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Impacts of Invasive Species in Terrestrial and Aquatic Systems in the United States 7 Impacts of Invasive Species in Terrestrial and Aquatic Systems 2 in the United States Albert E. Mayfeld III, Steven J. Seybold, Wendell R. Haag, M. Tracy Johnson, Becky K. Kerns, John C. Kilgo, Daniel J. Larkin, Rima D. Lucardi, Bruce D. Moltzan, Dean E. Pearson, John D. Rothlisberger, Jefrey D. Schardt, Michael K. Schwartz, and Michael K. Young 2.1 Introduction have been estimated at $120 billion annually (Crowl et al. 2008; Pimentel et al. 2000, 2005). These costs include lost The introduction, establishment, and spread of invasive production and revenue from agricultural and forest prod- species in terrestrial and aquatic environments is widely ucts, compromised use of waterways and terrestrial habi- recognized as one of the most serious threats to the health, tats, harm to human and animal health, reduced property sustainability, and productivity of native ecosystems values and recreational opportunities, and diverse costs (Holmes et al. 2009; Mack et al. 2000; Pyšek et al. 2012; associated with managing (e.g., monitoring, preventing, USDA Forest Service 2013). In the United States, invasive controlling, and regulating) invasive species (Aukema species are the second leading cause of native species et al. 2011; Pimentel et al. 2005). The national signifcance endangerment and extinction, and their costs to society of these economic, ecological, and social impacts in the A. E. Mayfeld III (*) R. D. Lucardi U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Insects, Diseases and Invasive Plants of Southern Forests, Station, Athens, GA, USA Asheville, NC, USA e-mail: [email protected] B. D. Moltzan U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, State and Private S. J. Seybold Forestry, Forest Health Protection, Washington Offce, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifc Southwest Washington, DC, USA Research Station, Davis, CA, USA D. E. Pearson W. R. Haag U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Research Station, Missoula, MT, USA Station, Center for Bottomland Hardwoods Research, Frankfort, KY, USA Ecology and Evolution, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA M. T. Johnson U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifc Southwest J. D. Rothlisberger Research Station, Institute of Pacifc Islands Forestry, Volcano, HI, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington USA Offce, Washington, DC, USA B. K. Kerns J. D. Schardt U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifc Northwest Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Research Station, Corvallis, OR, USA Thomasville, GA, USA J. C. Kilgo M. K. Schwartz U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, National Station, Center for Forest Watershed Research, Genomics Center for Wildlife and Fish Conservation, New Ellenton, SC, USA Missoula, MT, USA D. J. Larkin M. K. Young Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Biology and U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain the Minnesota Aquatic Invasive Species Research Center, Research Station and National Genomics Center for Wildlife and University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA Fish Conservation, Missoula, MT, USA © The Author(s) 2021 5 T. M. Poland et al. (eds.), Invasive Species in Forests and Rangelands of the United States, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45367-1_2 6 A. E. Mayfeld et al. United States has prompted various actions by both legis- 2.1.2 Direct and Indirect Impacts: Density- lative and executive branches of the Federal Government Mediated vs Trait-Mediated (e.g., the Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control Act of 1990; the Noxious Weed Control and Invasive species may affect native organisms positively or Eradication Act of 2002; Executive Order 13112 of 1999, negatively through direct and indirect interactions that are amended in 2016). transmitted through density- or trait-mediated mechanisms Because the concept of impact is inevitably infuenced (Fig. 2.1). These interactions may ultimately affect native by human perceptions and biases, the scientifc literature organisms at multiple ecological levels, i.e., organisms, pop- often characterizes the environmental effects of invasive ulations, communities, and ecosystems (e.g., Wootton and species in terms of “ecological impacts.” Ecological Emmerson 2005). Direct negative impacts of invasive spe- impacts refer to measurable changes to the properties of an cies include effects on the abundance, distribution, or func- ecosystem, which may be considered positive or negative tion of native species through predation (including, for our depending on context (Ricciardi et al. 2013). In this chap- purposes, infection, herbivory, or parasitism) or competition ter, we consider invasive species as a subset of non-native for resources with potentially lasting and profound changes species that substantially affect the composition, structure, to native biodiversity (Allen et al. 2004, 2015; Blackburn or function of native populations, communities, or ecosys- et al. 2014; Crowl et al. 2008; Wagner and Van Driesche tems, and particularly impact these systems in a manner 2010). that decreases the ecosystem values and services (e.g., Direct impacts of invaders are often obvious, such as economic, aesthetic, and/or social benefts) that they pro- when they damage, kill, consume, or overgrow native spe- vide to humans (NISC 2005; Pejchar and Mooney 2009; cies, but cryptic indirect effects can be similarly powerful Walsh et al. 2016). To more effectively manage invasive (White et al. 2006). Density-mediated indirect interactions species and mitigate their negative impacts on native sys- arise when the invader alters the abundance of a native spe- tems, a better understanding of the nature of their ecologi- cies, and this, in turn, alters the abundance of other native cal impacts and the mechanisms that underlie the impacts species via interaction chains (e.g., Ortega et al. 2006). Trait- is needed. mediated indirect interactions (also referred to as interaction modifcations (Wootton 1994)) arise when the invader alters interactions between species (two natives or a native and a 2.1.1 Conceptualizing Mechanisms non-native) in ways that change how strongly those species of Invasive Species Ecological Impacts interact, i.e., the per capita interaction strength (e.g., Pearson 2010). Such changes arise because the invader changes the The classic model developed by Parker et al. (1999), in traits (phenology, morphology, or behavior) rather than the which the impact of an invasive species is a function of its abundance of the intermediate species in ways that alter the range, abundance, and per capita effect, has provided a interaction strength between the invader and the receiver basic conceptual framework for quantifying impacts, but it species. For example, an invasive predator may kill some has rarely been applied to specifc systems (Pearson et al. individuals in a native herbivore’s population (a density- 2016a; Thiele et al. 2010). A more highly synthetic frame- mediated direct effect), which could reduce foraging on its work for understanding the full range of invader impacts preferred forage plant (a density-mediated indirect effect), remains elusive (Ricciardi et al. 2013), though approaches but it could also alter the herbivore’s behavior (trait effect) for broad categorization of impacts have been proposed due to predator avoidance such that the whole herbivore pop- (Blackburn et al. 2014). Here, we draw from basic commu- ulation dramatically reduces its impacts on its preferred plant nity ecology concepts to characterize the mechanisms and by shifting its foraging to other plant species (trait-mediated processes by which invasive species impact native systems indirect interaction; e.g., Schmitz et al. 1997). Although (Fig. 2.1). Because invasive predators, pathogens, consum- trait-mediated indirect interactions are more cryptic than ers, decomposers, and primary producers impact native density-mediated pathways, studies in native systems indi- species through different mechanisms (Fig. 2.1), and cate that they are ubiquitous and frequently as strong as or impacts can manifest differently in aquatic and terrestrial stronger than density-mediated interactions (Schmitz et al. systems (Cox and Lima 2006; Moorhouse and Macdonald 2004; Trussell et al. 2006; Werner and Peacor 2003). 2015), in this chapter, we review invasive species ecologi- Other mechanisms by which invasive species impact cal impacts taxonomically by invasive plants, pathogens, native systems further illustrate the cryptic or complex nature invertebrates, and vertebrates in terrestrial and aquatic sys- of their effects. In some systems, impacts can be transmitted tems in the United States. Examples of the consequences of genetically as non-native species alter the gene pools of several specifc invasive species are highlighted in boxes native species via introgression (Lockwood et al. 2007), or accompanied by fgures. initial invasions may facilitate additional invaders with 2 Impacts of Invasive Species in Terrestrial and Aquatic Systems in the United States 7 Invader Trophic level in the native system (taxonomic group) (terrestrial or aquatic) Predators/ Vertebrate animal pathogens Disturbance/ nutrient inputs Invertebrate Herbivores/ Microorganism
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