, there is a relationship between the variable age group and the results of this study).

Bakalaka, a minority ethnic group, performed as well as, and even better than, some majority ethnic groups. This indicates that ethnicity does not make a difference in recognition of Kagisano.

ANOVA results for the ethnic group variable were not statistically significant (F [2, 242) = .571, p = .779, p > .05), including the results of a Post Hoc Test.

68 Numerically (i.e. by frequency or percentage), the males performed better than females (89% versus 87.5%) but the females performed better than the males in quality terms as indicated by the median scores 57.5 and 52.5, respectively.

ANOVA results showed that the mean scores of the males and females were not statistically significant (F [2, 310] = 2.609, p = .075, p > .05). A Post Hoc Test showed the same results, i.e. no statistical significance for the mean scores of males and females.

The study also showed that the mean scores of Form/Year 1, Form/Year 2, and Form/Year 3 students in the sample were statistically significant (F [2, 890] = 27.612, p = .000, p < .05). Post Hoc Tests showed that group 1 and group 3, and groups 2 and 3 were more statistically significant (p = .000, p = < .05) than groups 1 and 2 (p = .017, p = < .05). This shows that the level of instruction has more impact between groups 1 and 3, and 2 and 3 than between groups 1 and 2.

Recommendations Some recommendations that emerge from the findings of this study are the following: That the trend in the junior secondary schools be maintained or improved when necessary. Currently, the trend should be maintained. The current rate of recognition of Kagisano (84%) is reasonably high. The progression rate of 53.06% (See Table 1) is also favorable. So, the rate of recognition of Kagisano and the rate of progression are both a satisfactory combination at the moment.

That the trend be checked in the senior secondary schools, both government and private to determine whether or not it needs improvement.

That research should be conducted to find out evidence of translation of the identified trends into practice.

69 Concluding summary This study found that 84% of Form 3 students (research group) were successful in recognizing the philosophy of Kagisano or Social Harmony. Moderating variables school and age group were statistically significant in the interpretation of the results whereas moderating variables ethnic background/group and gender (male or female) were not statistically significant in the interpretation of the results. ANOVA results showed that the mean scores of Form 1, Form 2, and Form 3 students were statistically significant. This showed that the level of instruction had an effect on students’ learning of the philosophy of Kagisano.

70 APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE

Name of School……………………….. Age……………….. Ethnic background……………………. Male……… Female………..

For each of the following statements or phrases, identify the national principle that it represents. Indicate your responses on the spaces provided by writing the letter(s) that represent(s) your choice. The five national principles, i.e. democracy, development, unity, self-reliance, and Botho make up the national philosophy of Kagisano or Social Harmony. D=Democracy; DEV=Development; U=Unity; SR=Self-reliance; BO=Botho Example: People voting for candidates of their choice. ………D………

1. A kgotla session engaged in a conflict resolution between families using the principle of “freedom of speech.” …………….2.2.2.6 2. Nucleated settlements (villages). …………………….2.3.1.1 3. Respect for one another, especially for adults. …………………… 4. Women now contribute economically to the family through paid formal employment. ……………….2.1.2.5 5. Rights and freedoms provided for in the constitution of Botswana. ………………6.1.1.6 6. Revenue from the export of minerals and beef. …………………….9.1.2.5 & 9.3.1.5

7. Family disputes are settled with the help of extended family members. ………………….2.1.2.1 8. The separation of powers between the executive, the legislature and the judiciary as provided for by the constitution of Botswana. ………………………6.1.1.8 9. Women are now partners with men in heading the family and in decision-making. ……………………2.1.2.5 10. Co-operation to undertake self-help projects. ………………….2.3.1.7

71 11. Forms of co-operation, for example, motshelo, mafisa and molaletsa. ……………………….2.2.2.7 12. Revenue from the tourist industry. ………………………….9.3.3.2 13. Avoiding arguments with people of older age. …………………… 14. Forms of co-operation, for example, letsema, village development committees (VDCs) and co-operative societies. ………………………………2.3.1.6 15. Manufacturing industries in Botswana. ………………………….9.3.2.3 16. All people have a voice in political elections as well as in social, economic and community affairs. …………………………6.1.1.6 17. The role of Board of Governors in Community Junior Secondary Schools. ………………………2.3.1.7 18. Giving way to an elderly person when there is a shortage of seats or chairs. ………………………. 19. Replacing foreign workers (or employees), called expatriates in Botswana, with citizens of Botswana as quickly as possible. ……………………………2.3.1.7 20. Ready to go on an errand when sent by a person older than you. ……………………. 21. Bringing the economy of Botswana under the control of the local people, a process called localisation. ………………………………….2.3.1.7 22. The importance of loyalty and pride. …………………………….2.3.1.1 & 2.1.2.1 & 2.2.2.7 23. When a Motswana provides himself or herself with food and looks for a job instead of depending on another person or government to provide him or her with these needs. ………………………….2.3.1.7 24. The importance of national culture and national identity. …………………………2.3.1.1 & 2.1.2.1 & 2.2.2.7 25. Avoiding bad language when speaking to other people. …………………………. 26. When a Motswana student at a junior secondary school struggles alone to do his or her homework (or assignment) before asking for help from other students or the teacher. ……………………….2.3.1.7 27. The parliament of Botswana. ……………………………6.1.1.8

72 28. In a traditional Setswana family, the grandfather and the grandmother are important and well respected members of the extended family. ……………………………2.1.2.1 29. After a headman (kgosana) has given his verdict (katlholo), people involved in a case can appeal to the chief (kgosi) if they are not satisfied with the verdict. ……………………….2.2.2.6 30. The export of diamonds greatly contributes to the improvement of the living standards of Batswana through provision of facilities such as schools and hospitals. ………………………………9.1.2.5 & 9.3.1.5 31. The right to life. ………………………………….6.1.1.6 32. Production of beverages (beer and soft drinks) at Kgalagadi Breweries. ……………………….9.3.2.3 33. Adults setting an example of good behavior to the children and youth. ……………………………… 34. It is stated in the constitution of Botswana that general elections should be held every five years. …………………………………….6.1.1.6 35. When a parents teachers association (PTA) for a primary school in Botswana agrees that parents should contribute some money to hire cooks and buy firewood to enable the preparation of food for their school children. ……………………………2.3.1.7 36. When workers form a society and agree to pay a fixed sum of money to each member every month, on a rotational basis, a form of co-operation called go amogedisana. ………………………………2.2.2.7 37. Agro-towns such as Mochudi, Kanye and Serowe. …………………………………2.3.1.1 38. Visitors to Botswana pay large sums of money to enter our game reserves and national parks. …………………………………….9.3.3.2 39. The role of sub land boards. …………………………………2.3.1.7 40. When cattle farmers in an area form a syndicate to drill a borehole to provide water for their animals. ………………………………2.3.1.6

73 APPENDIX B: MATRIX

National Objectives Questions Factors Principles Democracy 2.2.2.6 1 Resolve conflict 2.2.2.6 29 Resolve conflict 6.1.1.6 5 Human rights 6.1.1.6 31 Human rights 6.1.1.8 8 Separation of powers 6.1.1.8 27 Separation of powers 2.1.2.5 9 Socio-economic changes 6.1.1.6 16 Participation in government 6.1.1.6 34 Participation in government Unity 2.3.1.1 2 Settlement patterns and types 2.3.1.1 37 Settlement patterns and types 2.1.2.1 7 Settling family disputes 2.1.2.1 28 Settling family disputes 2.2.2.7 11 Forms of cooperation, e.g. motshelo 2.2.2.7 36 Forms of cooperation, e.g. motshelo 2.3.1.1 & 2.1.2.1 24 National goals, philosophy and & 2.2.2.7 policies 2.3.1.1 & 2.1.2.1 22 National goals, philosophy and & 2.2.2.7 policies Development 2.1.2.5 4 Socio-economic changes 9.1.2.5 & 9.3.1.5 6 Economic resources/Economic importance of mining 9.1.2.5 & 9.3.1.5 30 Economic resources/Economic importance of mining 9.3.3.2 12 Tourism 9.3.3.2 38 Tourism

74 2.3.1.6 14 Forms of cooperation, e.g. cooperative societies 2.3.1.6 40 Forms of cooperation, e.g. cooperative societies 9.3.2.3 15 Manufacturing industries 9.3.2.3 32 Manufacturing industries Self-reliance 2.3.1.7 10 Cooperation and initiative 2.3.1.7 35 Cooperation and initiative 2.3.1.7 23 Initiative 2.3.1.7 26 Initiative 2.3.1.7 21 Localization 2.3.1.7 19 Localization 2.3.1.7 17 Local management 2.3.1.7 39 Local management Botho Botswana Vision 3 Respect for each other/Socially 2016 & NDP 9 acceptable behavior Botswana Vision 33 Respect for each other/Socially 2016 & NDP 9 acceptable behavior Botswana Vision 25 Respect for others and those older 2016 & NDP 9 Botswana Vision 18 Respect for others and those older 2016 & NDP 9 Botswana Vision 20 Respect for others and those older 2016 & NDP 9 Botswana Vision 13 Respect for others and those older 2016 & NDP 9

75 APPENDIX C

Level Letter Score/range School A School B School C School D score of scores Form 1 Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency A 80+ 0 1 0 0 B 70 – 79 3 5 2 1 C 60 – 69 7 10 13 8 D 40 – 59 35 39 43 45 E 39 + below 27 18 15 19 Form 2 Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency A 80+ 1 1 0 0 B 70 – 79 4 7 2 0 C 60 – 69 10 8 13 9 D 40 – 59 42 30 38 52 E 39 + below 15 27 19 11 Form 3 Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency A 80+ 1 2 0 0 B 70 – 79 5 13 4 1 C 60 – 69 14 21 23 13 D 40 – 59 32 8 35 61 E 39 + below 11 36 12 21

76 APPENDIX D

77 APPENDIX E

78 APPENDIX F

80 APPENDIX G

81 APPENDIX H

82 APPENDIX I

84 APPENDIX J

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88 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Koketso Jeremiah is a Lecturer in the Department of Languages and Social Sciences Education (LSSE) at the University of Botswana. He is currently on study leave doing his PhD at Florida State University. Mr. Jeremiah has five years experience of university teaching (1997-2002).

His previous experience includes many years of teaching English, Geography and Social Studies in junior and senior secondary schools in Botswana and at Molepolole College of Education (MCE).

Mr. Jeremiah obtained a BA+CDE at the University of Botswana and Swaziland (UBS) in 1982. He received a MS at Florida State University in 1989.