religions

Article “This Is My Place”. (Hi)Storytelling Churches in the Northern Netherlands †

Justin E. A. Kroesen

Department of Cultural History, University Museum of Bergen, P.O. Box 7800, NO-5020 Bergen, Norway; [email protected] † Article written in the framework of: Project of the Ministry of Science and Innovation AEI/10.13039/501100011033: “Sedes Memoriae 2: Memorias de cultos y las artes del altar en las catedrales medievales hispanas: Oviedo, Pamplona, Roda, Zaragoza, Mallorca, Vic, Barcelona, Girona, Tarragona” (PID2019-105829GB-I00). The author is Council member of Future for Religious Heritage (FRH) since 2020. Prof. Diarmaid MacCulloch (Oxford), Prof. Jan N. Bremmer (Groningen) and Mr. Peter Breukink (Zutphen), former director of the Foundation of Old Groningen Churches, made valuable comments on the manuscript.

Abstract: This article proposes storytelling as a tool to return historic church buildings to the people in today’s secularized society. It starts by recognizing the unique qualities shared by most historic churches, namely that they are (1) different from most other buildings, (2) unusually old, and (3) are often characterized by beautiful exteriors and interiors. The argument builds on the storytelling strategies that were chosen in two recent book projects (co-)written by the author of this article, on historic churches in the northern Dutch provinces of Frisia (Fryslân) and Groningen. Among the many stories “told” by the Frisian and Groningen churches and their interiors, three categories are specifically highlighted. First, the religious aspect of the buildings’ history, from which most of its forms, fittings, and imagery are derived, and which increasingly needs to be explained in a largely



 post-Christian society. Second, churches tell us local histories, because they were the communities’ most public space for centuries, and a room for social representation. Finally, third, local history Citation: Kroesen, Justin E. A. 2021. is always “glocal”, because it is interwoven with multiple connections to other places far and near. “This Is My Place”. (Hi)Storytelling Churches in the Northern Researching, cherishing, and telling these stories are powerful means to engage communities in the Netherlands. Religions 12: 702. future preservation of their old churches as religious and cultural heritage. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12090702 Keywords: religious heritage; historic churches; storytelling; religious history; glocal history; Academic Editors: Tomasz Duda and churches of Frisia (The Netherlands); churches of Groningen (The Netherlands); book projects Silvia Aulet

Received: 9 July 2021 Accepted: 27 August 2021 1. Secular Europe and Its Religious Heritage Published: 30 August 2021 In 2018, I noted a quote from Simon Jenkins, the author of the bestseller England’s Thousand Best Churches (1999): “Cultural heritage is not about having more, it is about being Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral more”.1 He spoke these words during a conference at the UNESCO headquarters in Paris with regard to jurisdictional claims in in 2018, organized by the heritage organization Future for Religious Heritage (FRH) in published maps and institutional affil- 2 iations. the framework of the European Year of Cultural Heritage. Jenkins painted a daunting picture of the state of religious heritage in Britain in the first decades of the twenty-first century. Since the 1960s, church attendance in England has steadily dropped by around 1% each year, leaving churches in many towns and villages “redundant”. Of Britain’s c. 10,000 medieval churches, for example, an estimated 5000 are now practically unused. Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Jenkins laments this development, not for religious but rather for cultural-historical reasons. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article In this way, he argues, the special character of churches as public space and as the collective distributed under the terms and art galleries of towns and villages is lost: “For a community to say of their largest and oldest 3 conditions of the Creative Commons building: ‘this is not my place’, is a true crisis”. In a manner not unlike propositions made Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// by Alain de Botton in his thought-provoking Religion for Atheists (De Botton 2012), Jenkins creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ considers Christianity as “the biggest problem” in the reclaiming of church buildings for 4.0/).

Religions 2021, 12, 702. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12090702 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2021, 12, 702 2 of 19

the community. Instead of “keeping to bang on about God”, the aim should be to bring churches back, with or without religion, to where they began—with the people. Churches have always been public space, because they were open for all men and women, old and young, rich and poor. This is why Peter Aiers, acting director of The Churches Conservation Trust, eloquently described churches as “the most democratic of all monuments”.4 However, the perception of their ownership has greatly shifted over the centuries. From the Middle Ages onwards, it was the community who built and maintained churches, and who hired religious specialists—ordained priests or trained reverends—to operate them de facto as their “personnel”. It was the lay community who called the shots, although it must be noted that the real power always narrowed down to the socio- economic elites. A number of events and developments over the following centuries gradually anchored control over religious buildings and their use with higher echelons such as central church authorities or—as happened in France after the Revolution—with the State.5 This meant that local communities gradually lost their sense of ownership to more distant, abstract entities.6 Resulting from the separation of Church and State and the privatization of religion that gained ground during the nineteenth century, what was once public domain became exclusive religious space.7 Instead of hiring religious specialists, from that point onwards the people followed their rules and asked permission to do things there. In many places where, in modern days, the church as an institution withdraws from buildings, the sense of ownership is void, and many churches, sadly, end up on the market as private real estate.8 How can we restore the traditional public nature of church buildings and make communities embrace them as “theirs” again? I think we should start by acknowledging and utilizing three unique assets shared by most, if not all, historic churches, namely that they are (1) different, (2) old, and (3) beautiful. The fascinating “otherness” of churches is only reinforced by the decline of Christianity, as their appearance, atmosphere, and purpose have become so different from everyday life for many. In recent decades, therefore, old churches have become the ultimate “hétérotopies”, or “other spaces”, a term coined by Michael Foucault to indicate spaces that relate to other dimensions (Foucault 1984, 1986).9 Part of this “otherness” is obviously bound up with the references the church architecture and imagery make to the metaphysical, but the same can also be said of their mere age, because old walls and old sculptures with faded paintings always fascinate and are larger than life. As tangible relics of history—churches are usually the oldest preserved buildings in European towns and villages—they provide the most immediate access to the past that is widely available. Through the ages, finally, the eminent status of churches has prompted communities to embellish their interiors, turning them into what Simon Jenkins has called “the art galleries of towns and villages”.10 It is the artistic aspect that makes old churches particularly attractive to a large audience, from traditional believers to atheists. Religious heritage figures prominently among the most visited sites of Europe: before the 2019 fire, the Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris received over thirteen million visitors per year, and the Dom in Cologne, six million. Cathedrals and their symbolic value have been particularly successful in attracting the masses. Some certainly come to attend Mass, but the vast majority of visitors enters the buildings to admire the majestic Gothic architecture so familiar from the 20 euro bill. Medieval churches are widely cherished as symbols of the identity of communities large and small. Cologne, for example, calls itself briefly “Domstadt” (“Cathedral city”), and the Tuscan city of Pisa is epitomized by its famous leaning belltower. The cityscapes of towns including Prague, Lübeck, Salisbury, Strasbourg, and Burgos would be simply unrecognizable without their soaring church spires. Additionally, the collections of some of Europe’s greatest museums, including the Musée du Louvre in Paris, the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, and the Galleria degli Uffizi in Florence all largely consist of religious art. While the Louvre received over ten million visitors in 2018, the Vatican Museums welcomed almost seven million in 2019. Many of the artworks found there originally served as liturgical furnishings, such as altarpieces, reliquaries, and liturgical vessels. As a Religions 2021, 12, 702 3 of 19

conclusion, we may state that Europe’s art history cannot be understood if churches and the tradition that built and used them, i.e., Christianity, are ignored. Beyond the history of art and architecture, churches also reflect many other facets of history, through tombs and monuments, heraldry, pews, benches, and so on, that provide a mirror of the socio-economic reality of past societies. Furthermore, much of the microhistory of towns and villages is filed in written records preserved in church archives.11 Many churches therefore provide the best who’s who of local history. One reason for churches to have preserved the past so well is that they provided a relatively protected environment for objects and documents to survive. Valuables, rarities, and official documents were often stored in churches to safeguard their preservation, turning them into important forerunners of the modern museum. The preserving aspect of churches is closely bound up with their typically slow turnover of developments, which is evolutionary rather than revolutionary.12 Their building could stretch over many generations, and the liturgy has followed the same basic structure for over a thousand years. One might say that, of all places, things probably have the best chance to survive in functioning churches, even if they are practically forgotten. All the above-mentioned aspects make old churches essential to our knowledge of Europe’s religious, social, economic, and artistic past. This sensation was aptly expressed by Theodor Fontane who, in 1878, characterized village churches as “the only bearers of our entire history” (italics original), charged as they are with “the magic of historical continuity” (Fontane 1980, p. 37).13 In order to preserve Europe’s religious heritage as a legacy for the future, researching and telling their history and their stories are essential, because the general public cannot be expected to care for a heritage it has no access to or knowledge about. As a result, ensuring that churches are both physically and intellectually accessible is a central task of all heritage specialists and academic scholars, in addition to restorers, caretakers, etc. Although digging up and selecting the histories and stories that deserve to be told is clearly the task of trained historians, voicing them may involve many more. An excellent tool in communicating these is storytelling: narrating, in an engaging, inspiring, and understandable manner, the history of churches and of the people that built, augmented, furnished, decorated, used, maintained, and thus preserved them, a history that is part of our collective cultural past. Churches inform us in a variety of ways—textually, visibly, tangibly—about the lives of past generations, of individuals and their living conditions, their beliefs, hopes and fears, their views on life and death, and their moral outlook. Since religion by definition relates to the most encompassing existential questions in life, studying religious heritage enhances our understanding of the basic cultural tenets of past societies; or, as Roy Strong so cogently put it in his Little History of the English Country Church, with regard to medieval churches: “Church interiors add to our knowledge of what occupied the medieval mind” (Strong 2012, p. 44). Beyond the biographies of persons that played a role in the history of every church, the building itself and its fittings can also be said to possess a “biography”. The concept of a “cultural biography of objects” was developed within the field of archaeology (Gosden and Marshall 1999), whereas an influential paper about the dense semiotics of things was published by anthropologist Igor Kopytoff (Kopytoff 1988). Ironically, archaeology and anthropology may become increasingly important for storytelling churches in societies in which a growing majority are not regular churchgoers or non-believers. It is particularly through material culture—built forms, fixtures, sculptures, paintings, utensils—that the stories of churches can be told. As Richard M. Carp observed: “One advantage of material culture studies is that it gives us access to all strata of a culture. At most times and places, only certain elites—usually men—produced texts, while women, the poor and even slaves created material culture. Material culture may at first seem to be the study of a collection of things—artifacts. Actually, material culture is much more than that, although the whole can be derived from artifacts, for each thing implies a set of material activities and significations that interact with the artifact and one another and which mediate a cultural landscape. Any artifact entails a dynamic pattern of actions, persons, skills, technologies, Religions 2021, 12, 702 4 of 19

social formations and other artifacts whose similar patterns partially overlap with one another. The interactive panoply of these interacting arrays is a cultural landscape” (Carp 2011, pp. 474–75). Academia is still strongly organized along disciplinary lines, however, and truly encompassing studies that include both written and material or visual sources are rare. In 1989, the British church historian Robert Whiting rightly noted that: “Among the potential sources of evidence most frequently under-utilized in conventional histories are the extant art and architecture of parish churches” (Whiting 1989, p. 3). Thirty years later, on the waves of the so-called material, spatial, and visual turns in the humanities, much progress has been made in filling the traditional chasm between religious studies and the study of art and material culture.14 Illustrative of this are publications by Colleen McDannell (McDannell 1995), David Morgan (Morgan 2005), Caroline Walker Bynum (Walker Bynum 2011) and Birgit Meyer (Meyer 2012; Houtman and Meyer 2012), and many contributions to the journal Material Religion, published since 2005. However, these innovative approaches have, to date, been mainly applied to images and objects and less to church buildings and their furnishings. The longest tradition in the cultural reading of old churches is no doubt found in Britain, where John Betjeman (1906–1984) may be regarded as the founding father of the genre (Betjeman 1958).15 Some characteristic titles, in addition to Simon Jenkins’ mentioned 1999 bestseller, include Roy Strong’s Little History of the English Country Church (Strong 2012), William Whyte’s Unlocking the Church (Whyte 2017) and Allan Doig’s A History of the Church through its Buildings (Doig 2020).16 Most recently, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, BBC Radio 3 broadcast a series of “Churchcrawls in Solitude” with Oxford Church History professor Diarmaid MacCulloch.17

2. Two Book Projects in the Northern Netherlands The two northernmost of the twelve Dutch provinces, Groningen and Frisia (Fryslân/ Friesland), possess a dense landscape of historic churches. Many were built during the Middle Ages and were taken over by Calvinists during the sixteenth century. Most churches are situated in small communities in the countryside. Church towers serve as beacons in the wide, open coastal plains where the economy traditionally revolved around agriculture and trade. From the 1960s onwards, many churches came under growing financial pressure because of secularization and dwindling church attendance, which was aggravated by the fact that in the Dutch Reformed Church (Nederlandse Hervormde kerk) every community is economically autonomous (there are no dioceses) and independent from the state. These circumstances have resulted in a large number of churches, in the North as elsewhere in the Netherlands, becoming “redundant”. Where churches are not demolished, they often undergo processes of “adaptive transformation”. Together with Britain, the Netherlands has seen the highest number of churches put to permanent new functions of all European countries. Many buildings that started life as churches are now used for housing, office space, health-centers, shops, and even bars and discos. The pressure is high, even on the most remarkable of all monuments: of one hundred selected historical church interiors published in a beautiful book in 2016, six have since changed owners and/or purposes (Reinstra et al. 2016).18 As early as 1969, the University of Groningen theologian and church art expert Dr Regnerus Steensma (1937–2012) and several kindred spirits established a foundation to take ownership of endangered old churches in Groningen, called the Stichting Oude Groninger kerken. The foundation’s statutory aim was formulated as: “to preserve the province’s historic churches and increase awareness of them”.19 This initiative was followed one year later by a similar start up in Steensma’s native Frisia, the Stichting Alde Fryske tsjerken.20 Both foundations have grown into professional heritage organizations with a permanent staff and thousands of supporters each, who pay an annual fee.21 Most of the foundations’ income is generated by inheritances and bequests, and the national and local governments provide additional support for occasional restorations and necessary maintenance. Currently, the Groningen foundation owns about one hundred church Religions 2021, 12, 702 5 of 19

buildings, whereas the Frisian foundation is the holder of fifty-five. Both foundations are strictly non-religious and approach the churches as cultural heritage, following the commitment to preserve the buildings and their interiors in their historically grown state. Although the churches can be rented for any purpose, as long as it remains compatible with their heritage value, they are not transformed or put to permanent new functions; theoretically, it is possible to hold a church service in each building at all times. From the outset, furthermore, both foundations have placed a strong emphasis on research and publications about historic churches. Both have issued periodicals since the start of their existence, which have served as prominent platforms of scholarly research carried out into the old Groningen and Frisian churches.22 Two of the latest publications are beautifully produced books aimed at telling the story of the two provinces’ histor- ical churches to a wider public, one on Frisia and one on Groningen. In both cases, I was invited as (co-)author.23 The Frisian book, published in three languages as De Friese Elfkerkentocht—The Frisian Eleven Churches Tour—Die friesische Elfkirchentour, appeared in 2018 in the framework of the European Year of Cultural Heritage and on the occasion of the Frisian capital Leeuwarden being the European Capital of Culture (Kroesen 2018) (Figure1) . The book focuses on medieval church buildings with richly furnished, well- preserved Protestant interiors as mirrors of Frisian cultural history between c. 1200 and c. 1800. An introduction to Frisian church history is followed by short explanatory texts on the eleven best Frisian churches, presented in the manner of a tour. The number eleven refers to the Frisian “Elfstedentocht”, a traditional speed skating race between the province’s eleven historic towns. The 112 page book is richly illustrated with photographs from the archive of the foundation’s founding father, the late Regnerus Steensma.

Figure 1. Justin Kroesen, The Frisian Eleven Churches Tour, 2018, book cover. ReligionsReligions2021 2021, 12, 12, 702, x FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of of 19 19

WhereasWhereas the the Frisian Frisian book book is is presented presented as as a a thematic thematic travel travel guide guide aimed aimed at at Dutch Dutch and and foreignforeign visitors,visitors, the the Groningen Groningen book bookOde Ode aan aan de de oude oude Groninger Groninger kerken kerken(“Ode (“Ode to to the the Old Old GroningenGroningen churches”) churches”) (Figure (Figure2) 2) is is primarily primarily intended intended for for residents residents of of the the province province itself itself andand others others that that feel feel a a strong strong attachment attachment to to the the region. region.2424It It was was published published on on the the occasion occasion ofof thethe Groningen Groningen foundation’s foundation’s fiftieth fiftieth anniversary anniversary in in 2019 2019 and and includes includes texts texts on on all all the the organization’sorganization’s (then) (then) ninety-four ninety-four churches churches ( De (De Vos Vos and and Kroesen Kroesen 2019 2019).). Each Each church church is is treatedtreated inin thethe mannermanner of a a diptych diptych consisting consisting of of a apersonal personal impression impression of ofthe the building building and andthe thesite siteby the by theliterary literary journalist journalist and and writer writer Marjoleine Marjoleine de Vos, de Vos, followed followed by bya loosel a looselyy aca- academicdemic account account of the of thechurches’ churches’ history history and and art provided art provided by the by author the author of this of article. this article. While WhileDe Vos De concentrates Vos concentrates on aspects on aspects such such as aesthetics as aesthetics,, atmosphere, atmosphere, remarkable remarkable features features,, and andpersonal personal encounters, encounters, my texts my textsfocus focuson each on church’s each church’s most outstanding most outstanding cultural cultural--historical historicalfeatures, features,based on basedpast research. on past research. Both approaches Both approaches are separately are separately visualized visualized by two pho- by twotographers, photographers, Bo Scheeringa Bo Scheeringa and Jim and Ernst, Jim whose Ernst, whosepictures pictures accompany accompany all texts. all The texts. book The is bookshaped is shaped as a large as a format large format coffee coffee table tablebook bookof 408 of pages 408 pages and andwas wasalmost almost immediately immediately sold soldout after out after a pre a- pre-registeringregistering campaign, campaign, illustrat illustratinging the public the public interest interest for ( forexpensive (expensive:: EUR 25 EUR70) publications 70) publications on religious on religious heritage. heritage.25 A luxuryA luxury signed signed edition edition inside inside a gold a gold-colored-colored cas- cassettesette was was also also produced. produced.

FigureFigure 2. 2.Marjoleine Marjoleine de de Vos Vos and and Justin Justin Kroesen, Kroesen,Ode Ode aan aan de de Groninger Groninger kerken kerken, 2019,, 2019, book book cover. cover.

InIn mymy textstexts for both publications, publications, I Iattempted attempted to to utilize utilize the the church church building, building, its itsfur- furnishings,nishings, and and the the lives lives of ofhistorical historical figures figures connected connected to tothem them as aspoints points of ofaccess access into into the thecultural cultural history history of the of thenorthern northern Netherlands. Netherlands.26 Depend26 Dependinging on the on themost most remarkable remarkable char- characteristicsacteristics of each of each church, church, the theemphasis emphasis may may shift shift from from the thesite sitewhere where the thechurch church is situ- is situated,ated, the thebuildings’ buildings’ architectural architectural features features,, and and the theart artand and iconography iconography found found in its in inte- its interior,rior, to tothe the biographies biographies of of individuals individuals that that p playedlayed a a role inin theirtheir history.history. The The stories stories told told aboutabout eacheach church church roughly roughly address address three three aspects aspects or or dimensions, dimensions, always always from from a a cultural- cultural- historicalhistorical perspective:perspective: (1) the religious religious aspect, aspect, (2) (2) the the local local context context,, and and (3) (3) the the wider wider Eu- Europeanropean or or even even global global context context.. These These three approaches,approaches, whichwhich obviouslyobviously may may overlap, overlap, correspondcorrespond to to the the growing growing knowledge knowledge gap gap concerning concerning the the religious religious factor factor in cultural in cultural history his- tory on the one hand and present the churches as the local communities’ “3D-history

Religions 2021, 12, 702 7 of 19

on the one hand and present the churches as the local communities’ “3D-history books” on the other.27 The many often untold stories great and small that surround the churches help to position and understand these monuments, in both their site-specific micro- and wider macro-contexts. The wider aim is to bring the churches (back) to the minds of the community whose efforts and willingness to spend money for their preservation are essential to their future survival.

3. Religious Stories Several years ago, at a conference, Prof. Barbara Schellewald from Basle (Switzerland) noted that explaining Christianity in a secularized world requires an anthropological approach, with the old church in the role of an exotic tribe’s sacrificial site. Explaining the complicated, layered religious history of the northern Netherlands runs as a thread through many of the texts in both books. All churches were Catholic until the late sixteenth century, when the region transitioned to Calvinism—Frisia in 1580 and Groningen in 1594. As a result of Protestant iconoclasm, medieval church furnishings are rare today. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, new Protestant furnishings were installed, some of which are surprisingly exuberant. In many church communities, the landed nobility acquired a central role, as reflected by their tombs, pews, and hatchments that now fill many church interiors. The “Batavian Revolution” of 1795 subsequently affected the position of the nobility and entailed a modest new wave of destruction. Through the centuries, Dutch Protestantism has been characterized by schisms, which led to a rich variety of separate churches, and Judaism also found its place in the religious landscape from the seventeenth century onward. Explaining this history and the stereotypes that surround these movements and events is a recurring element in many of the short texts in both the Groningen and the Frisian churches book. Some unremarkable Protestant churches possess a remarkable Catholic history. The eighteenth-century church at Solwerd (Groningen), for example, is the successor of a me- dieval chapel built on the site where a shining Host should have appeared in a ditch, a miracle that sparked a regional pilgrimage tradition that reminds us of the vanished devo- tional culture of the Catholic past; interestingly, the practice proved difficult to extinguish after the Reformation (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 292). The most important missing link in the church landscape of the northern Netherlands today is the approximately one hundred monasteries, of all sizes, that once existed in these coastal lands. In Wittewierum (Groningen), underneath the present nineteenth-century church, the remains of the former monastery church of Bloemhof appeared during excavations in 2001. Its reconstruction evokes a monumental three-aisled brick building not unlike surviving churches in northern Germany, including Segeberg (Schleswig-Holstein) (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 380). Monks from Bloemhof served several parish churches in the surrounding region, including Krewerd. The short chapter about this small thirteenth-century church interprets its interior as a reflection of the monastery church, which may explain the presence of a monumental brick rood screen and a late medieval organ; whereas, of the monastery, only archaeological traces are left, the screen and organ in the village church are both preserved (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 144) (Figure3). Rood screens and lofts are reminders of the traditional separation of the clergy and the people in medieval churches, a topic which is addressed in the chapter about the church at Holwierde and its remarkable Gothic wooden screen of a type mostly found in Britain (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 128). When the wooden pulpit in Woltersum (Groningen) was repainted in 1964, the panels of its drum were found to be late medieval, showing a series of painted Passion scenes (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 384). An element that is relatively often found is the piscina, a wall niche in which the priest washed his hands after Mass to ensure that no crumb of the Host would become profanized. Examples of such walled “lavabos” (a term of liturgical origin, as is explained in the text) are still found in Krewerd, Leermens, and Stitswerd in Groningen, and in Huizum in Frisia (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, pp. 144, 156, 300; Kroesen 2018, p. 57). Medieval wall paintings survive in a Religions 2021, 12, 702 8 of 19

considerable number of churches in both Frisia (Hegebeintum) and Groningen (Bierum, Middelstum, Noordbroek) (Kroesen 2018, p. 50; De Vos and Kroesen 2019, pp. 44, 184, 220). In Noordbroek, the vaults display an entire painted program that follows the road from Sin, visualized by Adam and Eve eating from the forbidden tree in Paradise at the west end, via St Christopher who protected against sudden death, to the Last Judgement and Salvation offered by the Man of Sorrows in the chancel (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 220). Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19 This painted program, characterized in the book as “Groningen’s own Sistine Chapel”, summarizes the medieval concept of Redemption.

FigureFigure 3. 3.The The rood rood loft loft (c. (c. 1300) 1300) and and organ organ (1531) (1531 in) in the the small small parish parish church church of of Krewerd Krewerd (Groningen) (Groningen) reflect monastic church interiors (photo: Regnerus Steensma archive). reflect monastic church interiors (photo: Regnerus Steensma archive).

AR pivotalood screens moment and inlofts the are religious remind historyers of ofthe the traditional northern separation Netherlands of wasthe theclergy tran- and sitionthe people to Calvinism, in medieval which churches, was often a accompanied topic which is by addressed acts of iconoclasm. in the chapter A surviving about the eyewitnesschurch at Holwierde report from and Oosternieland its remarkable informs Gothic us wooden of the treasuresscreen of thata type were mostly lost infound this in smallBritain Groningen (De Vos and country Kroesen church: 2019, a missalp. 128). and When several the wooden other books, pulpit a in tabernacle, Woltersum and (Gro- a chancelningen) screen.was repainted The altar in slab 1964, was the symbolically panels of its profanized drum were as found a doorstep to be (DelateVos medieval, and Kroesenshowing 2019 a series, p. 244). of painted The church Passion in Frisianscenes Buitenpost(De Vos and possesses Kroesen a 2019 heavy, p. stone 384). fontAn element with sculptedthat is relatively reliefs in often the Gothic found style is the that piscina, offers ana wall impression niche in of which whatthis the basicpriest element washed to his anyhands parish after church Mass lookedto ensure like that (Kroesen no crumb 2018 ,of p. the 36) Host (Figure would4). The become octagonal profanized. bowl shows Exam- Stples Peter of andsuch St walled Paul, a“ Pelicanlavabos as” (a the term symbol of liturgical of Christ, origin, and the as Lambis explained of God, in from the whosetext) are cheststill found a jet of in blood Krewerd, flows intoLeermens a chalice, and as theStitswerd symbol in of Groningen the Eucharist., and At in the Huizum same time, in Frisia its present,(De Vos heavily and Kroesen damaged 2019, state pp. also144, informs156, 300; us Kroesen about the 2018, violent p. 57). abolition Medieval of thewall Catholic paintings cult.survive The in chancel a considerable of Leegkerk number (Groningen) of churches carries in the both traces Frisia of its (Hege use by-beintum both Catholics,) and Gro- inningen the shape (Bierum, of wall Middelstum, niches that Noordbroek) served as a tabernacle (Kroesen and2018, piscina, p. 50; De and Vos Calvinists, and Kroesen by wooden2019, pp. panels 44, 184, reading 220). theIn Noordbroek, Ten Commandments the vaults and display the numbers an entire of the painted Psalms program that were that sungfollows during the road the celebration from Sin, visualized of the Lord’s by Adam Supper and (De Eve Vos eating and Kroesen from the 2019 forbidden, p. 152). tree In in Paradise at the west end, via St Christopher who protected against sudden death, to the Last Judgement and Salvation offered by the Man of Sorrows in the chancel (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 220). This painted program, characterized in the book as “Groningen’s own Sistine Chapel”, summarizes the medieval concept of Redemption. A pivotal moment in the religious history of the northern Netherlands was the tran- sition to Calvinism, which was often accompanied by acts of iconoclasm. A surviving eye- witness report from Oosternieland informs us of the treasures that were lost in this small Groningen country church: a missal and several other books, a tabernacle, and a chancel screen. The altar slab was symbolically profanized as a doorstep (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 244). The church in Frisian Buitenpost possesses a heavy stone font with sculpted

Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19

reliefs in the Gothic style that offers an impression of what this basic element to any parish church looked like (Kroesen 2018, p. 36) (Figure 4). The octagonal bowl shows St Peter and St Paul, a Pelican as the symbol of Christ, and the Lamb of God, from whose chest a jet of blood flows into a chalice as the symbol of the Eucharist. At the same time, its present, heavily damaged state also informs us about the violent abolition of the Catholic cult. The chancel of Leegkerk (Groningen) carries the traces of its use by both Catholics, in the shape Religions 2021, 12, 702 9 of 19 of wall niches that served as a tabernacle and piscina, and Calvinists, by wooden panels reading the Ten Commandments and the numbers of the Psalms that were sung during the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 152). In Meedhuizen Meedhuizen(Groningen), (Groningen), the silver chalice the silver of 1639, chalice remarkably, of 1639, remarkably, held the memory held the of memory the church’s of the Cath- church’solic patron Catholic saint patronLaurence saint alive Laurence by means alive of by an means engraved of an engravedportrait (De portrait Vos and (De VosKroesen and2019, Kroesen p. 176). 2019 , p. 176).

FigureFigure 4. 4.The The stone stone baptismal baptismal font font in Buitenpostin Buitenpost (Frisia) (Frisia) was was carved carved during during the 15th the century15th century and and heavilyheavily damaged damaged during during the the 16th 16th (photo: (photo: Regnerus Regnerus Steensma Steensma archive). archive).

SeveralSeveral churches churches illustrate illustrate how how the the room room left left behind behind by theby nowthe now removed removed Catholic Catholic altaraltar was was soon soon filled filled with with memorials memorials for the for landed the landed nobility. nobility. In Midwolde In Midwolde (Groningen), (Groningen), the chancelthe chancel was fullywas usurpedfully usurped by the by nobles the nobles of the nearby of the Nienoordnearby Nienoord manor during manor the duri firstng the decadesfirst decades after the after Reformation the Reformation (De Vos and (De Kroesen Vos and 2019 Kroesen, p. 192). 2019, A block-shaped p. 192). A memorialblock-shaped tombmemorial with atomb life-sized with recumbenta life-sized figure recumbent of Carel figure Hieronymus of Carel vanHieronymus In- en Knip-huisen van In- en (d. Knip- 1664)huisen fills (d. most 1664) of thefills east most wall, of whereasthe east anwall, elevated whereas gallery an elevated pew painted gallery with pew heraldry painted sits with onheraldry the north sits side on as the a true north VIP side skybox as a (Figure true VIP5). Itskybox must be (Figure added that5). It the must same be nobles added also that the donated the essential elements for the Calvinist liturgy to the church, namely a Baroque same nobles also donated the essential elements for the Calvinist liturgy to the church, Communion table, pulpit, and organ. For the Calvinists, the preaching of the Word was namely a Baroque Communion table, pulpit, and organ. For the Calvinists, the preaching the core of the church service, as aptly illustrated by the octagonal church dating from 1660–1665of the Word in Sappemeerwas the core (Groningen), of the church which service, is described as aptly inillustrated a chapter by entitled the octagonal “Gathered church arounddating thefrom Word” 1660– (1665De Vos in Sappemeer and Kroesen (Groningen), 2019, p. 280). which The is pulpit described took overin a chapter the role entitled of the“Gathered altar and around its retable the asWord” the primary (De Vos image and Kroesen bearer in 201 church9, p. 280). space. The Frisian pulpit pulpits took over in the Kimswerdrole of the (1695) altar and its Sexbierum retable as (1768) the primary both show image a carved bearer program in church following space. theological Frisian pulpits arguments (Kroesen 2018, pp. 64–65, 87). In Sexbierum, this centers on Christian virtues and the role of Christ in human Salvation, whereas the pulpit in Kimswerd explores the intricate relationship between motifs in the Old and New Testaments, stressing the contrast in terms of Law vs. Gospel.

Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

in Kimswerd (1695) and Sexbierum (1768) both show a sculpted program following theo- logical arguments (Kroesen 2018, pp. 64–65, 87). In Sexbierum, this centers on Christian Religions 2021, 12, 702 virtues and the role of Christ in human Salvation, whereas the pulpit in Kimswerd10 of ex- 19 plores the intricate relationship between motifs in the Old and New Testaments, stressing the contrast in terms of Law vs. Gospel.

FigureFigure 5. 5.Midwolde Midwolde (Groningen), (Groningen), interior interior looking looking east east with with an elevated an elevated pew (left)pew and(left) a and marble a marble tomb tomb filling the chancel (photo: Regnerus Steensma archive). filling the chancel (photo: Regnerus Steensma archive).

ReligiousReligious minorities minorities enjoyed enjoyed a a certain certain amount amount of of tolerance tolerance in in the the Dutch Dutch Republic, Republic, as as longlong as as they they did did not not manifestmanifest themselves themselves in in public public space. space. AnAn importantimportant Christian Christian minority minority alongsidealongside thethe publicpublic DutchDutch reformedreformed churchchurch waswas thatthat ofof the the Anabaptists Anabaptists ororMennonites. Mennonites. TheThe last last term term refers refers to to the the founder founder of of their their movement, movement, the the Frisian Frisian ex-priest ex-priest Menno Menno Simons Simons (1496–1561),(1496–1561), who who was was the the only only Dutch-born Dutch-born sixteenth-century sixteenth-century Reformer. Reformer. The The Mennonites Mennonites laidlaid considerable considerable emphasis emphasis on on ethical ethical principles principles in in their their teachings teachings and and their their churches churches and and liturgyliturgy were were characterized characterized by by a strong a strong strive strive for austerity. for austerity. The Mennonite The Mennonite church church(in Dutch: (in vermaning,Dutch: vermaning, “admonition”) “admonition in Grijpskerk”) in Grijpskerk (Groningen) (Groningen) is typically is typically situated situated in a hiddenin a hid- location,den location, down down a narrow a narrow alley alley (De Vos (De and Vos Kroesen and Kroesen 2019, p.2019, 100). p. Inside,100). Inside, however, however, two eighteenth-centurytwo eighteenth-century brass lecterns brass lecterns eloquently eloquently illustrate illustrate the Mennonite the Mennonite paradox: paradox: because be- of theircause zeal of their and frugality,zeal and somefrugality, Mennonites some Mennonites acquired considerableacquired considerable wealth. A wealth. second, A non- sec- Christianond, non minority-Christian that minority was increasingly that was incr toleratedeasingly in thetolerated Dutch Republicin the Dutch was Judaism.Republic Thewas GroningenJudaism. The foundation Groningen possesses foundation two historic possesses synagogues, two historic in Appingedamsynagogues, andin Appingedam Groningen (capital)and Groningen (De Vos (capital) and Kroesen (De Vos2019 and, pp. Kroesen 28, 112). 2019, Both pp. monuments 28, 112). Both now monuments primarily serve now asprimarily memorials serve to as their memorials communities to their that communi were deportedties that andwere killed deported during and World killed Warduring II. TheWorld buildings War II. were The putbuildings to different were purposes put to different after the purposes war, and after were the recently war, restoredand were and re- turnedcently intorestored places and of turned memory into for places the once of memory thriving for Jewish the once community thriving inJewish Groningen. community in Groningen. 4. Local Stories 4. LocalOld churchesStories were referred to earlier as the “3D history books of towns and villages”, implyingOld churc that theyhes were primarily referred inform to earlier us on as localthe “3D history. history In books Niehove of towns (Groningen), and villages”, the medievalimplying churchthat they sits primarily perfectly inform at the us core on oflocal the history. village’s In radiantNiehove structure, (Groningen), as a the spider me- indieval a web, church illustrating sits perfectly its central at the role core in the of communitythe village’s throughoutradiant structure, the centuries as a spider (De Vosin a andweb, Kroesen illustrating 2019 its, p. central 200). role The in architectural the community history throughout of churches the reflectscenturies demographic (De Vos and developments,Kroesen 2019, whereasp. 200). The tombs architectural and memorials history keep of the churches memory reflects of remarkable demographic individuals devel- alive. In several Groningen churches, including Den Ham, the grave-strewn floors inside opments, whereas tombs and memorials keep the memory of remarkable individuals the building and in the cemetery surrounding it together provide a historical who’s who alive. In several Groningen churches, including Den Ham, the grave-strewn floors inside of the parish (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 56).28 The grave poetry found on tombstones in places such as Thesinge and Leermens (Groningen) mirror the views on life and death among past generations. In Leermens, the rhyme on the stone of Anje O. Groot (d. 1889) expresses little hope: “Exhausted by a high age, emaciated by disease and pain, she had to descend into the grave, and be a prey of the worms” (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 155). In Beerta, also in Groningen, the inscription on the slab for churchwarden Derk Aeitens Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19

the building and in the cemetery surrounding it together provide a historical who’s who of the parish (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 56).28 The grave poetry found on tombstones in places such as Thesinge and Leermens (Groningen) mirror the views on life and death among past generations. In Leermens, the rhyme on the stone of Anje O. Groot (d. 1889) expresses little hope: “Exhausted by a high age, emaciated by disease and pain, she had Religions 2021, 12, 702 to descend into the grave, and be a prey of the worms” (De Vos and Kroesen 2019,11 of 19 p. 155). In Beerta, also in Groningen, the inscription on the slab for churchwarden Derk Aeitens (d. 1796) reads almost as a biography of the deceased, mentioning his forty years in ser- vice, the four wives he married for better and for worse, and his conversion at the age of (d. 1796) reads almost as a biography of the deceased, mentioning his forty years in thirty-three. Because Christ cured his soul, Aeitens is said—not quite conforming to the service, the four wives he married for better and for worse, and his conversion at the age ofCalvinist thirty-three. doctrine Because of predestination Christ cured his— soul,to be Aeitens now plaiting is said—not crowns quite of conforming joy in Heaven to the (De Vos Calvinistand Kroesen doctrine 2019, of predestination—top. 40). be now plaiting crowns of joy in Heaven (De Vos and KroesenIn some 2019 instances,, p. 40). the church building itself is a reminder of the special status of the villageIn some in certain instances, phases the of church its history. building In itselfthe now is a small reminder village of the of specialBaflo (Groningen), status of for theexample, village the in certain sizable phases church of is its reminiscent history. In the of it now being small one village of the offirst Baflo six (Groningen),Christian churches forfounded example, in the the late sizable eighth church century. is reminiscent Its pastor ofs had it being the status one of of the deans first sixover Christian the surround- churchesing parishes founded (De inVos the and late Kroesen eighth century. 2019, p. Its 32). pastors The hadNeo the-Gothic status plaster of deans that over now the covers surroundingthe medieval parishes walls of (De the Vos church and Kroesenat nearby 2019 Usquert, p. 32). conceals The Neo-Gothic its long history plaster, which that also nowstarted covers in the the eighth medieval century walls ( ofDe the Vos church and Kroesen at nearby 2019, Usquert p. 340). conceals The vita its long of the history, missionary which also started in the eighth century (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 340). The vita of bishop, Saint-Liudger, narrates how he prayed in a wooden chapel there, together with the missionary bishop, Saint-Liudger, narrates how he prayed in a wooden chapel there, the blind poet Bernlef, who accompanied him on his wanderings, which is one of the old- together with the blind poet Bernlef, who accompanied him on his wanderings, which isest one textual of the references oldest textual to a references church in to the a church Netherlands. in the Netherlands. Some Groningen Some Groningenvillage churches villageare the churches only surviv are theals only of survivalsmighty medieval of mighty monasteries. medieval monasteries. In Thesinge, In Thesinge, the small the village smallchurch village is the church chancel is the of chancela former of church a former of churchthe double of the Benedictine double Benedictine abbey of abbey Germania, ofwhich Germania, belonged which to belongedthe wealthiest to the in wealthiest the northern in the Netherlands northern Netherlands before the Reformation before the (De ReformationVos and Kroesen (De Vos 2019, and Kroesen p. 312) 2019(Figure, p. 312) 6). The (Figure richly6). The decorated richly decorated brick walls brick of walls the village ofchurch the village in nearby church Garmerwolde in nearby Garmerwolde evoke the evoke grandness the grandness of such of suchabbey abbey churches, churches, although althoughthis particular this particular church churchonly served only served as a parish as a parish church church (De Vos (De Vosand and Kroesen Kroesen 2019, 2019 p., 88). It p.may 88). serve It may as serve a testimony as a testimony to the to remarkable the remarkable skills, skills, wealth wealth,, and and ambitions ambitions of thisthis small smallfarmers’ farmers’ community community in Groningen in Groningen around around the the middle middle of of the the thirteenth thirteenth century.century.

FigureFigure 6. 6.Thesinge Thesinge (Groningen)—the (Groningen)—the present present church church is the is only the remnantonly remnant of a Benedictine of a Benedictine monastery monastery churchchurch built built in in the the late late 13th 13th century century (photo: (photo: Regnerus Regnerus Steensma Steensma archive). archive).

TheThe location location of churchesof churches also tellsalso atells history a history of many of centuries many centuries that, in the that, Netherlands, in the Nether- islands closely, is connected closely connected to the struggle to the against struggle water. against In Frisian water. Hegebeintum, In Frisian Hegebeintum, the church the is situated at the top of an 8.8 m high mound, a so-called terp, an artificial hill erected by the coastal dwellers as a protection against floods (Kroesen 2018, p. 50) (Figure7). Archaeological excavations have unearthed a history that goes back to long before the present twelfth-century church, into the Roman period. In the eastern part of Groningen, some churches had predecessors elsewhere, showing how some villages were moved Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19

church is situated at the top of an 8.8 m high mound, a so-called terp, an artificial hill erected by the coastal dwellers as a protection against floods (Kroesen 2018, p. 50) (Figure Religions 2021, 12, 702 12 of 19 7). Archaeological excavations have unearthed a history that goes back to long before the present twelfth-century church, into the Roman period. In the eastern part of Groningen, some churches had predecessors elsewhere, showing how some villages were moved be- becausecause of of the the rising rising water water level. In Beerta, Beerta, the the Gothic Gothic church church was was partly partly built built with with tuff tuff stonesstones fromfrom the the abandoned abandoned predecessor predecessor in in Ulsda, Ulsda, now now submerged submerged in in the the waves waves of of the the DollardDollard estuary estuary ( De(De Vos Vos and and Kroesen Kroesen 2019 2019,, p. p. 40). 40). The The soil soil in in the the new new location location also also proved proved toto be be unstable, unstable, as as the the vaults vaults cracked cracked and and collapsed collapsed during during church church service service on 3 August on 3 August 1783; fortunately,1783; fortunately, all churchgoers all churchgoers escaped escape just ind time.just in The time. nineteenth-century The nineteenth-century church church in Den in HornDen Horn in swampy in swampy western western Groningen Groningen succeeded succeeded a medieval a medieval predecessor predecessor in an abandoned in an aban- nearbydoned villagenearby (villageDe Vos ( andDe Vos Kroesen and Kroesen 2019, p. 2019, 60). Becausep. 60). Because it was intendedit was intended to serve to two serve villages,two villages, it was it built was inbuilt the in middle. the middle. The preserved The preserved minutes minutes of thechurch of the church council council meeting meet- of 1862ing of show 1862 that show the that decision the decision was made was during made aduring tumultuous a tumult meeting,uous meeting, with one with latecomer one late- tippingcomer tipping the vote the in favorvote in of favor the present of the location.present location.

FigureFigure 7. 7.Hegebeintum Hegebeintum (Frisia), (Frisia), the the 12th-century 12th-century church church sits sits on topon top ofan of 8.8an m8.8 high m high mound, mound, called called a “terp”a “terp (photo:” (photo: Regnerus Regnerus Steensma Steensma archive). archive).

ManyMany churches churches bear bear the the mark mark of theof the most most prominent prominent members members of the of local the local community. commu- Innity. Oosterwijtwerd, In Oosterwijtwerd, the small the churchsmall church was transformed was transformed into a memorial into a memorial space for space the localfor the energeticlocal energetic nobleman nobleman Gijsbert Gijsbert Herman Herman Ripperda Ripperda (1639–1695), (1639 who–1695 acquired), who acquired the local manorthe local atmanor the age at ofthe twenty-one age of twenty (De Vos-one and (De Kroesen Vos and 2019 Kroesen, p. 248). 2019, He p. had 248). the He church had re-furnishedthe church re- beforefurnished he embarked before he upon embarked the renovation upon the of renovation his manor, and of his he alsomanor, founded and he a poorhouse. also founded In a return,poorhouse. he transformed In return, thehe transform apse into hised gravethe apse chapel, into andhis grave his family chapel pew,, and the his Communion family pew, chalice,the Communion and even chalice the silver, and bell even under the silver the alms bell pouch under allthe bear alms his pouch coat all of arms.bear his Noble coat of pewsarms. became Noble pews a characteristic became a featurecharacteristic of Protestant feature churches of Protestant during churches the seventeenth during the and sev- eighteenthenteenth and centuries. eighteenth In Frisiancenturies. Marssum, In Frisian they Marssum, fill the entire they fill room, the asentire the resultroom, ofas athe vertitableresult of a “pew verti war”table between“pew war the” between village’s the most village’s prominent most families prominent that wasfamilies fought that out was infought the most out in public the most of all public spaces—the of all spaces church—the (Kroesen church (Kroesen2018, pp. 2 79–80).018, pp. 79 In– Harkstede80). In Hark- (Groningen),stede (Groningen), the Gothic the Gothic style ofstyle the of village the village church church is elusive. is elusive. It was It was only only built built in thein the seventeenthseventeenth centurycentury atat thethe behest of Henric Piccardt Piccardt ( (1636–1712),1636–1712), a a new new arrival arrival among among the theGroningen Groningen nobility nobility (De (De Vos Vos and and Kroesen Kroesen 2019,2019, p.p. 120).120). He He had had the the medieval medieval church church knocked down and replaced by a cross-shaped building that was primarily intended as a knocked down and replaced by a cross-shaped building that was primarily intended as a memorial to himself: the facade carries his coat of arms, and under the entire church sits a memorial to himself: the facade carries his coat of arms, and under the entire church sits grave cellar. The Gothic style was used to suggest a longer history than he could actually a grave cellar. The Gothic style was used to suggest a longer history than he could actually boast of. boast of. Churches obviously also carry the memory of the reverends who served the local community throughout the centuries. Some were true celebrities, including the pietist reverend of Midwolda (Groningen), Wilhelmus Schortinghuis (1700–1750), who was widely known for his mesmerizing orthodox sermons (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 188). In Religions 2021, 12, 702 13 of 19

Midwolde, further west, Reverend Nathan Bollardt came into conflict with the previously mentioned local nobleman Carel Hieronymus van In- en Kniphuisen in 1675, who had him removed to the church of the nearby hamlet of Lettelbert (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 160). Both church buildings illustrate that this was a clear degrade, from a Romanesque church with a tall steeple to an early Gothic, towerless roadside chapel. In Grootegast (Groningen), the inscribed Communion chalice from 1764 mentions the then recently deceased reverend Jan Berends Smook, who was famous throughout the country for having served the local church for no less than fifty-eight years (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 116). Moreover, he survived a nightly burglary at the age of seventy-seven, in which his servant was strangled to death. The memory of another brave minister in a very different period of history is found in the church of Nieuw-Beerta in eastern Groningen (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 208). Reverend Bastiaan Jan Ader (1909–1944), who had won the hearts of many youngsters in his parish, was sadly executed during World War II for his activities in the resistance against the Nazi occupation. Although churches are often perceived as places of peace, the history of many is connected to wars and military activity. In Tinallinge (Groningen), on the walls under the organ loft, are loose-handed drawings of several battle scenes with varied weaponry (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 316). The machinery and the dress of the figures depicted suggest that they date to the start of the Eighty Years War (1568–1648) in which the Dutch liberated themselves from Spanish rule. The drawings were possibly carried out by prisoners-of-war who were locked up in the church; at the start of that war, the Groningen countryside was the scene of some fierce battles. The church in the fortified town of Oudeschans at Groningen’s eastern border was erected by the central government of the Dutch Republic in The Hague to serve the military regiment that was stationed there (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 264). A grave slab in Louis XV-style in the church floor remembers the commander, Jan Gerard Georg van Maneil (†1770). In Frisian Buitenpost, the colorful memorial hatchment of Martinus Acronius (d. 1780) hanging from the chancel wall features a rich collection of war attributes: a plumed helmet, gloves, spurs, a sword, and a coat of mail, lances, cannon barrels, drums, and pestles for pushing home gunpowder (Kroesen 2018, pp. 37–38). A crack in the marble slab of the Communion table in Obergum (Groningen) is said to have been caused by the impact of the rifle butt of a French soldier in Napoleon’s army (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 232). Many churches and their interiors mirror social hierarchies and their dynamics over time. In Zuurdijk (Groningen), agriculture brought considerable wealth to many families during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and the village at that time has been aptly characterized as a “farmers’ republic” (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 400). Many grave slabs in the church floor and on the churchyard are decorated with a panoply of death symbols (a willow, scythe, winged sandglass) and a plethora of farming utensils (a flail, hayfork, plough, etc.) (Figure8). In nearby Ulrum, in 1834, social tensions led to the so- called Afscheiding (“secession”) of the orthodox “gereformeerden”, who split away from the—in their view—too liberal Dutch Reformed Church (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 336). The interior of the thirteenth-century brick church, and particularly the mid-eighteenth- century oak pulpit, are a memorial to Reverend Hendrik de Cock (1801–1842), who was the leader of this important schism in the history of Dutch Protestantism. The industrious “gereformeerden”, who were called “kleine luyden” (“little people”) in a depreciatory manner, quickly organized themselves and added large buildings to the church landscape during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Their imposing church in Bedum and the expressionist buildings in Onderdendam and Westeremden are illustrations of the quick emancipation of the Christian working class in Groningen during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, pp. 36, 240, 356). Religions 2021, 12, 702 14 of 19 Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19

FigureFigure 8.8.Zuurdijk Zuurdijk (Groningen), (Groningen), tombstone tombstone of of Jan Jan Jakobs Jakobs Bos Bos (†1871) (†1871) in thein the cemetery cemetery showing showing several sev- eral farmers’ tools: harrow, spade, flail, and plough (photo: Jim Ernst). farmers’ tools: harrow, spade, flail, and plough (photo: Jim Ernst).

5.5. GlobalGlobal StoriesStories ManyManystories stories toldtold byby oldold churcheschurches areare essentiallyessentially “glocal”:“glocal”: inin additionaddition toto locallocal history,history, mostmost churcheschurches alsoalso reflectreflect howhow communitiescommunities werewere connectedconnected toto other,other, sometimessometimes aston-aston- ishinglyishingly distant,distant, places.places. Firstly,Firstly, because because natural natural stone stone is is lacking lacking in in these these regions, regions, many many of of thethe buildingbuilding materialsmaterials inin GroningenGroningen andand FrisiaFrisiawere were broughtbrought fromfrom elsewhere, elsewhere, sometimes sometimes byby nature;nature; whenwhen aa talltall steeplesteeple waswas erectederected inin TolbertTolbert (Groningen) (Groningen) duringduring thethe thirteenththirteenth century,century, it it was was founded founded on on granite granite boulders boulders deposited deposited here here from from Scandinavia Scandinavia during during the the latestlatest ice ice age, age, some some 150,000 150,000 years years ago ago (De (De Vos Vos and and Kroesen Kroesen 2019 2019,, p. 320). p. 320). The tuffThe stonetuff stone that wasthat used was toused build to Romanesquebuild Romanesque churches churches was imported was imported from the from German the EifelGerman and Eifel shipped and northshipped over north the rivers over Mosel, the rivers Rhine, Mosel, and IJssel. Rhine Naves, and of IJssel. tuff are Naves found of in Kimswerdtuff are found (Frisia) in (FigureKimswerd9) and (Fr Holwierdeisia) (Figure (Groningen), 9) and Holwierde for example. (Groningen), In Holwierde, for example the tympanums. In Holwierde, above the thetympanums transept entrancesabove the weretransept hewn entrances in red sandstone were hewn that in red was sandstone probably broughtthat was fromprobably the Germanbrought Odenwaldfrom the German further southOdenwald along further the Rhine south (De along Vos and the Kroesen Rhine ( De2019 Vos, p. and 128). Kroesen Grave slabs2019, forp. the128). well-to-do Grave slabs also for had the to well be imported.-to-do also A had slab to in be Weidum imported. (Frisia) A slab remembering in Weidum the(Frisia parish) remembering priest Tiebbe the van parish Unia priest (d. 1523) Tiebbe was van made Unia of (d. stone 1523) imported was made from of the stone island im- ofported Öland, from off the Swedishisland of eastÖland, coast off ( Kroesenthe Swedish 2018 east, p. 92).coast Several (Kroesen further 2018, sculpted p. 92). Several grave slabsfurther in thesculpted floor of grave the same slabs church in the arefloor hewn of the in same “blue church stone” importedare hewn fromin “blue Namur stone on” theim- riverported Meuse from in Namur present-day on the Belgium. river Meuse Many in church present bells-day in GroningenBelgium. Many and Frisian church churches bells in wereGroningen cast by and bell Frisian casters churches from France, were including cast by bell the famouscasters from seventeenth-century France, including brothers the fa- Françoismous seventeenth and Pierre-century Hemony. brothers François and Pierre Hemony. The architectural style reflected by the medieval churches in Groningen and Frisia has always followed foreign models. With the imported tuff stone came architectural traditions from the Rhineland that, in turn, reflect a clear inspiration from church build- ing in northern Italy, especially Lombardy. The text about the Romanesque church of Zuidwolde (Groningen) is entitled “A Lombardic Tower on the Banks of the Boterdiep” (a river in Groningen) (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 396). After the production of brick from Groningen and Frisian sea clay started in the second half of the twelfth century, churches were still designed following foreign styles and fashions. The richly decorated late Romanesque apse in Oldenzijl (Groningen) is clearly inspired on Cologne models that were here “translated” into brick, whereas the church at nearby Breede has a western gable that shows similarity to the northern German “Backsteingotik” (”brick Gothic”) (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 48). The exuberant late Romanesque building tradition in the

Religions 2021, 12, 702 15 of 19

Groningen countryside was clearly rooted in Westphalia, some two hundred kilometers to the southeast. This connection had existed ever since Christianity had been introduced by the missionary bishop St Liudger of Westphalian Münster in the eighth century. Until the sixteenth century, most of Groningen would remain part of that diocese. Not surprising, Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEWtherefore, is the import of baptismal fonts from the quarries at Bentheim in that area,15 of for 19

example in Bierum and Termunten (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, pp. 44, 304).

Figure 9. The north wall of the nave in Kimswerd (Frisia) was erected around 1100 in tuff stone Figure 9. The north wall of the nave in Kimswerd (Frisia) was erected around 1100 in tuff stone brought from the Eifel region in Germany (photo: Regnerus Steensma archive). brought from the Eifel region in Germany (photo: Regnerus Steensma archive).

DuringThe architectural the Middle Ages,style reflected Groningen by and the Frisiamedieval belonged churches to the in unified Groningen Catholic and church Frisia thathas createdalways afollowed pan-European foreign religious models. community.With the imported While thetuff parishstone came of Leermens architectural chose tra- St Donatus,ditions from Bishop the of Rhineland Italian Arezzo, that, in as itsturn patron, reflect saint, a clear the churchinspiration of Termunten from church (Groningen) building wasin northern dedicated Italy, to Stespecially Ursus of Lombardy. Solothurn, The a member text about of thethe RomanRomanesque Theban church Legion of Zuid- who diedwolde during (Groningen) a battle is in entitled the Swiss “A Lombardic Alps (De Vos Tower and on Kroesen the Banks 2019 of, the pp. Boterdiep” 156, 304). (a Both river churchesin Groningen) may have(De Vos possessed and Kroesen relics 2019, of these p. 396). rather After uncommon the production saints. of The brick previously from Gro- mentionedningen and monastery Frisian sea churchclay started in Thesinge in the second (Groningen) half of the (Figure twelfth6) century, reflects architecturalchurches were influencesstill designed from following the Rhineland foreign and styles Westphalia, and fashions. and The surviving richly decorated illuminated late manuscripts Romanesque producedapse in Oldenzijl in its scriptorium (Groningen) are is preserved clearly inspired in libraries on Cologne in Groningen, models Deventer, that were Ghent,here “trans- and Copenhagen.lated” into brick, Hence, whereas the corresponding the church at chapternearby isBreede entitled has “Rests a western of a Monasterygable that shows with Distantsimilarity Connections” to the northern (De VosGerman and Kroesen“Backsteingotik 2019, p.” 312). (”brick Academic Gothic” culture) (De Vos also and provided Kroesen international2019, p. 48). The networks. exuberant The late Humanist Romanesque scholar building Rudolf Agricolatradition (1443–1485), in the Groningen who lecturedcountry- atside the was University clearly rooted of Heidelberg, in Westphalia, was born some Roelof two hundred Huisman kilometers in the small to Groningenthe southeast. village This ofconnection Baflo, as the had (bastard) existed ever son of since the Christianitylocal parish dean had been (De Vos introduced and Kroesen by the 2019 missionary, p. 32). Scholarlybishop St culture Liudger was of notWestphalian necessarily Münster a distant in realitythe eighth for rural century. communities. Until the sixteenth A pew in cen- the churchtury, most at Frisian of Groningen Huizum would carries remain a sophisticated part of that Latin diocese. inscription Not surprising, reading arbor therefore, ex fructu, is etthe leo import ex ungue, of agnosciturbaptismal (“Onefonts from knows the the quarries tree from at Bentheim its fruit and in that the lionarea, from for example its claw”), in composedBierum and from Termunten a passage (De in Vos Matthew and Kroesen 12:33 and 2019, a proverbpp. 44, 304). that is found in writings of ErasmusDuring (Kroesen the Middle 2018, pp. Ages, 57–58). Groningen and Frisia belonged to the unified Catholic churchLong-distance that created connectionsa pan-European often religious stem from community. the lives ofWhile nobles, the parish who have of Leermens always travelledchose St forDonatus, a variety Bishop of reasons. of Italian In Arezzo, the late as Gothic its patron church saint, at Middelstum the church of (Groningen), Termunten during(Groningen) the seventeenth was dedicated century, to St a Ursus church ofchronicle Solothurn, was a member painted of on the the Roman north wallTheban of the Le- chancelgion who immediately died during above a battle the survivingin the Swiss medieval Alps (De Sacrament Vos and nicheKroesen (De 2019, Vos and pp. Kroesen156, 304). 2019Both, churches p. 184) (Figure may have 10). possessed The text relics records of these how rather the church uncommon was erected saints. The after previously the safe returnmentioned from monastery the Holy Land church by in the Thesinge knight Onno(Groningen) van Ewsum (Figure in 6) the reflects year 1458,architectural and how in- fluences from the Rhineland and Westphalia, and surviving illuminated manuscripts pro- duced in its scriptorium are preserved in libraries in Groningen, Deventer, Ghent, and Copenhagen. Hence, the corresponding chapter is entitled “Rests of a Monastery with Distant Connections” (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 312). Academic culture also provided international networks. The Humanist scholar Rudolf Agricola (1443–1485), who lectured at the University of Heidelberg, was born Roelof Huisman in the small Groningen village of Baflo, as the (bastard) son of the local parish dean (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 32). Scholarly culture was not necessarily a distant reality for rural communities. A pew in the

Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19

church at Frisian Huizum carries a sophisticated Latin inscription reading arbor ex fructu, et leo ex ungue, agnoscitur (“One knows the tree from its fruit and the lion from its claw”), composed from a passage in Matthew 12:33 and a proverb that is found in writings of Erasmus (Kroesen 2018, pp. 57–58). Long-distance connections often stem from the lives of nobles, who have always trav- elled for a variety of reasons. In the late Gothic church at Middelstum (Groningen), during

Religions 2021, 12, 702 the seventeenth century, a church chronicle was painted on the north wall of the chancel16 of 19 immediately above the surviving medieval Sacrament niche (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 184) (Figure 10). The text records how the church was erected after the safe return from the Holy Land by the knight Onno van Ewsum in the year 1458, and how he had gained hethe had title gained “Ridder the van title Cipren “Ridder” (“Knight van Cipren” of Cyprus (“Knight”) on the of way Cyprus”) home. onThe the influence way home. of the Thetravelling influence nobility of the increased travelling even nobility further increased after the even Reformation. further after In Wetsinge the Reformation. (Groningen), In Wetsingethe current (Groningen), nineteenth the-century current church nineteenth-century is the successor church of an isearlier the successor church that of an had earlier a pe- churchculiar Danish that had connection. a peculiar DanishThe grave connection. cellar under The the grave chancel cellar of underthat church the chancel held the of tomb that churchof Henrick held Ruse the tomb (1624 of–1679 Henrick), the Ruseson of (1624–1679), a minister from the Ruinen son of a in minister the province from of Ruinen Drenthe, in thesouth province of Groningen, of Drenthe, who southbecame of an Groningen, engineer after who a became military an career engineer that had after brought a military him careeras far thatas the had Balcans brought to himfight asthe far Turks. as the In Balcans 1661, he to started fight the working Turks. for In 1661,the Danish he started King workingFrederic for III, the who Danish asked King him Fredericto build III,the who fortifications asked him around to build Copenhagen. the fortifications His activities around Copenhagen.earned him the His rank activities of Knight earned of himthe Order the rank of ofthe Knight Dannebrog. of the OrderAfter conflicts of the Dannebrog. in Kalmar After(Sweden) conflicts and in Trondheim Kalmar (Sweden) (Norway), and he Trondheim returned (Norway), to his native he Netherlands returned to his, where native he Netherlands,bought the Onsta where Manor he bought near Wetsinge the Onsta (Gr Manoroningen), near Wetsingewhich came (Groningen), with a cellar which in the came local withchurch a cellar (De inVos the and local Kroesen church (2019,De Vos p. and140). Kroesen A stained 2019-glass, p. 140). window A stained-glass featured his window coat of featuredarms showing his coat the of Danish arms showing flag. the Danish flag.

FigureFigure 10. 10.Middelstum Middelstum (Groningen), (Groningen), 17th-century 17th-century church church chronicle chronicle painted painted on on the the north north wall wall of of the the chancel above a late medieval Sacrament niche (photo: Regnerus Steensma archive). chancel above a late medieval Sacrament niche (photo: Regnerus Steensma archive).

The grave cellar under the church in Oldehove (Groningen) contains the elegant sandstone sarcophagus of an Austrian countess, Margaretha von Cobenzl, who died in 1730 (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 236). She was the wife of Ludolf Luirt Ripperda, a local nobleman who became the Spanish Ambassador in Vienna. His father, Johan Willem Ripperda (1682–1737), had had an even more successful diplomatic career. Born on the manor Englumborg in Oldehove into a (secretly) Catholic noble family, he was appointed as the Ambassador of the Dutch Republic in Spain, a position that required him to confess to Calvinism. When the Spanish King, who recognized his qualities, offered him the position of minister, he quickly converted back again. Now known by the name of “Juan Guillermo Riperdá”, he became the Spanish Ambassador in Vienna and then First Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 19

The grave cellar under the church in Oldehove (Groningen) contains the elegant sandstone sarcophagus of an Austrian countess, Margaretha von Cobenzl, who died in 1730 (De Vos and Kroesen 2019, p. 236). She was the wife of Ludolf Luirt Ripperda, a local nobleman who became the Spanish Ambassador in Vienna. His father, Johan Willem Rip- perda (1682–1737), had had an even more successful diplomatic career. Born on the manor Englumborg in Oldehove into a (secretly) Catholic noble family, he was appointed as the Ambassador of the Dutch Republic in Spain, a position that required him to confess to Religions 2021, 12, 702 Calvinism. When the Spanish King, who recognized his qualities, offered him the position17 of 19 of minister, he quickly converted back again. Now known by the name of “Juan Guillermo Riperdá”, he became the Spanish Ambassador in Vienna and then First Minister under MinisterKing Felipe under V. After King Felipea conflict V. Afterthat led a conflict to imprisonment that led to in imprisonment the Alcázar of in Segovia the Alc áinzar 1726 of , Segoviahe escape ind 1726, to Morocco, he escaped where to Morocco, he gained where the trust he gained of Sultan the Abdallah trust of Sultan and converted Abdallah andonce convertedagain, now once to Islam. again, After now toa failed Islam. attack After on a failedthe Spanish attack onfortress the Spanish of Ceuta, fortress the Groningen of Ceuta,- theborn Groningen-born nobleman died nobleman in the Mo diedroccan in thetown Moroccan of Tetouan. town The of Tetouan.sarcophagus The of sarcophagus his daughter of- hisin- daughter-in-law,law, the Austrian the countess Austrian Margaretha, countess Margaretha, sank into oblivion sank into until oblivion it came until to light it came again to lightduring again a restoration during a restoration in 1970. in 1970. DutchDutch colonial colonial history history is is also also found reflected in the in churches the churches of Groningen of Groningen and Frisia. and AFr graveisia. A slabgrave in Feerwerdslab in Feerwerd (Groningen) (Groningen) remembers remembers Reverend Reverend Dr Samuel Dr Folckeri,Samuel Folckeri who died, who in 1664 died afterin 1664 serving after the serv localing churchthe local for church twenty-seven for twenty years,-seven and years four, years and four in the years Dutch in colonythe Dutch of Pernambuco,colony of Pernambuco, in the northeast in the ofnortheast present-day of present Brazil-day (De Brazil Vos and (De Kroesen Vos and 2019 Kroes, p.en 76). 2019, In Niekerk,p. 76). In also Niekerk, in Groningen, also in Groningen, an inscription an inscription above the westabove entrance the west dated entrance in 1628 dated mentions in 1628 thatmentions the church that the was church renovated was renovated when the “Zilvervloot”when the “Zilvervloot (“Silver” fleet”) (“Silver was fleet seized”) was (De seized Vos and(De KroesenVos and 2019Kroesen, p. 204). 2019, This p. 204). is a referenceThis is a reference to the conquest to the con of thequest Spanish of the ArmadaSpanish byAr- themada Dutch by the corsair Dutch Piet corsair Hein (1577–1629)Piet Hein (1577 off the–1629 Cuban) off the coast. Cuban The coast. fact that The the fact conquest that the wasconquest mentioned was mentioned suggests thatsuggests the local that lord,the local Evert lord, Lewe, Evert who Lewe, was who a stakeholder was a stakeholder of the Dutchof the WestDutch Indies West Indies Company, Company, invested invested the dividend the dividend he had he receivedhad received in the in renovationthe renova- oftion “his” of church.“his” church. In Appingedam, In Appingedam, we find thewe youngest find the ofyoungest all “old ofGroningen all “old churches”, Groningen namelychurches the”, Moluccans’namely the church,Moluccans’ a simple church, wooden a simple prefab wooden building prefab erected building in 1960 erected (De Vos in and1960 Kroesen (De Vos 2019 and, Kroesen p. 24) (Figure 2019, p. 11 24)). (Figure After Indonesia 11). After hadIndonesia gained had independence gained independ- from theence Netherlands from the Netherlands in 1949, Moluccan in 1949 fighters, Moluccan who had fighters supported who had the supported Dutch moved the to Dutch the Netherlandsmoved to the in Netherlands 1950–1951. They in 1950 were–1951 housed. They in were camps housed and later in camps in separate and later quarters, in separate such asquarters, in Appingedam, such as in as Appingedam, long as their own as long independent as their stateown hadindependent not been founded.state had Thisnot wasbeen neverfounded realized,. This however,was never and realized, so a temporary however, facility and so became a temporary permanent facility and became finally gainedperma- heritagenent and status. finally gained heritage status.

FigureFigure 11.11. Appingedam (Frisia), (Groningen), the “semi the- “semi-permanent”permanent” Moluccans’ Moluccans’ church from church 1960 from is a 1960 remind is aer of their struggle for an independent state (photo: Jim Ernst). reminder of their struggle for an independent state (photo: Jim Ernst). 6. Conclusions The aim of this contribution was to show how old churches can be utilized as sto- rytelling goldmines; the focus on two provinces in the northern Netherlands could be exchanged with that on any other region in Europe. Having served as the public space of local communities, old churches are replete with stories great and small—religious stories and stories about “glocal” history. Materials used and styles adopted reflect the communi- ties’ primary cultural and economic connections, and the often-eventful history has left its visible mark in many ways: demographic developments, economic growth and crises, religious change, wars, floods, epidemics, revolutions, emancipation, modernization, and secularization. Old churches also bear the traces of many remarkable individuals, including Religions 2021, 12, 702 18 of 19

noblemen, reverends, scholars, and visitors. This is in addition to the traces—albeit silent— of numerous other, now anonymous churchgoers who, over many centuries, celebrated their life events, such as baptism, marriage, funerals, and who frequented, maintained, embellished, and cleaned the church, because they felt it was theirs. If we wish to preserve old churches beyond our secular age, we have to make their fascinating stories heard, so that communities will find themselves, their history, and identity, reflected in them. Once people start saying “this is my place” again, then there is no doubt that embracing churches and caring for their future will follow suit.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

Notes 1 Thanks to Simon Jenkins for endorsing all quotes from his lecture given in this article. 2 Jenkins is the former chair of the National Trust and a member of The Churches Conservation Trust. The conference Religious Heritage–Europe’s Legacy for the Future was held in Paris (France) from 11–13 October 2018. 3 Quote from Jenkins’ address at the mentioned Paris conference. 4 Quote from Aiers’ address at the mentioned Paris conference in 2018. 5 The role and legal position of State and Church regarding church buildings varied significantly between Western European countries. 6 These observations are based on research carried out by the author of this article into many churches in several European countries, in particular the Netherlands, Germany, Norway and Spain. 7 For an influential contemporary view of such developments, see (Taylor 2007). 8 A recent overview of new secular uses of former churches in the Netherlands is provided by (Reinstra and Strolenberg 2020). 9 Churches are not explicitly mentioned by Foucault. He understands space as more encompassing than physical space only, as it can also include cultural and discursive space. 10 Quote from Jenkins’ address at the mentioned Paris conference. 11 In most European countries, baptismal records de facto served as civil registration before this task fell to the secular authorities. 12 This ‘slow’, multi-generational way of doing things has recently been called “cathedral thinking”. 13 “Nur unsere Dorfkirchen stellen sich uns vielfach als die Träger unserer ganzen Geschichte dar, und die Berührung der Jahrhunderte untereinander zur Erscheinung bringend, besitzen und äußern sie den Zauber historischer Kontinuität”. 14 Regarding these, John Harvey observed a traditional double oversight: “If religious scholars are less able to deal with the art aspect than with the religious aspect of religious artifacts, then art historians and artists have the opposite limitation”, cf. (Harvey 2011, p. 513). 15 Betjeman also made numerous appearances on television, including A Passion for Churches, broadcast in 1974. 16 A ‘conventional’ history where church buildings play a central role is (Duffy 1992). 17 The website explains: “In five essays, Diarmaid MacCulloch takes us on journeys around some of Britain’s ancient and atmospheric churches to help us get lost in the history, art and personality of these churches as well as digging deeper to reflect on his own experiences of ‘a historian’s life, measured out in churches’”, which clearly resonates how church heritage is not about having, but about being. I myself created several short videos about churches as storytelling devices in 2014–2015, entitled Protestantse cultuurschatten (‘Protestant cultural treasures’), accessible through cultuurschatten.wordpress.com (project funded by the Dutch Research Council NWO, produced by ValueMedia), and developed a website on the religious heritage of Bergen (Norway) before the Reformation bergen1517.wordpress.com (both mentioned websites accessed on 24 August 2021). 18 I thank Anique de Kruijf (Utrecht) for this information. 19 A requirement for churches to be included is that they should be officially registered state monuments. 20 Although similar foundations started later in other Dutch provinces, the organizations in Groningen and Frisia have remained by far the largest and most professional. 21 The Groningen foundation currently has about 6000 supporters and the Frisian about 4500. 22 The journal Groninger kerken is published four times a year and Alde Fryske tsjerken (before 2010 entitled Keppelstok) appears twice a year. Both are full-colour and have a print run of between 4000 and 5000. 23 Before taking up my current professorship at the University of Bergen (Norway) in 2016, I lectured at the University of Groningen and was closely involved in the work of both organizations. 24 Many of the buyers turned out to be residing outside the province, a category described by the foundation’s director as ”heimwee-Groningers” (“homesickness-Groningers”). Religions 2021, 12, 702 19 of 19

25 The above-mentioned book Kerkinterieurs in Nederland (price: 50 euros) saw three editions within three years. 26 I had conducted a similar project before in 2014–2015, in the manner of a pilot, on the earlier mentioned website cultuurschatten. wordpress.com (accessed on 24 August 2021). 27 In 2015, I developed a thematic educational project entitled “The church as 3D history book” aimed at highschools in the northern Netherlands. 28 Of course, only the more affluent social layers are represented, others had graves of less durable materials, such as wood, that have left no traces.

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