sustainability

Article Cultural Ecosystem of the Seediq’s Traditional Weaving Techniques—A Comparison of the Learning Differences Between Urban and Indigenous Communities

Shyh-Huei Hwang 1,* and Hsiu-Mei Huang 2

1 College of Design, National Yunlin University of Science & Technology, Yunlin 64002, Taiwan 2 Graduate School of Design, National Yunlin University of Science & Technology, Yunlin 64002, Taiwan; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +886-5-5342601 (ext. 6000)



Received: 15 January 2019; Accepted: 4 March 2019; Published: 13 March 2019


Abstract: The Seediq tribe is one of Taiwan’s Indigenous peoples, and they have very traditional weaving techniques. Women of the Seediq weave clothes and quilts for their families as they believe that only women with good weaving skill can pass through the Rainbow Bridge and be reunited with ancestors after they die. However, due to changing society, there is little demand for weaving today, and the norms observed by their ancestors are gradually disappearing, resulting in the declining number of locals capable of weaving. The weaving techniques of these Indigenous people are on the verge of disappearing. Unfortunately, when the government took measures to preserve the techniques by registering Seta Bakan as the preserver of intangible cultural heritage, and launched training classes to save such techniques, no locals were initially interested in learning weaving. After non-Seediq people were allowed to participate in learning, the course attracted weaving lovers from all over the island. The course included five learning phases within four years, which were given in urban communities. In the fourth year, the weaving teacher was invited to carry out a course to teach in her Indigenous village. Both courses have the same teacher teaching the same techniques. However, the perceptions and feelings of learning vary among members of different cultural backgrounds. UNESCO has extended the protection of intangible cultural heritage from technical objects to the maintenance and inheritance of community, thus, this study focuses on the interaction and feeling of students during the weaving courses given in two communities, analyzes how the differences of feeling and cultural background influence the learning perceptions of the students of the two communities, and examines the significance and functions of rebuilding the cultural ecosystem for the sustainable inheritance of skills. The conclusion of this study is that urban communities learn weaving purposefully because they have no cultural or technical background, while the courses for indigenous communities feature the frequent recurrence of traditional “old value”. The different learning motivations, feelings, and perceptions of the two communities can be complementary and mutually supportive to each other. After exploring the cultural context, this study finds that the cultural ecosystem generated by indigenous weavers includes Gaya belief, Natural knowledge, Indigenous languages, Personal practice, Generational links, and Social interaction, which are strongly bound to each other. However, social changes can weaken or even break the cultural ecosystem; the learning courses of the two communities create opportunities for re-connection. Native tribes are the best field to build an ideal cultural ecosystem; while the urban communities play the role of an acupuncture massage stick that stimulates the ethnic consciousness and learning motivation of Indigenous peoples, which preserves and provides the techniques and external knowledge. Admittedly these two communities contribute to cultural inheritance, respectively. The analysis of this study provides an important reference for the feasible routes of carrying forward indigenous

Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519; doi:10.3390/su11061519 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 2 of 21

techniques on the brink of disappearing in the current society of cultural initiative, and provides the opportunity for reconnecting cultural ecosystem through technique acquisition.

Keywords: Seediq’s weaving; interest community; inheritance of traditional techniques; cultural ecosystem

1. Background

1.1. Research Motives Taiwanese Indigenous, that live in remote mountainous areas, are culturally disadvantaged, as compared with the mainstream Han population (According to statistics, as of December 2018, Taiwan had a total population of 23 million, including 16 Indigenous peoples of 250,000). Therefore, the former is facing the problems of the rapid loss of their mother tongue and traditional techniques. Seediq women traditionally regard weaving as their duty, which not only serves the basic needs of their families, but is also for gifts, beliefs, disciplines, and honors. However, these needs and constraints have gradually disappeared due to changes in social patterns, and thus endanger the inheritance of traditional techniques. In 2015, the United Nations issued Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that are aimed at the problems faced by all countries and formulate 17 sustainable development goals and 169 follow-up indicators, as based on an active practice of equality and human rights [1]. Among them, culture can be said to be the heart of SDGs, and cultural heritage is also mentioned in the content, such as Target 11.4, which calls for strengthening efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage, and Target 4.7, which calls for education to promote a culture of peace and non-violence, the appreciation of cultural diversity, and culture’s contribution to sustainable development, etc. [2]. However, in terms of sustainable development, Taiwan’s traditional Indigenous techniques are facing difficulty in protection and safeguards. Aware of this crisis, the government launched a campaign to protect intangible cultural heritage, and registered Seta Bakan as preserver. Like other Seediq girls, Seta Bakan began to learn weaving from her grandmother in her childhood. At first she just passed weaving tools to her grandma and helped roll threads, but as she grew up, she started to learn weaving. Smart and hard-working, Seta Bakan acquired all weaving techniques from her grandmother, who was the best weaver in the tribe. As a result, Seta Bakan was registered as the preserver of traditional Seediq weaving by the government in 2012. In order to carry forward the techniques, the government assisted Seta Bakan in launching the technique training program. However, when the course for Seediq locals began in 2014, it was difficult to attract Indigenous people to learn traditional weaving due to it being a hard, slow, and complex process. This course was later opened in urban areas where non-Seediq people were allowed to take the course, and the wide participation of people all over the island interested in weaving gave rise to the four-year training program launched in the urban community, as mentioned in this paper. Four years later, Seta Bakan was invited to the Indigenous tribe to teach the Seediq people how to weave, and this course has lasted for two years in the indigenous tribal community mentioned in this paper. Helland [3] pointed out that the inherent link between craft, community, and place is native, while “traditional” craft places greater emphasis on time and reflects the collective memory of the community, which is passed from generation to generation and marks the origin of identity. According to UNESCO’s Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage, as signed in 2003, the protection of intangible cultural heritage has shifted from the mere focus on technical objects to cultural living and community, which is the carrier of technical inheritance. Therefore, analysis of how communities influence the preservation of traditional techniques is conducive to understanding the key factors for the revival of Indigenous culture. One of the researchers in this study is an urban community trainee. On the basis of his long-term participatory observation, the researcher found that Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 3 of 21 while the same technique is taught by the same teacher, different maternal and learning environments will cause learners to show different concerns, cultural meanings, and perceptions. The learning process in the two communities features highly dynamic cultural characteristics, and its significance and contribution to the protection of cultural heritage and cultural ecosystem also arouse the interest of researchers.

1.2. Research Purpose When people are worried about the rapid loss of traditional skills, they try to protect and conserve such cultural properties; however, this is difficult to maintain as the social life style has changed. How to adapt to the trend of the times and preserve traditional culture is an important issue. At present, UNESCO’s focus on cultural heritage has shifted from material objects to living culture, namely cultural continuity. To this end, a return to community is necessary. The engagement of community members in traditional weaving learning is the practice of “small heritage” that constructs part of the collective future. Compared with the authority launching movement of cultural heritage preservation, the indigenous effort can be a small and pragmatic force that deserves great attention in cultural heritage preservation [4]. The technical performance of Taiwan’s aborigines is based on the real life, beliefs, religions, social strata, and clan organizations [5]. Traditional Seediq weaving is a technique passed down from generation to generation. In this case, the technique acquisition started from non-Seediq people in metropolitan areas to tribal people in their native villages. Culture is like species characterized by dynamic evolution. Therefore, this case allows us to analyze the changing cultural ecosystem faced by traditional skills and thus seek a feasible approach to traditional technique preservation in current society. The purpose of this study is to explore the cognitive differences between urban and indigenous communities in learning the same weaving techniques, the linkage between indigenous weaving techniques and cultural ecosystem, and the potential impact of urban weaving communities on native communities.

2. Seediq Weaving

2.1. Traditional Life and Weaving of Seediq

2.1.1. Ancestral Paradigm Seediq had been considered as a sub-group of the Atayal, however, since 2008, it has become independent and been regarded as one of the 16 Indigenous people of Taiwan. As of December 2018, its population is approximately 9771 [6], and is mainly distributed in Ren’ai Township, Nantou County. The Pan-Atayal ethnic groups take ancestral belief as the cultural center, Gaya (Gaya, literally, means “the words of ancestors”. It can be understood as the disciple, habit, laws, precept, standard of behavior, social responsibility, and moral rules [7]), and Utux (The Seediq deeply believe that the soul is immortal. When one dies, he/she will become Utux to take care of the offspring always. They practice Gaya in their rituals and behaviors and maintain a harmonious relationship with Utux-) as the cultural core. According to literature, traditional Pan-Atayal people put an emphasis on abiding by Gaya, which regulates the local ethical standards of the people and taboos of sacrifice. Anyone who abides by Gaya rules could be blessed by the ancestral spirit, otherwise they would be punished. Therefore, the Pan-Atayal people would obey Utux unconditionally and taught children to act carefully to avoid offending Utux, which granted them access to the blessings of ancestors [8–10]. In Pan-Atayal society, if a baby is a girl, her umbilical cord will be placed inside a loom as a symbol of how a woman comes into being [11]. At the age of 15, women should tattoo their faces and men should learn hunting. Women are not allowed to marry until they learn weaving and have a face tattoo [10]. Gaya defines masculine bravery as hunting, while female ability and status lie in weaving techniques [12]. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 4 of 21

2.1.2. Weaving Materials and Tools Closely Related to the Natural Environment Traditional weaving materials and tools are natural, and because the Seediq people live in SustainabilitySustainability 2019 2019, 11, 11, x, xFOR FOR PEER PEER REVIEW REVIEW 4 4of of 21 21 mountainous forests areas, they are endowed with rich knowledge of their surroundings. As the main materialmaterial of of Seediq Seediq weaving, weaving, ramie ramie is is planted planted in in in places places places with with with sufficient sufficient sufficient water water water and andand sunshine sunshinesunshine (Figure (Figure(Figure 11). ).1). RamieRamie has has strong strong vitality, vitality, needs needs no no special special care, care, and and can can be be planted planted in in early early spring spring with with three three to to four four timestimes ofof of harvestharvest harvest aa a year.year. year. Boiling Boiling Boiling and and and dyeing dyeing dyeing ramie ramie ramie yarn yarn yarn also also also requires requires requires auxiliary auxiliary auxiliary materials materials materials from from from plants plants plants on theonon the mountain,the mountain, mountain, such such such as Tremaas as Trema Trema orientalis orientalis orientalis which which which can can soften can soften soften and and whitenand whiten whiten ramie ramie ramie thread, thread, thread, and and dye and yamdye dye yam andyam someandand some some fruits fruits thatfruits servethat that serve asserve the as sourcesas the the sources sources of dyes. of of Thedyes dyes components. .The The components components of weaving of of weaving weaving tools are tools tools simple, are are assimple, simple, they are as as mainlytheythey are are composed mainly mainly composed composed of a warp of of reel a a warp warp box andreel reel severalbox box and and woven several several parts. woven woven The parts. parts. tools The The are tools madetools are are by made men,made allby by partsmen, men, areallall parts takenparts are fromare taken taken material from from inmaterial material forest, in such in forest, forest, as wood such such andas as wood wood bamboo. and and Thebamboo. bamboo. largest The The and largest largest heaviest and and reel heaviest heaviest boxes reel arereel usuallyboxesboxes are are made usually usually of harder made made wood,of of harder harder such wood, wood, as Beech such such or as as Michelia Beech Beech or or (Figure Michelia Michelia2). (Figure (Figure 2). 2).

FigureFigureFigure 1.1. 1. Ramie.Ramie Ramie

Figure 2. The weaving tools. FigureFigure 2. 2. The The weaving weaving tools. tools. 2.1.3. A Piece of Cloth Can Only Be Completed After Complicated Procedures 2.1.3. A Piece of Cloth Can Only Be Completed After Complicated Procedures 2.1.3.The A Piece Seediq of femalesCloth Can start Only the Be complicated Completed procedures After Complicated from ramie Procedures collection, the first step of which is to scrapeTheThe Seediq Seediq ramie females tofemales separate start start the the fibersthe complicated complicated from the epidermis procedures procedures (Figure from from3). ramie Accordingramie collection, collection, to Seta the Bakan’sthe first first mother,step step of of thiswhichwhich process is is to to cannotscrape scrape beramie ramie completed to to separate separate quickly, the the and fibers fibers only from from patience the the epidermis withepidermis the process (Figure (Figure can 3). 3). improveAccording According the to qualityto Seta Seta ofBakan’sBakan’s scraping. mother, mother, Then this theythis process process have to cannot cannot go through be be completed completed the complicated qu quickly,ickly, processes and and only onlyof patience patience exposing, with with finishing, the the process process twisting can can (Figureimproveimprove4), the the boiling, quality quality and of of scraping. scraping. dyeingthe Then Then yarn they they (Figure have have to5 to) go beforego through through it can the the be complicated complicated used for weaving. processes processesTraditional of of exposing, exposing, Seediqfinishing,finishing, men twisting twisting mainly dedicate(Figure(Figure 4), themselves4), boiling, boiling, and toand hunting, dyeing dyeing whilethe the yarn farmingyarn (Figure (Figure is the 5) 5) major before before task it it ofcan can women. be be used used Some for for hard-workingweaving.weaving. Traditional Traditional Seediq Seediq women Seediq men willmen mainly twistmainly threads dedicate dedicate on themselves thethemselves way to farmingto to hunting, hunting, fields. while while farming farming is is the the major major tasktask of of women. women. Some Some hard-working hard-working Seediq Seediq women women will will twist twist threads threads on on the the way way to to farming farming fields. fields.

Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 5 of 21 Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21 Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21

Figure 3. Scraping ramie with a split bamboo tube. Figure 3. Scraping ramie with a split bamboo tube.

Figure 4. Twisting threads by hand (usually doing this while walking, with threads hung on the neck). Figure 4. TwistingTwisting threads by hand (usually doing this wh whileile walking, with threads hung on the neck).

Figure 5. Boiled and dyed ramie yarn is ready for weaving. Figure 5. Boiled and dyed ramie yarn is ready for weaving. The first first step of weaving is warping which requires very close attention. To To complete a piece of The first step of weaving is warping which requires very close attention. To complete a piece of cloth local people have to set other chores aside an andd keep their their children children away, away, as even a tiny mistake cloth local people have to set other chores aside and keep their children away, as even a tiny mistake can force them to disassemble and restart (Figure6 6)).. AfterAfter warping,warping, whenwhen thethe yarnyarn isis removedremoved fromfrom can force them to disassemble and restart (Figure 6). After warping, when the yarn is removed from the warping frame, putting the yarn on on the the loom loom usua usuallylly requires requires two two people. people. After After starting starting to to weave, weave, the warping frame, putting the yarn on the loom usually requires two people. After starting to weave, women must sit on the ground and tie warp coils to their waist with a belt. They stretch themselves women must sit on the ground and tie warp coils to their waist with a belt. They stretch themselves like an “L” with legs straight against the loom. The The waist and foot should coor coordinatedinate in tune with the like an “L” with legs straight against the loom. The waist and foot should coordinate in tune with the body motion. They press on the loom and pull the foot back alternately as they insert the yarn or pick pick body motion. They press on the loom and pull the foot back alternately as they insert the yarn or pick out the weaving pattern (Figure7 7).). out the weaving pattern (Figure 7). The traditional Seediq weaving skills include plain weave, float float weave, weft pick, diamond The traditional Seediq weaving skills include plain weave, float weave, weft pick, diamond weave (Figure8 8),), andand twilltwill weave.weave. Especially,Especially, DoriqDoriq PuniriPuniri (Most(Most DoriqPuniriDoriqPuniri areare redred whichwhich isis aa colorcolor weave (Figure 8), and twill weave. Especially, Doriq Puniri (Most DoriqPuniri are red which is a color preferred by the Seediq. It contains many pattern changes. According to the clansmen, the diamond preferred by the Seediq. It contains many pattern changes. According to the clansmen, the diamond pattern isis calledcalled Doriq, Doriq, representing representing the the eyes eyes and an sould soul of human. of human. They They protect protect the clansmen the clansmen and request and pattern is called Doriq, representing the eyes and soul of human. They protect the clansmen and requestthem to unite.them Straightto unite. or Straight horizontal or lineshorizontal represent lines the represent Rainbow the Bridge Rainbow to meet Bridge their ancestors. to meet their Dots request them to unite. Straight or horizontal lines represent the Rainbow Bridge to meet their ancestors.and rice-shape Dots standand rice-shape for good harvest)stand for (Figure good harvest)9), which (Figure is the most9), which difficult is the skill. most If onedifficult can masterskill. If ancestors. Dots and rice-shape stand for good harvest) (Figure 9), which is the most difficult skill. If onethis can skill, master one can this weave skill, one with can all weave the other with skills. all the Puniri other is skills. featured Puniri in pickingis featured warps in picking and contains warps one can master this skill, one can weave with all the other skills. Puniri is featured in picking warps andmultiple contains floating multiple diamond floating patterns. diamond As patterns. all the patterns As all the of Doriqpatterns Puniri of Doriq are completed Puniri are bycompleted picking and contains multiple floating diamond patterns. As all the patterns of Doriq Puniri are completed warps,by picking all the warps, wefts all are the completely wefts are coveredcompletely by floating covered warps. by floating Weavers warps. must Weavers accurately must remember accurately the by picking warps, all the wefts are completely covered by floating warps. Weavers must accurately patternremember structure, the pattern and concentrate structure, toand patiently concentrate use the to picking patiently tools, use which the ispicking unforgiving tools, of which mistakes. is remember the pattern structure, and concentrate to patiently use the picking tools, which is unforgivingDoriq Puniri of demonstrates mistakes. Doriq excellent Puniri skills demonstrates and diligence excellent and requiresskills and good diligence eyesight. and Therequires clansmen good unforgiving of mistakes. Doriq Puniri demonstrates excellent skills and diligence and requires good eyesight.consider itThe as clansmen the top weaving consider skill. it as A the senior top weavin clansmang skill. said A that senior clothes clansman with thesaid Doriq that clothes Puniri werewith eyesight. The clansmen consider it as the top weaving skill. A senior clansman said that clothes with the Doriq Puniri were used to make shawl for men, and only the leader of a hunting team could wear the Doriq Puniri were used to make shawl for men, and only the leader of a hunting team could wear Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 6 of 21

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21 Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21 usedSustainability to make 2019 shawl, 11, x FOR for PEER men, REVIEW and only the leader of a hunting team could wear such shawls. Women6 of 21 suchused shawls. such clothes Women to tie used their such legs clothes to show to elegance. tie their legs A woman to show who elegance. can weave A woman Puniri who is considered can weave to such shawls. Women used such clothes to tie their legs to show elegance. A woman who can weave Puniribe a real is woman.considered to be a real woman. Puniri is considered to be a real woman.

Figure 6. Warping.Warping Figure 6. Warping

Figure 7. Backstrap loom to weave needs to fixfix herher bodybody withwith thethe loom.loom Figure 7. Backstrap loom to weave needs to fix her body with the loom

Figure 8. Plain weave, Diamond weave FigureFigure 8.8. Plain weave, DiamondDiamond weave.weave

Figure 9. Doriq Puniri FigureFigure 9.9. Doriq Puniri.Puniri 2.1.4. “Weaving”—Mission and Pilgrimage ofof FemalesFemales 2.1.4. “Weaving”—Mission and Pilgrimage of Females Seediq womenwomen are are busy busy farming farming in thein the daytime, daytime, and and use ause backstrap a backstrap loom toloom weave to inweave the evening in the Seediq women are busy farming in the daytime, and use a backstrap loom to weave in the eveningand early and morning. early morning. Like Pan-Atayal Like Pan-Atayal women, women, since they since were they children, were children, most Seediq most women Seediq women learned evening and early morning. Like Pan-Atayal women, since they were children, most Seediq women learnedto weave to clothweave from cloth their from mothers their mothers or grandmothers. or grandmothers.“Atayal “Atayal girls girls [ ... […]] are are obliged obliged toto observeobserve and learned to weave cloth from their mothers or grandmothers. “Atayal girls […] are obliged to observe and study the weaving weaving tools tools and and materials materials while while their their moth mothersers are are engaged engaged in in the the weaving weaving process process […] [ ... It is] Itnot is study the weaving tools and materials while their mothers are engaged in the weaving process […] It is not untilnot until the age the of age 15, of when 15, when they theyare familiar are familiar with withvariou variouss weaving weaving techniques, techniques, that girls that girlsbegin beginto weave to weave with until the age of 15, when they are familiar with various weaving techniques, that girls begin to weave with looms”with looms” [13]. [13For]. Forexample, example, Seta Seta Bakan, Bakan, the the instructor instructor of ofthe the two two courses, courses, would would accompany accompany her looms” [13]. For example, Seta Bakan, the instructor of the two courses, would accompany her grandmother, who was good at weaving.weaving. During her childhood, in addition to observing, she also grandmother, who was good at weaving. During her childhood, in addition to observing, she also passed her grandmothers grandmothers weaving weaving tools. tools. She She was was one one of ofthe the many many Seediq Seediq locals locals who who grew grew up to up the to passed her grandmothers weaving tools. She was one of the many Seediq locals who grew up to the “Tong!the “Tong! Tong! Tong! Tong” Tong” sound sound of ofgrandma’s grandma’s weaving. weaving. In Inaddition addition to to learning learning from from mothers mothers and “Tong! Tong! Tong” sound of grandma’s weaving. In addition to learning from mothers and grandmothers, thethe local local young young also also learn learn weaving weaving from from other other senior senior family family members, members, to whom to variouswhom grandmothers, the local young also learn weaving from other senior family members, to whom variousgifts such gifts as glutinoussuch as glutinous rice cake rice and cake chickens, and ch shouldickens,be should given be for given appreciation for appreciation [14]. [14]. various gifts such as glutinous rice cake and chickens, should be given for appreciation [14]. In the traditional Seediq society, society, which features clear division of labor, Gaya restricts men from In the traditional Seediq society, which features clear division of labor, Gaya restricts men from touching the tools of weaving, ju justst as women are not allowed to touch the hunting gear. The cloth touching the tools of weaving, just as women are not allowed to touch the hunting gear. The cloth woven by Seediq women is not only for necessity, it is also for the dowry and gifts presented by the woven by Seediq women is not only for necessity, it is also for the dowry and gifts presented by the elders to a bride. The cloth that the bride brings with her can be given to her husband’s family as the elders to a bride. The cloth that the bride brings with her can be given to her husband’s family as the first bridge to establish interpersonal relationship. first bridge to establish interpersonal relationship. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 7 of 21 woven by Seediq women is not only for necessity, it is also for the dowry and gifts presented by the elders to a bride. The cloth that the bride brings with her can be given to her husband’s family as the first bridge to establish interpersonal relationship. Weaving is a family responsibility for the Seediq women, who provide their families with clothes and quilts.Sustainability Good 2019 weaving, 11, x FOR PEER and REVIEW good-looking clothes will help women earn praise from others,7 of 21 and is a sourceSustainability of pride 2019, for 11, x men FOR PEER in the REVIEW family (Figure 10). During weaving, a tiny mistake can7 cause of 21 the Weaving is a family responsibility for the Seediq women, who provide their families with clothes previous effort to be futile, as everything must be started again from 0, so mutual help is important and quilts.Weaving Good is a weaving family responsibility and good-looking for the clothes Seediq willwomen, help whowomen provide earn theirpraise families from others, with clothes and is and servesanda source quilts. as of testimony Good pride weaving for tomen the andin good the good-l family interpersonalooking (Figure clothes 10). relationship will During help weaving,women of women ea arn tiny goodpraise mistake at from weaving. canothers, cause Setaand the is Bakan tells usaprevious source that the ofeffort pride elderly to forbe Indigenousfutile,men in as the everything family people (Figure must often be 10). says started During that again women weaving, from who0, a so tiny domutual mistake not weavehelp can is importantcause well arethe fools withprevious noand friends. serves effort as testimonyto be futile, to as the everything good interpersona must be startedl relationship again from of women 0, so mutual good helpat weaving. is important Seta WeavingandBakan serves tells also usas thattestimony requires the elderly greatto the Indigenous concentration, good interpersona people patience oftenl relationship says and that physical womenof women strength.who good do not at Traditional weaveweaving. well Seta weaving are requiresBakanfools women with tells no us tied friends. that to the the elderly loom Indigenous to sit on the people ground, often which says that makes women it difficult who do for not them weave to well move. are They oftenfools sit for Weavingwith half no a friends. day,also requires and must great be concentration, highly patient patience to endure and thephysical heavy strength. physical Traditional load, especially weaving when they needrequiresWeaving strong women armalso tied strengthrequires to the loomgreat and toconcentration, physical sit on the energy grou patiencend, to which smooth and makes physical the it rough difficult strength. self-grown for Traditional them to ramie move. weaving yarnThey (Seta often sit for half a day, and must be highly patient to endure the heavy physical load, especially when Bakanrequires said that women her grandmothertied to the loom felt to sit that on she the wasgrou toond, which weak makes to weave, it difficult so her for grandmother them to move. would They urge oftenthey need sit for strong half a armday, strength and must and be highlyphysical patient energy to to endure smooth the the heavy rough physical self-grown load, ramieespecially yarn when (Seta her to eat more pork once their tribe hunted a boar). The techniques of picking up patterns require theyBakan need said strong that her arm grandmother strength and feltphysical that she energy was totoo smooth weak theto weave, rough self-grownso her grandmother ramie yarn would (Seta greatBakanurge concentration, her said to thateat moreher otherwise, grandmother pork once a tiny their felt mistake thattribe she hunted can was take tooa boar). weak weavers The to weave, techniques more timeso her of to grandmotherpicking restart. up Given patterns would that the bodyurgerequire is not her great free to eat duringconcentration, more weaving,pork once otherwise, andtheir Seediqtribe a tiny hunted mist womenake a boar).can have take The to weavers taketechniques care more of of timefarming picking to restart. up and patterns householdGiven chores,requirethat it the is understandablegreat body concentration, is not free thatduring otherwise, most weaving, of a them tiny and mist are Sake weavingeediq can women take in weavers the have early to more take morning timecare toof and restart. farming at night. Given and Thus, the Seediqthathousehold the women body chores, is practice not it isfree understandable the during rules weaving, of Gaya that andmost all the S ofeediq time.them women Onare oneweaving have hand, to in take womenthe earlycare of ofmorning thefarming Seediq and and at weave due tohouseholdnight. practical Thus, chores, needsthe Seediq it in is life, understandablewomen honor, practice and disciplinethat the mostrules of of themGaya belief, areall on theweaving the time. other Onin the one hand, early hand, the morning women Seediq and of advocates the at excellentnight.Seediq performance Thus, weave the due Seediq to of practical individuals women needs practice [15 in]. thelife, A woman ruleshonor, of andGaya who discipline canall the weave time. of belief, PuniriOn one on is hand, the considered other women hand, toof bethe a real woman,Seediq and weaveadvocates when due she excellentto dies, practical her performance soul needs can in climb life, of indihonor, theviduals Rainbow and discipline[15]. Bridge A woman andof belief, be who reunited on can the weaveother with hand, ancestorsPuniri the is [16]. Seediqconsidered advocates to be aexcellent real woman, performance and when of she indi dies,viduals her soul[15]. canA womanclimb the who Rainbow can weave Bridge Puniri and beis The above-mentioned factors require Seediq women to spend their whole life weaving and learning consideredreunited with to beancestors a real woman, [16]. The and above-mentione when she dies,d herfactors soul requirecan climb Seediq the Rainbow women toBridge spend and their be the most advanced techniques (Figure 11). reunitedwhole life with weaving ancestors and learning [16]. The the above-mentione most advancedd techniques. factors require (Figure Seediq 11) women to spend their whole life weaving and learning the most advanced techniques. (Figure 11)

FigureFigure 10. 10.Seediq’s Seediq’s traditional traditional clothesclothes (On (On the the right right is isSeta Seta Bakan). Bakan). Figure 10. Seediq’s traditional clothes (On the right is Seta Bakan).

Figure 11. Seta Bakan’s grandmother scraping ramie (about the end of the 1930s). The skill and tools FigureFigureof 11.scrapingSeta 11. Seta Bakan’shave Bakan’s not grandmotherchanged grandmother so far. scraping scraping ramie ramie (about (about thethe end of of the the 1930s). 1930s). The The skill skill and and tools tools of scrapingof scraping have not have changed not changed so far. so far. 2.2. Social Transformation Changes the Meaning of Weaving: From Necessity to a Cultural Product 2.2. SocialWeaving Transformati was a demandon Changes of dailythe Meaning life and of beliefsWeaving: in Fromthe traditional Necessity to Seediq a Cultural society, Product thus Seediq weavingWeaving is a sourcewas a demandof pride. of However, daily life sinceand beliefs 1895 when in the Japan traditional started Seediq to colonize society, Taiwan, thus Seediq civil weaving is a source of pride. However, since 1895 when Japan started to colonize Taiwan, civil Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 8 of 21

2.2. Social Transformation Changes the Meaning of Weaving: From Necessity to a Cultural Product Weaving was a demand of daily life and beliefs in the traditional Seediq society, thus Seediq Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21 weaving is a source of pride. However, since 1895 when Japan started to colonize Taiwan, civil weaving wasweaving restricted, was restricted, and Indigenous and Indigenous people were people forced towere buy clothforced instead to buy of cloth weaving instead it themselves. of weaving Since it Worldthemselves. WarII, Since life hasWorld become War moreII, life convenient has become as themore demand convenient for traditional as the demand clothing for has traditional declined, whichclothing spared has declined, women weavingwhich spared cloth daywomen and night.weavin Althoughg cloth day the and Indigenous night. Although people no the longer Indigenous weave peoplecloth for no clothes longer and weave quilts, cloth most for of theclothes 40- andand 50-year-oldquilts, most people of the interviewed 40- and 50-year-old by the researchers people interviewedrecollected that by the they researchers would see recollected their elderly that weavethey would when see they their were elderly young. weave While when some they of were the weavingyoung. While products some were of forthe touristsweaving or products collectors, were it was fo mostlyr tourists for theor collectors, weavers’ daughters it was mostly and relatives. for the weavers’Some interviewees daughters inand their relatives. 50s recalled Some thatinterviewees their dowry in their included 50s recalled nearly that 100 piecestheir dowry of cloth, included which nearlyleads us 100 to pieces deduce of that cloth, by thewhich 1980s leads weaving us to deduce was still that common by the among 1980s weaving tribal people, was still but itcommon did die amongdown afterwards. tribal people, After but 1998 it did when die thedown government afterwards. encouraged After 1998 local when cultural the government industries, encouraged Indigenous localSeediq cultural tribes setindustries, up government Indigenous subsidized Seediq studios,tribes set which up government aim at improving subsidized the indigenous studios, which economy. aim Theat improving traditional the handicraft indigenous in economy. this period The gradually traditiona returnedl handicraft to the in Indigenous this period mindgradually as a “culturalreturned tosymbol” the Indigenous [17]. Seeking mind as economic a “cultural benefits, symbol” most [17]. of Seeking the subsidized economic training benefits, courses most of symbolizedthe subsidized by trainingcultural revivalcourses aresymbolized short-term bycourses cultural taught revival on are high short-term looms (Figure courses 12 taught) or desktop on high looms, looms and (Figure the weaving12) or desktop techniques looms, tend and to the be weaving simple and techniques easy-to-learn, tend suchto be assimple plain and weaving easy-to-learn, and twill such weaving as plain [18] (Figureweaving 13 and), while twill theweaving traditional [18](Figure backstrap 13), while loom isthe seldom traditional used. backstrap loom is seldom used.

Figure 12. The high looms introduced from abroad are popular in many tribes because they allow weavers to weave quickly.

FigureFigure 13. TribalTribal studios will make backpacks and other goods with traditional woven cloth. 2.3. Government Involvement: Safeguarding Cultural Heritage through Learning Programs

UNESCO’s Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage, as signed in 2003 points out that intangible cultural heritage is living heritage [19], thus, its safeguarding should prioritize the “process” rather than the “result”. The practice of traditional techniques, and the resulting creations, should be a community-centered cultural practice in daily life [20]. Traditional craft is part of the intangible cultural heritage protected by the Convention, and the preservation and safeguarding of techniques mark the action taken by the Convention to provide a sense of historical continuity. To this end, community is an important carrier of preservation and inheritance. Seediq weaving is on the verge of disappearing as society develops quickly, leading the government to designate it as intangible cultural heritage in 2012 and to name Seta Bakan as a preserver. However, on the one hand, the significance of weaving to this ethnic group has changed, Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21

2.3. Government Involvement: Safeguarding Cultural Heritage through Learning Programs UNESCO’s Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage, as signed in 2003 points out that intangible cultural heritage is living heritage [19], thus, its safeguarding should prioritize the “process” rather than the “result”. The practice of traditional techniques, and the resulting creations, should be a community-centered cultural practice in daily life [20]. Traditional craft is part of the intangible cultural heritage protected by the Convention, and the preservation and safeguarding of techniques mark the action taken by the Convention to provide a sense of historical continuity. To this end, community is an important carrier of preservation and inheritance. Seediq weaving is on the verge of disappearing as society develops quickly, leading the Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 9 of 21 government to designate it as intangible cultural heritage in 2012 and to name Seta Bakan as a preserver. However, on the one hand, the significance of weaving to this ethnic group has changed, and the traditional loom is is characterized by by difficult difficult learning, learning, arduous arduous work work and and slow slow production; production; on the other hand, hand, the the poor poor livelihood livelihood of of the the mounta mountainousinous tribes tribes hinders hinders the the Indigenous Indigenous people people from from learninglearning weaving. weaving. Naturally Naturally the the i inheritancenheritance of of techniques techniques in in a a difficult difficult environment will encounter huge obstacles. The The two two government-supported government-supported courses courses in in this this case case are are given given by the Preserver Seta Bakan. This This course course has has been been taught taught five five times times wi withinthin four four years, years, and and twice twice within within two two years years in IndigenousIndigenous tribes. (Figure (Figure 14)14)

Figure 14. Development of Seediq Weaving (formulated by this study). Figure 14. Development of Seediq Weaving (formulated by this study). 3. Field Sites and Subjects 3. Field Sites and Subjects 3.1. Field Sites 3.1. FieldThis Sites study selects two sites: Taichung City with a population of 2.8 million; and Nanfeng Village,This Ren’ai study selects Township, two sites: Nantou Taichung County City where with 1545a population Seediq Indigenousof 2.8 million; people and Nanfeng live (Figure Village, 15) Ren’ai(The population Township, data Nantou is statistical County information where 1,545 as Seediq at November Indigenous 2018, people acquired live from (Figure Taichung 15) (The City populationGovernment data and Nantouis statistical County information Government as onat 2018/11/29).November 2018, With theacquired second from largest Taichung population City on Governmentthe Island, Taichung and Nantou City County is located Government in the central on 2018/11/29). part of Taiwan, With and the the second entire largest city is population connected on by thethe Island, high-speed Taichung railway, City which is located allows in people the central to travel part from of Taiwan, the south and to the northentire withincity is oneconnected hour. The by theurban high-speed community railway, course which is given allows in a culturalpeople to park travel affiliated from the to thesouth Cultural to the Resourcesnorth within Bureau one ofhour. the TheMinistry urban of community Culture, and course is a 10-min is given walk in froma cultural the railway park affiliated station, thus,to the the Cultural convenient Resources transportation Bureau ofand the large Ministry population of Culture, attract and the is participation a 10-minute ofwa urbanlk from craftsmanship the railway communities.station, thus, the The convenient site of the transportationnative tribe is locatedand large in population Nanfeng Village, attract Nantou the participation County, and of urban most ofcraftsmanship the inhabitants communities. are Seediq, Theand site like of most the nativenative tribes,tribe is the located economy in Nanfeng of Nanfeng Village, Village Nantou is reliant County, on farming. and most The of the female inhabitants trainees arein this Seediq, case usuallyand like grow most vegetables native tribes, and the coffee econom in theiry of fields Nanfeng to sustain Village their is families,reliant on and farming. make timeThe femalewhere theytrainees can in to this learn case weaving usually at grow the designated vegetables site. and coffee in their fields to sustain their families, and make time where they can to learn weaving at the designated site.

Figure 15. Field Sites (https://emap.nlsc.gov.tw/).

1

Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 10 of 21

3.2. Research Method The participatory observation method and interview method are adopted in this study. Regarding participatory observation, one of the researchers was a student of all courses from 2014 to 2017 in the urban community, and was engaged in the course for a long time, and thus, has deep understanding of the course; there were two phases of participatory observation in the courses for the Indigenous community from 2017 to 2018, each of which was held three times and lasted for a whole day. In-depth interviews were conducted with Instructor Seta Bakan, her mother, six urban community learners, and four indigenous community learners. The author conducted two to six informal interviews with each interviewee during the course, and one focus group, respectively, for tribal and urban communities. Each interview lasted roughly 0.5 to 1 h, and most of the interviews were held at the site. The subjects of this study are anonymous, the data are titled in a manner that protects the anonymity of the interviewees, and used as reference. For example, the urban community is referred to as [U1], [U3], while the indigenous community is referred to as [I1], [I2], [I3], etc.

3.3. Weaving Courses in Research Sites

3.3.1. Weaving Course in Urban Community In 2012, the government inscribed Seediq weaving as cultural heritage and appointed Seta Bakan as the preserver to preserve intangible cultural heritage; however, Seta Bakan found it difficult to attract enough Seediq trainees to the class in 2014. By contrast, the seminar held for the public in the Taichung Bureau of Cultural Heritage was soon attended by the estimated number of participants, who showed huge enthusiasm for learning. Thus, the five rounds of training programs in the next four years were carried out in Taichung, and most of the trainees were non-Seediq participants who had been part of the program since it was first introduced. This study focused on the four-year 5 courses inheritance plan from 2014 to 2017, and analyzed 10 students who continuously attended the plan. Some special handicraft enthusiasts from all over the province include one male, one Japanese and a non-Seediq Indigenous person. Most of the trainees are retired housewives and teachers in their 50s, along with a graduate student (under 30 years old). Seven of the participants are from Taichung City, and the person living farthest from Taichung is from Taipei, who spends 5 h traveling by train every day. All 10 of the students were not Seediq people. In 2017, one Seediq person came and was inspired by the course, and attends the course since this year. As this course is taught every day, some who are interested in it fail to attend it due to lack of time. Each round of class lasts for 80–100 h. The first period in the first year was for flat weaving, the second period of the first year for weft pick; the second year was for diamond-shape weaving and twill weaving, and the third and fourth years for Puniri (The government-subsidized courses for cultural heritage preservation in urban community lasted for 4 years. Some of the students gather regularly to discuss and study various weaving techniques, and not only the Seediq people participate. People of different ethnic groups even learn the technique of texture.) In the first year, the content is plain weave, as neatening warps and weaving are the simplest processes. First, one needs to neaten the warps, and then, remove the warps from the shelf and put on the loom to start weaving. When students become familiar with weaving, they can practice color matching and changes of patterns. As the first year is simple, students are proud of the quantity of their work. In the second year, while the speed of weft picking suddenly slows, the skills are not difficult; however, this stage challenges the patience of students. Teachers try to prevent students from feeling bored and help students to turn their work into practical goods, such as bags. The contents of the third year are diamond weave and twill weave, and neatening warps at this stage becomes challenging. Students must slowly and patiently twine threads according to the rules. It takes approximately five hours to neaten a portion of thread ready to be woven, however, it is common for students to make mistakes in neatening. If one thread is wrongly twined, one needs to start all over again. Hence, it is common that students are taking out, twining, and re-neatening threads. During this course, one Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 11 of 21 student failed neatening 13 times before finally succeeding. It is a real challenge of perseverance. In the fourth and the fifth periods, students begin to learn the most difficulty skill, Doriq Puniri, which was jokingly referred to as the Big Boss. Puniri requires 25 different ways of lifting thread and replacing it layer by layer, in order to complete the circulation of four wefts. Therefore, students must weave extremely carefully and prudently. Once they make a mistake, they have to spend a long time correcting it. Different Puniri patterns have different cultural connotations, and students must learn slowly step by step. During the course of two years, the teacher was busy instructing each student. For two years, they had learned for 170 h, even so, the longest cloth woven by students was only 70 cm. When the course was completed, though students roughly understand the pattern logic, they still cannot weave independently, thus, in order to avoid mistakes, they still need their teacher to instruct them when they make each pattern.

3.3.2. Weaving Course in Indigenous Community In 2017 the news that Seta Bakan had opened traditional weaving courses in an urban community was known by the Indigenous tribe. A community of Nantou Nanfeng Village tribe, one of the indigenous Seediq tribes, was registered as the group to preserve traditional Seediq dance. When performing traditional ceremonial dance, this group wanted to wear self-made clothes, so they invited Seta Bakan to teach weaving in the tribe. The course has lasted for two years. Most of the trainees are middle-aged and elderly women, eight of whom have never been absent within these two years. None of them knew how to weave before, but they had seen their elderly family members weave. In the first year of the course, they learned to weave plain weave and weft pick in the second year. These tribal women have to do farming and housework on weekdays, and some even help take care of their grandchildren, so the course is given in a church, in order that the locals need not spend too much time in traffic. The schedule is flexible: one period is an evening when women have spare time, and the other period lasts for a whole day. The duration of each program is 80 h divided in five weeks. Since the church is open at all time, trainees can arrange their own schedule and continue weaving even if the instructor is not available. This is why the sound of cloth being woven can be heard in early morning or late night hours (This scene seems to be closer to the habits of traditional Seediq women.). This course will continue in 2019, as it is provided near the tribe, and such convenience makes trainees willing to continue learning, students also enjoy the flexibility of the class schedule, as they can balance work and learning. When non-trainee Seediq Indigenous people walk into the site, Seta Bakan will also teach them weaving techniques in her Indigenous language (Seta Bakan said that the site in indigenous area is not so formal as that metropolitan area, and the communication in local languages Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 21 makes them happy and closer.), regardless of who they are. Moreover, while they are talking, their skillscollective will memoriessomehow andemerge, individual which provides traditional an weaving opportunity skills for will the somehow communication emerge, and which recollection provides ofan traditional opportunity culture for the (Figure communication 16). and recollection of traditional culture (Figure 16).

Figure 16. Courses in this Indigenous community are gi givenven in the tribal church, where Indigenous people, whether or not they areare students, can movemove freely.freely.

3.3.3. Interaction Between Urban Community and Indigenous Community Following Seta Bakan’s four-year technique course, this urban community has established a teacher–friend relationship with the instructor, and when Seta Bakan taught weaving in the tribe in 2017, one student of the urban community served as an assistant teacher. Other members of the urban community also visited the tribe several times to see their friends and impart techniques. When people of the ethnic minorities found that people not from their community knew weaving, they said, “It’s a shame! This is our skill. We didn’t learn it, but you make it...” (I2). Others were surprised to see male students at the urban community, as Seediq tradition does not allow males to touch the weaving tools, when an urban male student approaches the tools, the Indigenous women will feel unease. Some locals also said that, although their mothers weave well, and they expected the young to weave, they consider weaving to be complicated and thus, never start learning. Their fear of learning was not dispelled until Seta Bakan and the assistant teacher of the urban community conducted one-to- one teaching with a structured teaching method “I am a little bit sloppy, so I did not dare to approach when my mom was weaving. Now I have teachers and teaching assistants of great patience, so I start slowly...” (I3). Comparing the learning of urban community and Indigenous community, the course sites, course duration, number of trainees, learning motivation, techniques to learn, and site features are different (Table 1).

Table 1. Urban and Indigenous community learning courses.

Urban Community Indigenous Community Nanfeng Seediq Tribe in Ren’ai Taichung City, with population of 2.8 1.Course site Township, Nantou County, with million population of 1,545 2014–2017, five rounds of course within 2017–2018, two rounds of course within 2. Course duration four years, 80–100 hours for each round four years, 80 hours for each round 3.Number of trainees 10 8 4.Learning motivation Interest in crafts Needs for dancing performance Plainweave, weft pick, diamond weave, 5.Techniques to learn Plain weave, weft pick twill weave and warp pick, Puniri Students take courses in “formal” When courses are given in a tribal 6.Site features institutional units, so they separate the church, trainees can balance household study from daily life. chores, farming and weaving.

4. Results Analysis As society develops and traditional techniques disappear from daily life, these techniques are on the verge of disappearing completely. To prevent this some preservation movements have been Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 12 of 21

3.3.3. Interaction Between Urban Community and Indigenous Community Following Seta Bakan’s four-year technique course, this urban community has established a teacher–friend relationship with the instructor, and when Seta Bakan taught weaving in the tribe in 2017, one student of the urban community served as an assistant teacher. Other members of the urban community also visited the tribe several times to see their friends and impart techniques. When people of the ethnic minorities found that people not from their community knew weaving, they said, “It’s a shame! This is our skill. We didn’t learn it, but you make it ... ” (I2). Others were surprised to see male students at the urban community, as Seediq tradition does not allow males to touch the weaving tools, when an urban male student approaches the tools, the Indigenous women will feel unease. Some locals also said that, although their mothers weave well, and they expected the young to weave, they consider weaving to be complicated and thus, never start learning. Their fear of learning was not dispelled until Seta Bakan and the assistant teacher of the urban community conducted one-to-one teaching with a structured teaching method “I am a little bit sloppy, so I did not dare to approach when my mom was weaving. Now I have teachers and teaching assistants of great patience, so I start slowly . . . ” (I3). Comparing the learning of urban community and Indigenous community, the course sites, course duration, number of trainees, learning motivation, techniques to learn, and site features are different (Table1).

Table 1. Urban and Indigenous community learning courses.

Urban Community Indigenous Community Nanfeng Seediq Tribe in Ren’ai Taichung City, with population of 1.Course site Township, Nantou County, with 2.8 million population of 1545 2014–2017, five rounds of course 2017–2018, two rounds of course within 2. Course duration within four years, 80–100 h for four years, 80 h for each round each round 3.Number of trainees 10 8 4.Learning motivation Interest in crafts Needs for dancing performance Plainweave, weft pick, diamond 5.Techniques to learn weave, twill weave and warp pick, Plain weave, weft pick Puniri Students take courses in “formal” When courses are given in a tribal 6.Site features institutional units, so they church, trainees can balance household separate the study from daily life. chores, farming and weaving.

4. Results Analysis As society develops and traditional techniques disappear from daily life, these techniques are on the verge of disappearing completely. To prevent this some preservation movements have been launched; however, they find it difficult to be effective because of the changes of social life. How to keep traditional culture in line with the trend of the times is an arduous endeavor. Traditional indigenous Seediq weaving in Taiwan, like many other traditional techniques, faces a string of problems such as no more need for self-made clothing and gifts, the absence of Atayal norms, and the declining importance of weaving in local communities. In addition, the difficulty of traditional loom learning and heavy workload hinder rural tribal people, who dedicate themselves to farming for their livelihood, which takes away from learning weaving. Therefore, the inheritance of techniques will encounter obstacles in difficult situations. This section analyzes the case of traditional weaving in both urban and Indigenous communities, and explores the cultural significance and feelings of members who come from different backgrounds to learn at different sites, where the same instructor teaches the same technique, and observe the changes of the cultural ecosystem according to the practice of weaving. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 13 of 21

4.1. Differences in Learning Experience between Urban and Indigenous Communities

4.1.1. Different Learning Habits: Constructive Learning and Implicit Learning The motivation of non-indigenous urban communities for learning is mostly derived from the interest in handicraft. While they are interested in the traditional Seediq loom, which is a simple tool capable of weaving complex patterns, they do not buy the teaching method of imitating the teacher, “What is taught is not systematic. It would be better with teaching materials ... ” (U3), and show huge desire to grasp the sequence of techniques, decompose techniques through images and symbolic codes, and even reorganize the pattern. Such constructive learning is common in urban communities that are eager to have meaning in life. By contrast, the motivation of the Indigenous community for learning weaving lies in the practical needs of clothing for dancing performance. While weaving is a common technique mastered by all elders of the tribe, the young generation has never learned to weave. During this course, unlike the urban community, where students obtain looms only through purchase, some trainees in Indigenous communities bring their old weaving boxes with them, and some ask their peers to make them a new one. In the learning process, from warping to weaving, they follow the instructions of the teacher without questioning her teaching methods or using the organization chart made by the teacher. That is, they are used to tacit knowledge dissemination and prefer “to be” rather than “to have”. They learn what the teacher teaches in the same way that their elders learned weaving—by recollecting what kind of cloth their family has, and learning and reproducing the demonstrated techniques. For example, among these trainees there are two sisters whose mother is very good at weaving, especially the weft picking method, so they are looking forward to learning this method from their teacher. More clearly, this course follows the hands-on method, meaning they are learning knowledge through practice [21].

4.1.2. Learning Feelings: “Deliberate” Learning and the Reproduction of “Old Values” Due to the lack of cultural memory, urban communities are mostly enthusiastic for the learning of techniques. This is a kind of “deliberate” learning, given that most of the people interested in handicraft and knitting will not confine themselves to learning this traditional weaving, and they will look for various weaving-related courses to extend their perception of tools. They feel curious about the ground loom, which is a simple tool used for weaving complex patterns. Students believe that although the high loom is faster and tidier, they enjoy more autonomous control with the ground loom. For example, the sense of coordination between the body and the loom will affect the neatness and beauty of the cloth. If students can control the tightness of the cloth and feel a sense of control with the ground loom, meaning it imposes less constraints on trainees, then trainees can also alter the pattern and texture of the same piece of cloth. This is exactly what they fail to achieve with a high loom. One of the students gives high credit to the ground loom saying, “The ground loom is wonderful!” (U2). For the urban community interested in handicraft, the difficult Seediq weaving skills and great autonomy of exploration attract and challenge them, and echoes with their belief that the more sophisticated the machine, “The stupider humans will be, in that our brain will never work once we fully rely on machinery!” (U1), just as the fixed high loom that spares humans the need to think but deprives people of autonomy and freedom. In short, the weaving of the urban community attaches more importance to the hand-made self-satisfaction. The learning experience of Indigenous women is like the revival of “old values”. For example, when warping and weaving, weavers sometimes recall the time of weaving by their elders; women who are crazy for weaving will even refuse to stop weaving and tell their husbands who urge them to go home to cook, “I am doing what a woman should do now” (I1), which is the natural presentation of the values that weaving is the duty of traditional women. Weavers will also talk to the box (like talking to their ancestors), and pray that they weave good cloth without committing a mistake. An Indigenous woman, whose mother-in-law knew weaving, received compliments from her sister-in-law after finishing her weaving work. Weavers wish to weave a large quantity of cloth for their children, Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 14 of 21 relatives and friends as dowry, “I originally wanted to weave a garment for dancing performances, but now I would like to weave a lot of cloth as dowry for my kids and relatives, like what my mother and relatives did for me ... ” (I4). The course given nearby tribes allows for the dissemination of traditional knowledge and space for communication. Local people will visit the site out of curiosity and exchange with each other their feelings and memories in indigenous languages, and males follow the tradition by staying away from the loom and not touching it. This scene is not found in the course given in the urban community. The differences of learning feeling, including habit, significance, and awareness between urban community and Indigenous community can be sorted out as Table2.

Table 2. Dual-community’s learning feelings.

Urban Community Indigenous Community (1) Habits of learning Constructive learning Tacit learning Reappearance of “old values”, Deliberate learning because of remaining memory of the elders’ (2) Significance of learning strangeness and curiosity. weaving naturally generates cultural elements. Fond of the high autonomy and freedom of the ground loom, and Various connections with culture the creation of new patterns; some and memory, such as better (3) Awareness of learning trainees learn about amicable proficiency to weave more cloth human-nature relationship from for children, families and friends. the ground loom.

4.2. Cultural Ecosystem of the Seediq Traditional Weaving Techniques The technical presentation for Taiwanese Indigenous communities is based on a complete cultural ecosystem corresponding to life field, belief, religion, social stratum, and clan organization [5]. Lin (2012) [22] indicated that a cultural ecosystem is a complete system consisting of the efforts to survive and develop in a certain environment. This system is intertwined by many microscopic, small, medium, and large systems, the operation of which involves interaction among living things, and interaction between living things and environment. The cultural ecosystem of individuals is composed of interwoven elements including family, interpersonal networks, community, society, environment, knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, etc. Then in 2012, the government inscribed Seediq weaving as cultural heritage to safeguard traditional techniques, but the time and space in constant change lead to a cultural ecosystem different from what it was.

4.2.1. Traditional Weaving that Presents a Complete Cultural Ecosystem The cultural ecosystem of Seediq weaving is closely related to the natural and cultural environment; the weaving materials are self-grown or extracted from mountains and forests. The ramie, the raw material of yarn, should be planted in a place with sufficient water and sunshine in early spring. Knowing how to scrape, wash and sort the raw hemp, how to determine the time of exposing hemp to sunshine to ensure quality, and which plants can supply the various colors needed for dyeing hemp are required. Answering these questions requires a wide spectrum of natural knowledge such as climate, geology, topography, sunshine, season, and dye selection. Women’s memories of helping their mothers with miscellaneous work and delivering weaving tools marks the process of knowledge accumulation. During weaving, the limited freedom of the body and the skills required for constant change call for patience, concentration and physical strength. Compared with men dedicated to hunting, weaving is also an activity that requires women to use flexible strength to keep themselves physically and mentally sound, in order that they are more adaptive and responsive to the difficulties and challenges of external environments [23]. As Seta Bakan recalled, her grandmother was still busy weaving cloth and taking care of her grandchildren in her later years, which inspired her to endure Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 15 of 21 the discrimination and frustration for marrying a man of the Han ethnic group without having a boy. While weaving, women will work together in warping, and the finished products can be used as dowry or gifts to maintain social relations. Weaving and dressing display women’s skills, and become a source of glory for the family of the weaver. As skilled women, their souls will eventually remain with their ancestors. All these constitute a complete cultural ecosystem, and the practice of weaving contributes to preserving local knowledge, Indigenous languages and stable social interaction.

4.2.2. Incompleteness of Indigenous Weaving Cultural Ecosystem after the Commercialization of Culture Seediq women used to weave to meet their needs in daily life. After 1980, the practice has gradually ceased to exist because the needs in daily life have changed. Since 1998 the government has been encouraging the Indigenous peoples to develop industries with ethnic characteristics, which aim at improving the Indigenous economy. The revitalization of Seediq weaving under the banner of “cultural symbol” is materialized through subsidized training courses that were mostly short-term and seeking economic benefits. Most of these courses are taught on high looms or desktop looms, and the weaving methods taught in class tend to be simple and easy-to-learn, such as plain weaving and twill weaving. Very few techniques can be taught with traditional looms. Some ethnic groups question: “Why do Indigenous peoples have to use traditional methods all the time?” As society develops, the methods of technique preservation should also keep pace with the times. Only by incorporating the techniques to the trend of our times can they be carried forward [24]. Of course, Goss (1999) [25] advocated “consumption” as the main mode of “alien” cultural construction, outlining the unique significance of souvenirs in tourism for non-indigenous people [26]. If we view the transformation of indigenous crafts from the perspective of the development of human society, the commercialization of indigenous crafts can be regarded as an inevitable process for the cross-culture exchange and flow of materials in the capitalist market economy [27]. There is no doubt that the economic transformation of traditional weaving not only injects new possibilities into the aboriginal economic and cultural industry, it also enables women to build new social roles and achieve self-identity [28], as well as to become a symbolic code of communication with ethnic groups, resulting in the re-recognition of self-culture and becoming the identity and sign of ethnic groups [29]. However, when traditional techniques are transformed into economic production, the weaving process seems to focus on the visual reproduction of traditional patterns. In order to reap economic benefits, easy-to-operate high looms are naturally selected as trainees find it easier to start with it, and the weaving time is shortened to reduce fatigue. Factory-produced threads replaces the self-planted materials, as self-twisting is very complicated and slow (Figure 17). Under this circumstance, what will the cultural ecosystem of traditional weaving lose? Yulan [11] from Atayal shared her own experience of learning high weaving and ground weaving, and she became a weaver after practicing with the high loom for several months. Although she is very good at weaving, she is still concerned about her technique. Then she found out that such concern resides in the fact that learning with “High loom is confined to technique without culture”. Hu [27] also emphasized that we should discuss and pay attention to how indigenous commodities are used as tools to carry forward indigenous cultures. Traditional Seediq weaving involves various elements such as historical memory, personal training, an understanding of the natural environment, glory and belief. The high loom is easy-to-use and easy-to-learn. The autonomy and importance of the body are reduced, while the operation of the backstrap loom lies in concentration, diligence, patience, and personal training [30]; unique and superb weaving skills can show the social status and glory of the female weaver, and the study of ethnic group can be linked with the memories and habits in the past, which is not found in high-loom production. Another example is to resort to a large number of production lines instead of using self-made materials, which cause the knowledge of environment and ethnic language to disappear. Today, the cultural revitalization of high-loom production in the form of commodities obviously fails to present and convey natural knowledge, personal cultivation, continuity of historical memory, traditional social Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 21 an understanding of the natural environment, glory and belief. The high loom is easy-to-use and easy-to-learn. The autonomy and importance of the body are reduced, while the operation of the backstrap loom lies in concentration, diligence, patience, and personal training [30]; unique and superb weaving skills can show the social status and glory of the female weaver, and the study of ethnic group can be linked with the memories and habits in the past, which is not found in high-loom production. Another example is to resort to a large number of production lines instead of using self- madeSustainability materials,2019, 11 ,which 1519 cause the knowledge of environment and ethnic language to disappear.16 of 21 Today, the cultural revitalization of high-loom production in the form of commodities obviously fails to present and convey natural knowledge, personal cultivation, continuity of historical memory, traditionalrelationship social structure, relationship values, etc. structure, The worst values, consequence etc. The of worst this problematic consequence revitalization of this problematic will be the revitalizationdisintegration will of local be the knowledge. disintegration of local knowledge.

FigureFigure 17. 17. TheThe current current Indigenous Indigenous weaving weaving uses usesthreads threads mostly mostly produced produced by factories by factories in large in quantities.large quantities.

4.2.3.4.2.3. Dual-Community Dual-Community Courses Courses Attempting Attempting to to Br Bringing the the Traditional Traditional Cultural Ecosystem Closer TheThe technical technical presentation presentation of of Taiwanese Taiwanese Indigeno Indigenousus people people is is based based on on a a complete cultural cultural ecologyecology corresponding corresponding to life life field, field, belief, belief, religion, religion, social social stratum stratum and and clan clan organization organization [5]. [5]. The The social social transformationtransformation has has led led to to the the migration migration of of the the indige indigenousnous population population to to cities cities [31], [31], which which inevitably inevitably changeschanges the the cultural cultural ecosystem ecosystem of of weaving. weaving. Neverthe Nevertheless,less, the theapproach approach to cultural to cultural commodities commodities will losewill many lose many important important factors factors in the in traditional the traditional cultural cultural ecosystem. ecosystem. The two The communities two communities in this in case this learnedcase learned the technique the technique of ground of ground weaving, weaving, which which is closer is closer to tothe the traditional traditional cultural cultural ecosystem. ecosystem. InstructorInstructor Seta Seta Bakan Bakan learned learned weaving weaving from from her her grandmother. grandmother. “ “II have have not not taught taught students students before, before, so so I I willwill watch watch how my grandmothe grandmotherr does it andand teachteach thosethose traineestrainees asas mymy grandmagrandma diddid…...”” For For the the instructor, instructor, teachingteaching is is a a review review of of culture, culture, and and learners learners receive receive traditional traditional tacit tacit knowledge knowledge and and practice. practice. Through Through thethe study study of of backstrap backstrap loom loom weaving, weaving, non-indigenous non-indigenous communities communities in in metropolitan metropolitan areas, areas, have have an an opportunityopportunity to to get get closer closer to to the the Seediq Seediq culture. culture. Th Thatat is is to to say, say, weaving weaving can can become become a a platform platform for for outsidersoutsiders to understand thethe SeediqSeediq culture.culture. TheThe learninglearning in in native native tribes tribes allow allow trainees trainees to to stay stay closer closer to tothe the traditional traditional cultural cultural ecosystem, ecosystem, as as the the use use of of weaving weaving tools tools andand techniquestechniques are the same as as those those usedused by by their their elders. elders. Therefore, Therefore, the the interactive interactive co communicationmmunication in in the the course course can can present present the the elements elements ofof traditional traditional cultural cultural ecosystem ecosystem fr fromom time time to to time, time, such such as as the the reproduction reproduction of of the the “division “division of of labor labor betweenbetween men men and and women, women, the the cultural cultural taboo taboo that that me menn dedicated dedicated to to hunting hunting are are not not allowed allowed to to touch touch thethe weaving weaving box” box” and and women women cannot cannot touch touch the the huntin huntingg gear, gear, the the value value of of “being “being a a woman”, woman”, and and the the personalpersonal trainingtraining thatthat enables enables trainees trainees to to know know how how tiresome tiresome weaving weaving was forwas their for elders.their elders. The course The coursealso strengthens also strengthens family family cohesion, cohesion, meaning meaning it strengthens it strengthens the sense the sense of generation, of generation, such such as the as twothe twoIndigenous Indigenous trainees trainees looking looking forward forward to learning to learning their mother’s their mother’s favorite favorite weft pick, weft which pick, provides which providesfamily members family members with more wi commonth more topics.common “The topics. table “ clothThe table woven cloth by mywoven mother by my remains mother in remains the church. in theNow church. I amalso Now a weaver,I am also so a Iweaver, feel closer so I to feel my closer mother to .my . . ”mother.. (I2). .” (I2). 4.2.4. Analysis of Cultural Ecosystem of Two Communities and Their Linkages 4.2.4. Analysis of Cultural Ecosystem of Two Communities and Their Linkages Taiwanese Indigenous people speaking the Formosan languages boast cultural heritage in the Taiwanese Indigenous people speaking the Formosan languages boast cultural heritage in the basic forms of origin, historical events, spirits, and ancestors [32], which mark the substantive structure basic forms of origin, historical events, spirits, and ancestors [32], which mark the substantive of projects of tangible and intangible cultural heritage. Indigenous people usually view cultural structure of projects of tangible and intangible cultural heritage. Indigenous people usually view heritage, especially natural and cultural heritage, from a holistic perspective [33]. The primitive cultural heritage, especially natural and cultural heritage, from a holistic perspective [33]. The cultural ecosystem of Seediq weaving involves techniques and a strong linkage between the various elements, such as history and society. However, the relationship between ethnic groups and cultural ecosystem is also weakening after industrialization. This case study, meaning skills training aiming at cultural heritage preservation, hopes to restore the integrity of the cultural ecosystem by means of technique training. The following figure analyzes the relationship between the indigenous and urban communities and the cultural ecosystem, as based on traditional weaving learning. The linkage between Indigenous and urban communities of traditional weaving, as based the cultural ecosystem, is analyzed, as follows (Figure 18). Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21

primitive cultural ecosystem of Seediq weaving involves techniques and a strong linkage between the various elements, such as history and society. However, the relationship between ethnic groups and cultural ecosystem is also weakening after industrialization. This case study, meaning skills training aiming at cultural heritage preservation, hopes to restore the integrity of the cultural ecosystem by means of technique training. The following figure analyzes the relationship between the indigenous and urban communities and the cultural ecosystem, as based on traditional weaving learning. The linkage between Indigenous and urban communities of traditional weaving, as based Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 17 of 21 the cultural ecosystem, is analyzed, as follows (Figure 18).

FigureFigure 18.18. TheThe linkage linkage between between Indigenous Indigenous and and urban urban communities communities for a traditional for a traditional weaving, weaving, as based culturalas based ecosystem cultural ecosystem (formulated ( byformulated this study). by this study).

OnOn thethe leftleft isis thethe mapmap ofof thethe ecosystemecosystem createdcreated byby thethe IndigenousIndigenous peoplepeople throughthrough theirtheir weavingweaving skills.skills. Not Not only only can can learning learning weaving weaving acquire acquire tec techniques,hniques, but but also also the the reproduce reproduce and and strengthen strengthen the thetraditional traditional cultural cultural patterns patterns of ofGaya Gaya belief, belief, natural natural knowledge, knowledge, Indigenous Indigenous languages, personalpersonal practice,practice, generationalgenerational link,link, socialsocial interaction,interaction, etc.etc. However, whenwhen societysociety changes,changes, thethe correspondingcorresponding culturalcultural relationsrelations areare different.different. IfIf culturalcultural revitalizationrevitalization solelysolely hingeshinges onon thethe developmentdevelopment andand salesale ofof commoditiescommodities withwith indigenousindigenous characteristics,characteristics, the cultural ecosystem linkage cannot be reproduced. InIn thisthis case, case, the the weaving weaving courses courses given given for the for indigenous the indigenous community community through through ground loomsground represent looms therepresent internal the force, internal while theforce, motivation while the for motivation learning is thefor creationlearning of is a performancethe creation garment,of a performance meaning agarment, practical meaning purpose. a However, practical purpose. process analysis However, shows process that aanalysis cultural shows ecosystem that a closer cultural to tradition ecosystem is capablecloser to of tradition reconnecting is capable the weakened of reconnecting and ruptured the weakened cultural and ecosystem. ruptured cultural ecosystem. TheThe rightright partpart showsshows thethe coursescourses forfor urbanurban communities,communities, which represent the external force. WhileWhile thethe learnerslearners werewere originallyoriginally interestedinterested onlyonly inin craftcraft andand techniquetechnique perfection,perfection, thethe originaloriginal purposepurpose ofof thethe urbanurban communitycommunity sparkedsparked thethe motivationmotivation ofof thethe indigenousindigenous toto learn,learn, lestlest otherother indigenousindigenous peoplepeople shouldshould refuserefuse toto learnlearn weaving.weaving. TheThe urbanurban communitiescommunities alsoalso encouragedencouraged thethe indigenousindigenous community,community, andand becamebecame providersproviders ofof externalexternal knowledgeknowledge andand techniques;techniques; thethe urbanurban communitiescommunities areare likelike anan acupunctureacupuncture massagemassage stickstick thatthat stimulatesstimulates thethe willingnesswillingness toto learn.learn. InIn thisthis study,study, forfor example,example, thethe indigenousindigenous werewere ashamedashamed thatthat thethe traineestrainees ofof urbanurban communitiescommunities learnedlearned thethe indigenousindigenous techniquestechniques before before they they did, did, which which confirms confirms the tenacitythe tenacity and ambition and ambition of the Seediqof the people.Seediq Aspeople. their As ethnic their consciousness ethnic consciousness is aroused, is aroused, the indigenous the indigenous learn harder. learn harder.

5. Conclusions Traditional Indigenous techniques are closely related to life, society, and culture. Weaving techniques are an important reference of material culture in life and an agent of cultural and social significance. Traditional Indigenous techniques are intimately related to natural environments, social interactions, and structure. If techniques disappear, not only do the skills themselves cease to exist, but also the corresponding knowledge, including the observation and perception of nature, ethnic Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 18 of 21 language, personal practice, social stability, and normative or supportive behavior will be altered. Traditional weaving does present a complete cultural ecosystem, but the social pattern has changed and cannot completely restore the traditional lifestyle. This study analyzes the cognitive differences between urban and Indigenous communities who are taught by the same instructor in learning the same skills, and uses the case study to explore the linkage between the two communities in the cultural ecosystem, which aims to outline the ideal cultural ecosystem for appropriate safeguards of cultural heritage. This study has led to the following conclusions:

5.1. Significant Differences in Weaving Learning Between Urban and Indigenous Communities The native tribes with cultural memory are different from the urban communities without memory in their habits and perceptions of learning. The former highlights the resurrection of “old values”, such as childhood memories, cultural taboos, the teachings of elders, personal training, social relations, and the values of “being a woman”. Due to learning weaving, the Indigenous communities can become a carrier for cultural inheritance. The learning and honing of techniques in communities will contribute to enhancing cultural memory, which enables locals to see the value of weaving, while the course and site provides an opportunity for the “reappearance” of multiple significance. Urban communities feature “deliberate” learning motivated by interest in crafts, and local weaving is a new experience for them. This study positions the learning of urban communities as “cultural assistants”. Like Western museums that help protect the cultural relics of countries in their difficult times, the case of this study also contributes to preservation. As the course with the traditional loom attracts few participants, the timely engagement of the urban community is of great significance. First, they bridge the outside world with the tribe to help the latter better carry forward tradition, helping to create vitality when it is difficult and endangered, creating opportunities for the future, leaving a backup for crafts, etc.; second, it bolsters the self-confidence of the instructor, stimulates the introspection of the clans who start to focus on their own culture and become motivated for learning. In addition, the course facilitates the learning of the tribal people through the constructive knowledge of the urban communities and the systematic teaching of techniques. The small and pragmatic synergy of two communities safeguards the “small heritage”

5.2. The Two Communities Have Their Own Functions and Roles in Rebuilding Cultural Ecosystem In a highly dynamic cultural ecosystem, how can cultural heritage safeguards balance the traditional significance, value, and adaptability to new social patterns? Even today, the ideal Indigenous weaving cultural ecosystem still looks forward to a comprehensive linkage with the natural environment, ethnic language learning, local knowledge, social relations, and personal practice, However, if the revival is in the form of cultural commodities aiming at improving the weaving learning and economy of the Indigenous people, but merely focuses on the acquisition of techniques without considering the links with natural knowledge and social relations, the inheritance is confined to technique learning only. Admittedly, while ethnic consciousness has been aroused, its link with the cultural ecosystem is weak and even ruptures. In this study, the starting point of the weaving cultural ecosystem is different from the urban or Indigenous communities. Like other tribes, the Indigenous tribe is suffering from the weakening linkage of cultural ecosystem. Seta Bakan’s courses bring the opportunity of cultural ecosystem reconnection and enables locals to connect to the original cultural ecosystem in the process of learning: For example, local people will recall memories from their childhood, sparking the desire to weave more cloth for their children just like their mothers who wove a large amount of cloth for the dowries of the young generation. This is a kind of historical continuity that enhances the sense of connection between generations. The study of urban communities does not concern the Indigenous cultural ecosystem, thus, it is necessary for instructors to indirectly impart knowledge on weaving and the Indigenous ecosystem, such as explaining the use of weaving techniques in ethnic groups, the significance of different patterns to an ethnic group, and the social status of women in tribes who are good at weaving. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1519 19 of 21

In other words, urban communities understand Indigenous culture through weaving techniques. When members of urban communities enter the Indigenous tribes and interact with the local ethnic groups, they create opportunities for strengthening the connection between urban communities and the Indigenous cultural ecosystem. Therefore, this study concludes that both urban and indigenous communities have their own functions and roles in rebuilding a cultural ecosystem. The Indigenous tribes are the best site to construct an ideal cultural ecosystem, while the urban communities are like an acupuncture massage stick that stimulates ethnic awareness and learning motivation, which preserves and provides techniques and external knowledge. The traditional weaving culture ecosystem features the strong connection between weaving techniques and all elements, but such connection is weakened and even ruptured in the face of the extinction of techniques. The curriculum of the two communities in this study revitalizes the weaving cultural ecosystem of weaving, that is to say, to reconnect the weakened or even ruptured ecosystem, and to allow people, to some extent, to reinterpret the meaning of links for cultural revival. Culture and society will never be static. Today the social situation makes it difficult to reproduce the previous scenario where every single Seediq knew weaving. Using new possibilities to create different needs and to attract weaving fans to learn opens the door for traditional techniques to be discovered and learned. For example, in this case, urban residents interested in crafts will be called on to take weaving courses, in order that the predicament that no Indigenous people would like to learn weaving can be alleviated. In the course of learning and interaction between the two communities, it is found that the different learning feelings and perceptions of these two can produce complementary and mutually supportive effects, and contribute to the inheritance of traditional techniques and the cultural ecosystem linkage, which is deemed by the author as an appropriate channel of cultural inheritance that fits in the current social pattern. The contribution of the government consists of protective measures. While traditional weaving is scantly needed in daily life, the government supports the learning program without confining it to the Indigenous people. When the Seediq tribe learned that non-Indigenous people had been learning weaving for years, their ethnic awareness was stimulated, and they became motivated to learn and think about their own culture. Only then will the government continue to support the learning courses for Indigenous communities. It is an opportunity for cultural ecosystem reconnection. The number of tribal participants in the course of this case is still largely outnumbered by the number of traditional female weavers, but then, it is well known that it is highly difficult to come back to the past. The contributions of the courses for the two communities are to preserve the cultural heritage of an ethnic group by organizing a small community composed by Seediq and non-Seediq people to learn weaving techniques, and to see the opportunity for reconnecting a cultural ecosystem in a new pattern. Nevertheless, more observation is needed to determine whether such initiative can be fully implemented, and how strong the weaving-based cultural ecosystem reconnection is.

Author Contributions: S.-H.H. deals with conceptualization, methodology and writing—review, H.-M.H. deals with writing and revisions. Funding: This research received no external funding. Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express sincere thanks to Seta Bakan and trainees. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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